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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 573-574 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
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  • 2
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 575-599 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Physical forces of gravity, hemodynamic stresses, and movement play a critical role in tissue development. Yet, little is known about how cells convert these mechanical signals into a chemical response. This review attempts to place the potential molecular mediators of mechanotransduction (e.g. stretch-sensitive ion channels, signaling mollecules, cytoskeleton, integrins) within the context of the structural complexity of living cells. The model presented relies on recent experimental findings, which suggests that cells use tensegrity architecture for their organization. Tensegrity predicts that cells are hard-wired to respond immediately to mechanical stresses transmitted over cell surface receptors that physically couple the cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix (e.g. integrins) or to other cells (cadherins, selectins, CAMs). Many signal transducing molecules that are activated by cell binding to growth factors and extracellular matrix associate with cytoskeletal scaffolds within focal adhesion complexes. Mechanical signals, therefore, may be integrated with other environmental signals and transduced into a biochemical response through force-dependent changes in scaffold geometry or molecular mechanics. Tensegrity also provides a mechanism to focus mechanical energy on molecular transducers and to orchestrate and tune the cellular response.
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  • 3
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 633-657 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Although mechanosensory responses are ubiquitous and diverse, the molecular bases of mechanosensation in most cases remain mysterious.MscL, a mechano-sensitive channel of large conductance of Escherichia coli and its bacterial homologues are the first and currently only channel molecules shown to directly sense mechanical stretch of the membrane. In response to the tension conveyed via the lipid bilayer, MscL increases its open probability by several orders of magnitude. In the present review we describe the identification, cloning, and first sets of biophysical and structural data on this simplest mechanosensory molecule. We discovered a 2.5-ns mechanosensitive conductance in giant E. coli spheroplasts. Using chromatographies to enrich the target and patch clamp to assay the channel activity in liposome-reconstituted fractions, we identified the MscL protein and cloned the mscL gene. MscL comprises 136 amino acid residues (15 kDa), with two highly hydrophobic regions, and resides in the inner membrane of the bacterium. PhoA-fusion experiments indicate that the protein spans the membrane twice with both termini in the cytoplasm. Spectroscopic techniques show that it is highly helical. Expression of MscL tandems and covalent cross-linking suggest that the active channel complex is a homo-hexamer. We have identified several residues, which when deleted or substituted, affect channel kinetics or mechanosensitivity. Although unique when discovered, highly conserved MscL homologues in both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria have been found, suggesting their ubiquitous importance among bacteria.
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  • 4
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 47-71 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The effort to know and interact with an otherworld tends to demand highly marked uses of linguistic resources. In contrast to less marked speech situations, in religious contexts the sources of words, as well as the identity, agency, authority, and even the very presence of participants in an interaction, can be especially problematic. Different religious practices alter any of a variety of formal and pragmatic features of everyday language in response to their distinctive assumptions about the world, otherworlds, and the beings they contain. These practices are also mediated by speakers' assumptions about the nature and workings of language. Because such assumptions bear on the presumed nature of human and nonhuman subjects, religious debates often dwell on details of verbal and textual practice. The study of religious language touches on more general problems concerning relations among performance, text, and context. It also reveals chronic tensions between transcendence and the situated nature of practices, with implications for the nature of agency and belief.
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  • 5
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 73-85 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review is an overview of the newly developing field of language rights. It distinguishes between (a) historical/descriptive studies where language rights are treated as the resultant variable with no attempt to predict consequences, and (b) exhortatory and ideologically based studies in which language rights are considered a causal variable. An attempt at definitions follows, set within the field of language planning. Principal concerns, such as territoriality versus personality principles and individual versus collective rights, are discussed. The review ends with an argument to consider language rights as emic rights, which is to say culture-language-context-specific rights, rather than to consider linguistic human rights from a universal rights perspective which overstates issues and masks rights to as also being rights against. We need a careful exploration of the nature of language rights and their consequences.
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  • 6
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 211-234 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review addresses issues of governmentality for Mesoamerica's earliest kingdoms. About 3200 years ago the Olmecs instituted stratified society based upon sacred kingship. Supervision of public works projects, the creation and deployment of monumental art, and control of ritual and ideology were the kings' principal means of governance within their kingdoms. Evidence for Olmec governance outside their region is equivocal. Olmecs may have conquered the societies of the Mazatan region, but they interacted with societies in the Mexican Highlands on a less coercive and more equitable basis.
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  • 7
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 263-289 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Evolution is considered controversial by a substantial minority of Americans. Religious opposition explains this, but this opposition is comprised of a broad continuum of religious views. It runs from "young earth creationism" through "old earth creationism" (including "day-age," "gap," and "progressive creationism") to "theistic evolutionism." Historically, antievolutionists have attempted to ban evolution and to present it on an equal footing with "creation science." Scholars largely ignored antievolutionism until efforts to pass "equal time for creation and evolution" laws stimulated both political and scholarly activism. Lately, there are efforts to discourage the teaching of evolution by requiring teachers to read disclaimers before teaching it, to teach it as "theory, not fact," or to present fancied "evidence against evolution." Recently, "intelligent design theory," a restatement of William Paley's Argument from Design, has surfaced. Although rejected by scientists, intelligent design arguments and publications are appearing at the college level (in nonscience courses) as accurate representations of scientific scholarship.
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  • 8
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 337-357 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Despite decades of research that has revolutionized the neurosciences, efforts to explain the major features of human brain evolution are still mostly based on superficial gross neuroanatomical features (e.g. size, sulcal patterns) and on theories of selection for high-level functions that lack precise neurobiological predictions (e.g. general intelligence, innate grammar). Beyond its large size we still lack an account of what makes a human brain different. However, advances in comparative neuroanatomy, developmental biology, and genetics have radically changed our understanding of brain development. These data challenge classic ideas about brain size, intelligence, and the addition of new functions, such as language, and they provide tools with which we can test hypotheses about how human brains diverge from other primate brains.
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  • 9
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 411-437 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract In the past decade, archaeologists have given considerable attention to research on gender in the human past. In this review, we attempt to acknowledge much of this diverse and abundant work from an explicitly feminist perspective. We focus on reviewing a selection of approaches to gender that are anchored to specific theoretical standpoints. In addition, we highlight several approaches that challenge an archaeology of gender that does not explicitly engage with the implications of this topic for research, practice, and interpretation. From our perspective, we suggest the value of situating gender research within an explicitly feminist framework, and we draw attention to some of the important insights for archaeology from the wider field of feminist critiques of science. Last, we draw attention to the crucial implications for the practice of archaeology.
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  • 10
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 483-532 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Pax-6 is a member of the Pax gene class and encodes a protein containing a paired domain and a homeodomain. The molecular characterization of Pax-6 genes from species of different animal phyla and the analysis of Pax-6 function in the developing eyes and central nervous system of vertebrates, Drosophila melanogaster, and Caenorhabditis elegans suggest that Pax-6 homologues share conserved functions. In this review, we present recent data on the structural and functional characterization of Pax-6 homologues from species of different animal phyla. We discuss the implications of these findings for our understanding of the development and evolution of eyes and nervous systems.
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  • 11
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 595-631 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Olfaction begins with the transduction of the information carried by odor molecules into electrical signals in sensory neurons. The activation of different subsets of sensory neurons to different degrees is the basis for neural encoding and further processing of the odor information by higher centers in the olfactory pathway. Recent evidence has converged on a set of transduction mechanisms, involving G-protein-coupled second-messenger systems, and neural processing mechanisms, involving modules called glomeruli, that appear to be adapted for the requirements of different species. The evidence is highlighted in this review by focusing on studies in selected vertebrates and in insects and crustaceans among invertebrates. The findings support the hypothesis that olfactory transduction and neural processing in the peripheral olfactory pathway involve basic mechanisms that are universal across most species in most phyla.
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  • 12
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 331-353 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The mechanisms by which human speech is processed in the brain are reviewed from both behavioral and neurobiological perspectives. Special consideration is given to the separation of speech processing as a complex acoustic-processing task versus a linguistic task. Relevant animal research is reviewed, insofar as these data provide insight into the neurobiological basis of complex acoustic processing in the brain.
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  • 13
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 429-458 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Motor neurons influence the expression and the distribution of acetylcholine receptors in skeletal muscle. Molecules that mediate this carefully choreographed interaction have recently been identified. One of them, ARIA, is a polypeptide purified from chicken brain on the basis of its ability to stimulate the synthesis of muscle acetylcholine receptors. The predicted amino acid sequence suggests that ARIA is synthesized as a transmembrane precursor protein and that it is a member of a family of ligands that activate receptor tyrosine kinases related to the epidermal growth factor receptor. Certain features of the ligand family (the neuregulins) and their receptors (erbBs) are reviewed. Evidence that ARIA plays an important role at developing and mature neuromuscular junctions is discussed.
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  • 14
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 593-615 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Dendritic cells (DC) exposed to HIV-1 show nonproductive infection that may become productive as they mature. The distribution of DC within genital mucosa and their susceptibility to infection particularly with clade E viruses could be reflected in the ease of heterosexual transmission. Carriage of virus and viral antigen by DC into lymph nodes may allow clustering and activation of T cells and production of protective immune responses. However, secondary infection of activated T cells from infected DC could cause dissemination of virus and loss of infected DC and T cells. In asymptomatic infection, fewer dendritic cells with reduced capacity to stimulate CD4 T cell proliferation are found before evidence of T cell abnormalities, and these early changes in antigen-presenting cells may result in a decline in the production of CD4 memory T cells. However, DC fuel ongoing production of antibody to HIV-1. Signaling by DC to T cells may thus underlie two major features of early HIV infection-loss in CD4+ memory T cells and persistence of antibody production. In AIDS, infected dendritic and epithelial cells within the thymus may affect maturation and contribute to loss of the "naive" T cell population. Further loss of memory T cells may occur through syncytium formation with infected DC. Finally, in AIDS patients, there is a failure in the development and the function of DC from CD34+ stem cells. In conclusion, the infection of dendritic cells, loss in their numbers, and changed signaling to T cells may shape the pattern of immunity during infection with HIV-1. Conversely, treatments that reverse the defect in antigen presentation by DC may improve cell-mediated immunity.
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  • 15
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 749-795 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The phytohemagglutinin-induced virus-inhibitor may, however, be produced in white cells in response to a stimulation of cellular RNA synthesis and may be a feedback mechanism for control of RNA synthesis. E. Frederick Wheelock (1965) Interferons are cytokines that play a complex and central role in the resistance of mammalian hosts to pathogens. Type I interferon (IFN-alpha and IFN-beta) is secreted by virus-infected cells. Immune, type II, or gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma) is secreted by thymus-derived (T) cells under certain conditions of activation and by natural killer (NK) cells. Although originally defined as an agent with direct antiviral activity, the properties of IFN-gamma include regulation of several aspects of the immune response, stimulation of bactericidal activity of phagocytes, stimulation of antigen presentation through class I and class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, orchestration of leukocyte-endothelium interactions, effects on cell proliferation and apoptosis, as well as the stimulation and repression of a variety of genes whose functional significance remains obscure. The implementation of such a variety of effects by a single cytokine is achieved by complex patterns of cell-specific gene regulation: Several IFN-gamma-regulated genes are themselves components of transcription factors. The IFN-gamma response is itself regulated by interaction with responses to other cytokines including IFN-alpha/beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-4. Over 200 genes are now known to be regulated by IFN-gamma and they are listed in a World Wide Web document that accompanies this review. However, much of the cellular response to IFN-gamma can be described in terms of a set of integrated molecular programs underlying well-defined physiological systems, for example the induction of efficient antigen processing for MHC-mediated antigen presentation, which play clearly defined roles in pathogen resistance. A promising approach to the complexity of the IFN-gamma response is to extend the analysis of the less understood IFN-gamma-regulated genes in terms of molecular programs functional in pathogen resistance.
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  • 16
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 297-322 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract T helper lymphocytes can be divided into two distinct subsets of effector cells based on their functional capabilities and the profile of cytokines they produce. The Th1 subset of CD4+ T cells secretes cytokines usually associated with inflammation, such as IFN-gamma and TNF and induces cell-mediated immune responses. The Th2 subset produces cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-5 that help B cells to proliferate and differentiate and is associated with humoral-type immune responses. The selective differentiation of either subset is established during priming and can be significantly influenced by a variety of factors. One of these factors, the cytokine environment, has been put forward as the major variable influencing Th development and is already well reviewed by others. Instead, in the current review, we focus on some of the alternative approaches for skewing Th1/Th2 responses. Specifically, we discuss the effects on Th priming of (a) using altered peptide ligands as antigens, (b) varying the dose of antigen, and (c) altering costimulatory signals. The potential importance of each of these variables to influence immune responses to pathogens in vivo is discussed throughout.
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  • 17
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 433-452 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The pre-T cell receptor (pre-TCR) that minimally consists of the TCRbeta chain and the disulfide-linked pre-T cell receptor alpha (pTalpha) chain in association with signal-transducing CD3 molecules rescues from programmed cell death cells with productive TCRbeta rearrangements. The pre-TCR induces expansion and differentiation of these cells such that they become TCRalphabeta bearing CD4+8+ thymocytes, which express only a single TCRbeta chain and then either die of neglect or-upon TCR-ligand interaction-undergo either positive or negative selection. The newly discovered pTalpha gene encodes a transmembrane protein that belongs to the Ig superfamily and contains a cytoplasmic tail that, however, has no essential function in signal transduction, which is mediated by CD3 molecules and most likely p56lck. Experiments in pTalpha gene-deficient mice show that the pre-TCR has a crucial role in maturation as well as allelic exclusion of alphabeta T cells but is not required for the development of gammadelta-expressing cells. The function of the pre-TCR cannot be fully assumed by an alphabeta TCR that is expressed abnormally early in T cell development.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 617-648 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Observations in the early 1990s that plasmid DNA could directly transfect animal cells in vivo sparked exploration of the use of DNA plasmids to induce immune responses by direct injection into animals of DNA encoding antigenic proteins. This method, termed DNA immunization, now has been used to elicit protective antibody and cell-mediated immune responses in a wide variety of preclinical animal models for viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases. DNA vaccination is particularly useful for the induction of cytotoxic T cells. This review summarizes current knowledge on the vectors, immune responses, immunological mechanisms, safety considerations, and potential for further application of this novel method of immunization.
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  • 19
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Studies with rodents infected with Trichinella spiralis, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, and Trichuris muris have provided considerable information about immune mechanisms that protect against parasitic gastrointestinal nematodes. Four generalizations can be made: 1. CD4+ T cells are critical for host protection; 2. IL-12 and IFN-gamma inhibit protective immunity; 3. IL-4 can: (a) be required for host protection, (b) limit severity of infection, or (c) induce redundant protective mechanisms; and 4. Some cytokines that are stereotypically produced in response to gastrointestinal nematode infections fail to enhance host protection against some of the parasites that elicit their production. Host protection is redundant at two levels: 1. IL-4 has multiple effects on the immune system and on gut physiology (discussed in this review), more than one of which may protect against a particular parasite; and 2. IL-4 is often only one of multiple stimuli that can induce protection. Hosts may have evolved the ability to recognize features that characterize parasitic gastrointestinal nematodes as a class as triggers for a stereotypic cytokine response, but not the ability to distinguish features of individual parasites as stimuli for more specific protective cytokine responses. As a result, hosts deploy a set of defense mechanisms against these parasites that together control infection by most members of that class, even though a specific defense mechanism may not be required to defend against a particular parasite and may even damage a host infected with that parasite.
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  • 20
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 481-504 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The development of B lymphocytes is a highly regulated process that depends in part on lineage-specific cell surface molecules. In addition, transmembrane signals generated through the B cell antigen receptor and other surface molecules regulate B cell responses to foreign antigens. Recent studies reveal CD22 to be a functionally significant receptor during these processes. CD22 is first expressed in the cytoplasm of pro-B and pre-B cells, and on the surface as B cells mature to become IgD+. CD22 is a member of the Ig superfamily that serves as an adhesion receptor for sialic acid-bearing ligands expressed on erythrocytes and all leukocyte classes. In addition to its potential role as a mediator of intercellular interactions, signal transduction through CD22 can activate B cells and modulate antigen receptor signaling in vitro. CD22 signaling is mediated via interactions with a number of kinases and phosphatases that bind the cytoplasmic domain through phosphorylated tyrosine residues located within consensus TAM and TIM motifs. The phenotype of CD22-deficient mice suggests that CD22 is primarily involved in the generation of mature B cells within the bone marrow, blood, and marginal zones of lymphoid tissues. Most notable in CD22-deficient mice is a significant diminution of surface Ig levels in these B cell subpopulations, which suggests that CD22 functions in vivo to adjust the signaling threshold of cell surface antigen receptors. A further understanding of CD22 function is required and may reveal roles for CD22 in disease susceptibility or the development of autoimmunity.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 563-591 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract During the last several years, the mechanism of IFNgamma-dependent signal transduction has been the focus of intense investigation. This research has recently culminated in the elucidation of a comprehensive molecular understanding of the events that underlie IFNgamma-induced cellular responses. The structure and function of the IFNgamma receptor have been defined. The mechanism of IFNgamma signal transduction has been largely elucidated, and the physiologic relevance of this process validated. Most recently, the molecular events that link receptor ligation to signal transduction have been established. Together these insights have produced a model of IFNgamma signaling that is nearly complete and that serves as a paradigm for signaling by other members of the cytokine receptor superfamily.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 649-674 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract In human plasma, HIV activates the complement system, even in the absence of specific antibodies. Complement activation would, however, be harmful to the virus if the reactions were allowed to go to completion, since their final outcome would be virolysis. This is avoided by complement regulatory molecules, which either are included in the virus membrane upon budding from the infected cells (e.g. DAF/CD55) or are secondarily attached to HIV envelope glycoproteins as in the case of factor H. By using this strategy of interaction with complement components, HIV takes advantage of human complement activation for enhancement of infectivity, for follicular localization, and for broadening its target cell range at the same time that it displays an intrinsic resistance against the lytic action of human complement. This intrinsic resistance to complement-mediated virolysis can be overcome by monoclonal antibodies inhibiting recruitment of human factor H to the virus surface, suggesting a new therapeutic principle.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 797-819 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Receptors for most interleukins and cytokines that regulate immune and hematopoietic systems belong to the class I cytokine receptor family. These molecules form multichain receptor complexes in order to exhibit high-affinity binding to, and mediate biological functions of, their respective cytokines. In most cases, these functional receptor complexes share common signal transducing receptor components that are also in the class I cytokine receptor family, i.e. gp130, common beta, and common gamma molecules. Interleukin-6 and related cytokines, interleukin-11, leukemia inhibitory factor, oncostatin M, ciliary neurotrophic factor, and cardiotrophin-1 are all pleiotropic and exhibit overlapping biological functions. Functional receptor complexes for this interleukin-6 family of cytokines share gp130 as a component critical for signal transduction. Unlike cytokines sharing common beta and common gamma chains that mainly function in hematopoietic and lymphoid cell systems, the interleukin-6 family of cytokines function extensively outside these systems as well, e.g. from the cardiovascular to the nervous system, owing to ubiquitously expressed gp130. Stimulation of cells with the interleukin-6 family of cytokines triggers homo- or hetero-dimerization of gp130. Although gp130 and its dimer partners possess no intrinsic tyrosine kinase domain, the dimerization of gp130 leads to activation of associated cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases and subsequent modification of transcription factors. This paper reviews recent progress in the study of the interleukin-6 family of cytokines and gp130.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 109-136 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract All plant cells produce fatty acids from acetyl-CoA by a common pathway localized in plastids. Although the biochemistry of this pathway is now well understood, much less is known about how plants control the very different amounts and types of lipids produced in different tissues. Thus, a central challenge for plant lipid research is to provide a molecular understanding of how plants regulate the major differences in lipid metabolism found, for example, in mesophyll, epidermal, or developing seed cells. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) is one control point that regulates rates of fatty acid synthesis. However, the biochemical modulators that act on ACCase and the factors that in turn control these modulators are poorly understood. In addition, little is known about how the expression of genes involved in fatty acid synthesis is controlled. This review evaluates current knowledge of regulation of plant fatty metabolism and attempts to identify the major unanswered questions.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 461-491 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Many aspects of Angiosperm pollen germination and tube growth are discussed including mechanisms of dehydration and rehydration, in vitro germination, pollen coat compounds, the dynamic involvement of cytoskeletal elements (actin, microtubules), calcium ion fluxes, extracellular matrix elements (stylar arabinogalactan proteins), and control mechanisms of gene expression in dehydrating and germinating pollen. We focus on the recent developments in pollen biology that help us understand how the male gamete survives and accomplishes its successful delivery to the ovule of the sperm to effect sexual reproduction.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 525-545 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Plants cope with pathogen attacks by using mechanisms of resistance that rely both on preformed protective defenses and on inducible defenses. The latter are the most well studied, and progress is being made in determining which induced responses are responsible for limiting pathogen growth. Many plant-pathogen interactions are accompanied by plant cell death. Recent evidence suggests that this cell death is often programmed and results from an active process on the part of the host. The review considers the roles and possible mechanisms of plant cell death in response to pathogens.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 355-381 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Jasmonic acid and its derivatives can modulate aspects of fruit ripening, production of viable pollen, root growth, tendril coiling, and plant resistance to insects and pathogens. Jasmonate activates genes involved in pathogen and insect resistance, and genes encoding vegetative storage proteins, but represses genes encoding proteins involved in photosynthesis. Jasmonic acid is derived from linolenic acid, and most of the enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway have been extensively characterized. Modulation of lipoxygenase and allene oxide synthase gene expression in transgenic plants raises new questions about the compartmentation of the biosynthetic pathway and its regulation. The activation of jasmonic acid biosynthesis by cell wall elicitors, the peptide systemin, and other compounds will be related to the function of jasmonates in plants. Jasmonate modulates gene expression at the level of translation, RNA processing, and transcription. Promoter elements that mediate responses to jasmonate have been isolated. This review covers recent advances in our understanding of how jasmonate biosynthesis is regulated and relates this information to knowledge of jasmonate modulated gene expression.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 431-460 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The recent impressive progress in research on gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis has resulted primarily from cloning of genes encoding biosynthetic enzymes and studies with GA-deficient and GA-insensitive mutants. Highlights include the cloning of ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase and ent-kaurene synthase (formally ent-kaurene synthases A and B) and the demonstration that the former is targeted to the plastid; the finding that the Dwarf-3 gene of maize encodes a cytochrome P450, although of unknown function; and the cloning of GA 20-oxidase and 3beta-hydroxylase genes. The availability of cDNA and genomic clones for these enzymes is enabling the mechanisms by which GA concentrations are regulated by environmental and endogenous factors to be studied at the molecular level. For example, it has been shown that transcript levels for GA 20-oxidase and 3beta-hydroxylase are subject to feedback regulation by GA action and, in the case of the GA 20-oxidase, are regulated by light. Also discussed is other new information, particularly from mutants, that has added to our understanding of the biosynthetic pathway, the enzymes, and their regulation and tissue localization.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 575-607 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract In "gene-for-gene" interactions between plants and their pathogens, incompatibility (no disease) requires a dominant or semidominant resistance (R) gene in the plant, and a corresponding avirulence (Avr) gene in the pathogen. Many plant/pathogen interactions are of this type. R genes are presumed to (a) enable plants to detect Avr-gene-specified pathogen molecules, (b) initiate signal transduction to activate defenses, and (c) have the capacity to evolve new R gene specificities rapidly. Isolation of R genes has revealed four main classes of R gene sequences whose products appear to activate a similar range of defense mechanisms. Discovery of the structure of R genes and R gene loci provides insight into R gene function and evolution, and should lead to novel strategies for disease control.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 641-671 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Photosystem II (PSII) is the pigment protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane of higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that uses solar energy to drive the photosynthetic water-splitting reaction. This chapter reviews the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of PSII as well as the function of its constituent subunits. The understanding of in vivo organization of PSII is based in part on freeze-etched and freeze-fracture images of thylakoid membranes. These images show a resolution of about 40-50 A and so provide information mainly on the localization, heterogeneity, dimensions, and shapes of membrane-embedded PSII complexes. Higher resolution of about 15-40 A has been obtained from single particle images of isolated PSII complexes of defined and differing subunit composition and from electron crystallography of 2-D crystals. Observations are discussed in terms of the oligomeric state and subunit organization of PSII and its antenna components.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 83-117 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The polymerization dynamics of microtubules are central to their biological functions. Polymerization dynamics allow microtubules to adopt spatial arrangements that can change rapidly in response to cellular needs and, in some cases, to perform mechanical work. Microtubules utilize the energy of GTP hydrolysis to fuel a unique polymerization mechanism termed dynamic instability. In this review, we first describe progress toward understanding the mechanism of dynamic instability of pure tubulin and then discuss the function and regulation of microtubule dynamic instability in living cells.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 171-201 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Growing plant cells are shaped by an extensible wall that is a complex amalgam of cellulose microfibrils bonded noncovalently to a matrix of hemicelluloses, pectins, and structural proteins. Cellulose is synthesized by complexes in the plasma membrane and is extruded as a self-assembling microfibril, whereas the matrix polymers are secreted by the Golgi apparatus and become integrated into the wall network by poorly understood mechanisms. The growing wall is under high tensile stress from cell turgor and is able to enlarge by a combination of stress relaxation and polymer creep. A pH-dependent mechanism of wall loosening, known as acid growth, is characteristic of growing walls and is mediated by a group of unusual wall proteins called expansins. Expansins appear to disrupt the noncovalent bonding of matrix hemicelluloses to the microfibril, thereby allowing the wall to yield to the mechanical forces generated by cell turgor. Other wall enzymes, such as (1 4) beta-glucanases and pectinases, may make the wall more responsive to expansin-mediated wall creep, whereas pectin methylesterases and peroxidases may alter the wall so as to make it resistant to expansin-mediated creep.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 293-332 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The recent identification of proteins that recognize origins of DNA replication and control the initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication has provided critical molecular tools to dissect this process. Dynamic changes in the assembly and disassembly of protein complexes at origins are important for the initiation of DNA replication and occur throughout the cell cycle. Herein, we review the key proteins required for the initiation of DNA replication, their involvement in the protein complex assembly at replication origins, and how the cell cycle machinery regulates this process.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 425-456 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract NCAM, L1, and DCC-immunoglobulin cell adhesion molecules (Ig CAMs)-are widely expressed during development. Many workers have dismissed a role for such molecules in the control of axonal growth and guidance because they do not show highly restricted expression patterns. Yet evidence from a number of model systems suggests all three CAMs play a role in the development of specific projections in the nervous system. For example, there is a reduction in mossy fiber tracts in the hippocampus of mice that lack NCAM, a requirement for DCC in the response of commissural neurons to a floor plate-derived chemoattractant, and a loss of corticospinal tracts in humans who carry mutations in the L1 gene. The above paradox might be explained by the observation that differential post-translational processing can modulate CAMs function and that alternative splicing can generate functionally distinct isoforms of a CAM. Activation of the FGF tyrosine kinase receptor is required for the responses stimulated by NCAM and L1, and the importance of regulated tyrosine phosphorylation for growth and guidance is underscored by the involvement of receptor tyrosine phosphatases in this process.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 513-609 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Src family protein tyrosine kinases are activated following engagement of many different classes of cellular receptors and participate in signaling pathways that control a diverse spectrum of receptor-induced biological activities. While several of these kinases have evolved to play distinct roles in specific receptor pathways, there is considerable redundancy in the functions of these kinases, both with respect to the receptor pathways that activate these kinases and the downstream effectors that mediate their biological activities. This chapter reviews the evidence implicating Src family kinases in specific receptor pathways and describes the mechanisms leading to their activation, the targets that interact with these kinases, and the biological events that they regulate.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 611-667 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The organizer is formed in an equatorial sector of the blastula stage amphibian embryo by cells that have responded to two maternal agents: a general meso-endoderm inducer (involving the TFG-beta signaling pathway) and a dorsal modifier (probably involving the Wnt signaling pathway). The meso-endoderm inducer is secreted by most vegetal cells, those containing maternal materials that had been localized in the vegetal hemisphere of the oocyte during oogenesis. As a consequence of the inducer's distribution and action, the competence domains of prospective ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are established in an animal-to-vegetal order in the blastula. The dorsal modifier signal is secreted by a sector of cells of the animal and vegetal hemispheres on one side of the blastula. These cells contain maternal materials transported there in the first cell cycle from the vegetal pole of the egg along microtubules aligned by cortical rotation. The Nieuwkoop center is the region of blastula cells secreting both maternal signals, and hence specifying the organizer in an equatorial sector. Final steps of organizer formation at the late blastula or early gastrula stage may involve locally secreted zygotic signals as well. At the gastrula stage, the organizer secretes a variety of zygotic proteins that act as antagonists to various members of the BMP and Wnt families of ligands, which are secreted by cells of the competence domains surrounding the organizer. BMPs and Wnts favor ventral development, and cells near the organizer are protected from these agents by the organizer's inducers. The nearby cells are derepressed in their inherent capacity for dorsal development, which is apparent in the neural induction of the ectoderm, dorsalization of the mesoderm, and anteriorization of the endoderm. The organizer also engages in extensive specialized morphogenesis, which brings it within range of responsive cell groups. It also self-differentiates to a variety of axial tissues of the body.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 779-808 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The vacuolar (H+)-ATPases (or V-ATPases) function in the acidification of intracellular compartments in eukaryotic cells. The V-ATPases are multisubunit complexes composed of two functional domains. The peripheral V1 domain, a 500-kDa complex responsible for ATP hydrolysis, contains at least eight different subunits of molecular weight 70-13 (subunits A-H). The integral V0 domain, a 250-kDa complex, functions in proton translocation and contains at least five different subunits of molecular weight 100-17 (subunits a-d). Biochemical and genetic analysis has been used to identify subunits and residues involved in nucleotide binding and hydrolysis, proton translocation, and coupling of these activities. Several mechanisms have been implicated in the regulation of vacuolar acidification in vivo, including control of pump density, regulation of assembly of V1 and V0 domains, disulfide bond formation, activator or inhibitor proteins, and regulation of counterion conductance. Recent information concerning targeting and regulation of V-ATPases has also been obtained.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 93-116 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Bacterial cell division occurs through the formation of an FtsZ ring (Z ring) at the site of division. The ring is composed of the tubulin-like FtsZ protein that has GTPase activity and the ability to polymerize in vitro. The Z ring is thought to function in vivo as a cytoskeletal element that is analogous to the contractile ring in many eukaryotic cells. Evidence suggests that the Z ring is utilized by all prokaryotic organisms for division and may also be used by some eukaryotic organelles. This review summarizes our present knowledge about the formation, function, and evolution of the Z ring in prokaryotic cell division.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 679-716 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The ribosome is a large multifunctional complex composed of both RNA and proteins. Biophysical methods are yielding low-resolution structures of the overall architecture of ribosomes, and high-resolution structures of individual proteins and segments of rRNA. Accumulating evidence suggests that the ribosomal RNAs play central roles in the critical ribosomal functions of tRNA selection and binding, translocation, and peptidyl transferase. Biochemical and genetic approaches have identified specific functional interactions involving conserved nucleotides in 16S and 23S rRNA. The results obtained by these quite different approaches have begun to converge and promise to yield an unprecedented view of the mechanism of translation in the coming years.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 807-822 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract A number of hormones and growth factors have been shown to stimulate target cells via second messenger pathways that in turn regulate the phosphorylation of specific nuclear factors. The second messenger cyclic AMP, for example, regulates a striking number of physiologic processes, including intermediary metabolism, cellular proliferation, and neuronal signaling, by altering basic patterns of gene expression. Our understanding of cyclic AMP signaling in the nucleus has expanded considerably over the past decade, owing in large part to the characterization of cyclic AMP-responsive promoter elements, transcription factors that bind them, and signal-dependent coactivators that mediate target gene induction. More importantly, these studies have revealed new insights into biological problems as diverse as biological clocks and long-term memory. The purpose of this review is to describe the components of the cyclic AMP response unit and to analyze how these components cooperate to induce target gene expression in response to hormonal stimulation.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 323-349 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract For over 60 years, many species of insects and mites have been known to respond in an adaptive way to seasonal changes in daylength. Responses to photoperiod allow them to survive periods of unfavorable environmental conditions. Since the early 1950s, light-sensitive and temperature-compensated circadian clocks have also been known to regulate the timing of many events (behavioral, physiological, biochemical) in all eukaryotic organisms, including insects and mites. Over the past 30 years, considerable effort has been directed at elucidation of the nature of the clock mechanism that underlies photoperiodism. Mathematical models using a number of insect systems have been developed that attempt to causally relate the circadian clock to photoperiodic time measurement. Although some experimental evidence supports these circadian-based models, some insects and mites appear to utilize a non-periodic hourglass timer as the photoperiodic clock. Future work in this field would benefit by following the approach that has proven to be very successful in identifying genes and gene products that regulate circadian rhythmicity in Drosophila melanogaster.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 427-450 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The vitality of the phylogenetic dialogue in trichopterology, especially since 1967, is evidenced by the high quality and large number of published phylogenetic inferences concerning caddisflies and the continuing spirited exchange of opinions about some differences among those ideas. Monophyly for Trichoptera seems well argued. Monophyly for suborder Annulipalpia sensu stricto also is widely acknowledged, as is monophyly for suborder Integripalpia sensu stricto. Various postulated relationships of Hydrobiosidae, Rhyacophilidae, Glossosomatidae, and Hydroptilidae (= "Spicipalpia") are less convincing. Phylogenies for several groups of families within Annulipalpia and Integripalpia have been proposed and relationships within at least 126 infrafamilial taxa also have been inferred.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 611-643 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Infection in insects stimulates a complex defensive response. Recognition of pathogens may be accomplished by plasma or hemocyte proteins that bind specifically to bacterial or fungal polysaccharides. Several morphologically distinct hemocyte cell types cooperate in the immune response. Hemocytes attach to invading organisms and then isolate them by phagocytosis, by trapping them in hemocyte aggregates called nodules, or by forming an organized multicellular capsule around large parasites. These responses are often accompanied by proteolytic activation of the phenoloxidase zymogen that is present in the hemolymph. A component of insect immune responses to bacteria is the synthesis by fat body and hemocytes of a variety of antibacterial proteins and peptides, which are secreted into the hemolymph. These molecules attack bacteria by several mechanisms. Inducible antifungal proteins have also been recently discovered in insect hemolymph. The promoters for several antibacterial protein genes in insects are regulated by transcription factors similar to those involved in mammalian acute phase responses.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 451-473 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis, is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. In addition to its annoyance to pets and humans, C. felis felis is responsible for flea bite allergy dermatitis and the transmission of dog tapeworm. The abiotic and biotic factors that affect the development of immature stages are reviewed with special emphasis given to those aspects directly affecting control. Factors influencing host selection and feeding by adults are summarized. Recent studies concerning mating and oviposition, especially as they impact the likelihood of survival by immatures, are discussed. There has been an increase in the number of reports of insecticide resistance in the past ten years. Greater attention has been placed on disrupting larval development in modern IPM programs. The immature stages of the cat flea are extremely susceptible to environmental factors such as temperature and relative humidity and insect growth regulators (IGRs). In recent years, the control of cat fleas has increasingly relied on the use of IGRs applied to the host or to the indoor environment. Finally, we discuss advances in pesticide chemistry that provide tools for better control of adult fleas on the host.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 475-502 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Wind-borne migration, in which migrants ascend to altitudes at which they are transported downwind, has evolved independently in several insect orders. The use of a range of observational techniques, including ground and air-borne radars, has provided new insights into how the migrants' behavior can influence the distance traveled and the degree of dispersal during migration. Simultaneously in recent years, advances in our knowledge of the genetics of migratory potential have provided a basis for understanding how the stochastic effects of the winds on destinations and the pattern of habitat distribution in space and time maintain variation in these traits in populations of wind-borne migrants. This variation, in turn, is an essential factor in the ability of these insects, many of which are important pests, to track often unpredictable changes in the spatial distribution of suitable habitats.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 551-585 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Mating of Drosophila melanogaster is a stereotypically patterned behavior consisting of a fixed sequence of actions that are primarily under genetic control. Mutations that disrupt specific aspects of mating activities offer a starting point for exploring the molecular machineries underlying sexual behavior. Several genes, identified as causing aberrant sexual behavior when mutated, have been isolated and cloned, providing molecular probes for expression and mosaic analyses that can be used in specifying the cells responsible for the behavior. This review presents current understandings of mating behavior obtained by such molecular and cellular approaches and provides an overview of future directions of research in behavioral genetics.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 43-62 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The pulmonary lipofibroblast is located in the alveolar interstitium and is recognizable by its characteristic lipid droplets. During alveolar development it participates in the synthesis of extracellular matrix structural proteins, such as collagen and elastin, and as an accessory cell to the type II pneumocyte, in the synthesis of surfactant. The lipofibroblast contains cortical contractile filaments and is thereby related to the contractile interstitial cells that are normally found at the alveolar septal tips and after lung injury. The morphologic, immunologic, and biochemical characteristics of the lipofibroblast and its probable physiologic functions are reviewed. The retinoid and lipid metabolism of the lipofibroblast is compared with that of the hepatic lipocyte and the adipocyte. Although the functions of the lipofibroblast remain incompletely characterized, this cell type is emerging as an important contributor to pulmonary alveolar septal development.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 23-42 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Although carotid chemosensitive glomus cells have been the most extensively studied from the vantage point of how cells sense the lack of O2, it is clear that all tissues sense O2 deprivation. In addition, all mammalian cells can trigger a cascade of events that, depending on the severity and duration of hypoxia-induced stress, can lead to permanent injury and death or to adaptation and survival. Crucial in this cascade, we believe, how the cascade is initiated, how O2 lack is detected by cells, and how these initial steps can activate further processes. In this chapter, we focus on the initial steps of O2 sensing in tissues most commonly studied, i.e. carotid glomus cells, central neurons, smooth muscle cells, and neuro-epithelial bodies of the airways. Recently it has become clear that plasma membranes of various tissues can sense the lack of O2, not only indirectly via alterations in the intracellular milieu (such as pH, Ca, ATP, etc), but also directly through an unknown mechanism that involves plasma-membrane K channels and possibly other membrane proteins. This latter mechanism is suspected to be totally independent of cytosolic changes because excised patches from plasma membranes were used in these experiments from carotid cells and neurons. There are a number of questions in this exciting area of research that pertain to the role of this plasma-membrane O2-sensing mechanism in the overall cell response, identification of all the important steps in O2 sensing, differences between O2-tolerant and O2-susceptible cells, and differences between acute and chronic cell responses to lack of O2.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 171-191 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The past three years have seen remarkable progress in research on the molecular basis of inward rectification, with significant implications for basic understanding and pharmacological manipulation of cellular excitability. Expression cloning of the first inward rectifier K channel (Kir) genes provided the necessary breakthrough that has led to isolation of a family of related clones encoding channels with the essential functional properties of classical inward rectifiers, ATP-sensitive K channels, and muscarinic receptor-activated K channels. High-level expression of cloned channels led to the discovery that classical inward so-called anomalous rectification is caused by voltage-dependent block of the channel by polyamines and Mg2+ ions, and it is now clear that a similar mechanism results in inward rectification of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA)-kainate receptor channels. Knowledge of the primary structures of Kir channels and the ability to mutate them also has led to the determination of many of the structural requirements of inward rectification.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 193-220 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Many ion transporters and channels appear to be regulated by ATP-dependent mechanisms when studied in planar bilayers, excised membrane patches, or with whole-cell patch clamp.Protein kinases are obvious candidates to mediate ATP effects, but other mechanisms are also implicated. They include lipid kinases with the generation of phosphatidylinositol phosphates as second messengers, allosteric effects of ATP binding, changes of actin cytoskeleton, and ATP-dependent phospholipases. Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is a possible membrane-delimited messenger that activates cardiac sodium-calcium exchange, KATP potassium channels, and other inward rectifier potassium channels. Regulation of PIP2 by phospholipase C, lipid phosphatases, and lipid kinases would thus tie surface membrane transport to phosphatidylinositol signaling. Sodium-hydrogen exchange is activated by ATP through a phosphorylation-independent mechanism, whereas ion cotransporters are activated by several protein kinase mechanisms. Ion transport in epithelium may be particularly sensitive to changes of cytoskeleton that are regulated by ATP-dependent cell signaling mechanisms.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 243-256 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The regulation of gastric acid secretion is achieved in the periphery by interplay between three major gastric endocrine cells: the enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell, the gastrin or G cell, and the somatostatin or D cell. Regulation of these cells is via stimulatory or inhibitory paracrine, endocrine, and neural pathways. Upregulation of ECL function is determined by activation of CCK-B receptors, by gastrin, and by activation of beta-adrenergic receptors, as well as by acetylcholine in some (10-29%) of the cells. Gastrin and acetylcholine produce typical biphasic calcium signals. Inhibition of ECL cell histamine release and calcium signaling is produced by somatostatin acting at a type 2 receptor, histamine acting at a histamine-3 receptor, and by peptide PYY. Stimulation of ECL cells results in activation of chloride channels, and there is evidence that voltage-dependent calcium channels, along with the receptor-operated calcium channels, also are responsible for elevation of [Ca]i. Depolarization-activated K+ channels presumably restore the potential after depolarization by activation of the chloride channel. The D cell is activated by either gastrin or CCK and appears to be inhibited by acetylcholine and somatostatin. The G cell is activated by acetylcholine and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and is inhibited by somatostatin. The functional integration of these three cell types is the primary determinant of the degree of stimulation of the parietal cell.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 273-298 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The study of gastrin continues to serve as an excellent model for gastrointestinal regulatory processes. This review highlights some recent advances in the field by outlining gastrin biosynthesis, summarizing current understanding of gastrin receptors, describing the regulation of gastrin release, and discussing the clinical implications of gastrin in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease. Emphasis is on three emerging areas of gastrin research: the novel finding that one of gastrin's posttranslational processing intermediates has biological activity distinct from that of the mature peptide; elucidation of gastrin's signal transduction mechanisms that mediate the trophic effects of the peptide; and the role of gastrin in peptic ulcer disease pathogenesis secondary to Helicobacter pylori infection.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 299-323 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Selected teleostean (bony) fish species of the family Batrachoididae (toadfishes and midshipmen) possess high titers of all enzymes of the ornithine-urea cycle in their livers. These species have proven valuable in understanding the short-term regulation of urea synthesis, urea permeability, and transport across epithelial tissues, and how urea synthesis and excretion have evolved among vertebrates. One species in particular, the gulf toadfish (Opsanus be), has been shown to rapidly switch from ammonia excretion to urea synthesis and excretion during a variety of stress conditions (including confinement). The transition is accompanied by an upregulation of hepatic glutamine synthetase activity, and a switch to pulsatile urea excretion from the anterior end of the fish. In fact, a single day's excretion can be voided in a period of 〈3 h. Hypotheses on the environmental significance of these patterns of urea synthesis and excretion are discussed.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 349-363 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The majority of ovarian follicles undergo atresia, a hormonally controlled apoptotic process. Monitoring apoptotic DNA fragmentation provides a quantitative and sensitive endpoint to study the hormonal regulation of atresia in ovarian follicles. During follicle development, gonadotropins, together with local ovarian growth factors (IGF-I, EGF/TGF-alpha, basic FGF) and cytokine (interleukin-1beta), as well as estrogens, activate different intracellular pathways to rescue follicles from apoptotic demise. In contrast, TNF-alpha, Fas ligand, presumably acting through receptors with a death domain, and androgens are atretogenic factors. These diverse hormonal signals probably converge on selective intracellular pathways (including genes of the bcl-2 and ICE families) to regulate apoptosis. With a constant loss of follicles from the original stockpile, the ovary provides a unique model for studying the hormonal regulation of apoptosis.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 25-46 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This essay explores the continuing relevance of Marx's work in anthropological theory by examining three dimensions of his thought, concentrating on a central text in each: historical materialism (The German Ideology), the analysis of capitalism (Volume 1 of Capital), and political analysis (The Eighteenth Brumaire). Each of these dimensions is related to present-day discussions in anthropological and social theory, but the emphasis remains on an interpretation of Marx's work.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 87-108 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review examines aspects of the trajectory of economic change in South Asia, particularly the development of markets, money, commercial production, and certain specialized economic institutions, in light of the longer historical experience of posturban polities. A review of archaeological and historical evidence from the Early Historic (500 bc-ad 500) through the Middle Period (ad 500-1600) highlights several consistent themes: urbanization and related transformation of settlement; monetization and the increasing role of production for markets; the volatile relationship between long-distance exchange and local political and economic structure; the intensification of production; and the shifting roles of religious and other institutions such as monasteries, temples, and guilds.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 129-161 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Between 100 BCE and 200 CE, the city of Teotihuacan grew rapidly, most of the Basin of Mexico population was relocated in the city, immense civic-religious structures were built, and symbolic and material evidence shows the early importance of war. Rulers were probably able and powerful. Subsequently the city did not grow, and government may have become more collective, with significant constraints on rulers' powers. A state religion centered on war and fertility deities presumably served elite interests, but civic consciousness may also have been encouraged. A female goddess was important but probably not as pervasive as has been suggested. Political control probably did not extend beyond central Mexico, except perhaps for some outposts, and the scale and significance of commerce are unclear. Teotihuacan's prestige, however, spread widely in Mesoamerica, manifested especially in symbols of sacred war, used for their own ends by local elites.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 235-261 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Pastoralist societies face more threats to their way of life now than at any previous time. Population growth; loss of herding lands to private farms, ranches, game parks, and urban areas; increased commoditization of the livestock economy; out-migration by poor pastoralists; and periodic dislocations brought about by drought, famine, and civil war are increasing in pastoralist regions of the world. Mongolia and China, however, have seen a revitalization of pastoral production with decollectivization. This review examines problems of pastoral governance and development including the "tragedy of the commons" debate, threats to common property rights, the effects of commercial ranching on pastoral economies, decollectivization in the former socialist countries, and the current state of development policies of Western donor countries. Case examples from the Maasai and Barabaig of East Africa and pastoralists of Mongolia and China illustrate these changes.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 313-335 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Many measures in human biology that are studied as immutable traits are actually fluctuating physiological functions that adjust body systems to rapid changes in the environment. This overview discusses what has been learned about the response to the stressors inherent in continuously changing microenvironments in modern Western societies of two related physiological functions: the release of catecholamines and blood pressure. The review shows that many factors that are part of or influence lifestyle-including perception and cognitive state, the nature of the social situation, foods, stimulants and exercise-and external conditions such as temperature, continuously alter catecholamine levels and blood pressure. Because lifestyle stress may be an important selective force in human populations, studies of dynamic functions that react to it, such as catecholamine release and blood pressure, may be important in understanding the ongoing dynamics of human evolution.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 439-464 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review surveys current literature concerned with the growing numbers, changing functions, and intensifying networks of nongovernmental organizations which have had significant impacts upon globalization, international and national politics, and local lives. Studies of these changes illuminate understandings of translocal flows of ideas, knowledge, funding, and people; shed light on changing relationships among citizenry, associations, and the state; and encourage a reconsideration of connections between the personal and the political. Attention is given to the political implications of discourses about NGOs, the complex micropolitics of these associations, and the importance of situating them as evolving processes within complexes of competing and overlapping practices and discourses.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 465-485 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Archaeology has begun to contribute to the history of spirituality in the Eastern Woodlands of North America to complement the perspectives offered by the comparative study of religions and by ethnological, folkloric, art historical, and astronomical research. Support can be found in the forms and types of ritual paraphernalia and in the associated iconography for the thesis that shamanism was a basic form of religious experience that extended back to the earliest material traces. Elaborations upon this foundation became most conspicuous during the Mississippian Period when social hierarchies developed upon an expanded, agriculturally supported population. Animal imagery changed, ancestor cults became elaborated, and cosmography took on increased importance in architecture, site layout, and mortuary rites. The canonical forms of the iconography of this period have become known as the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Since European contact, practices and beliefs associated with social hierarchies have disappeared or transformed.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 109-128 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The integration of gesture with speech production is described, and the various ways in which-in conversational settings-gesture functions in relation to spoken discourse are discussed. Cultural differences in gesture use are outlined, and the possible relationship between these differences and language differences, on the one hand, and the microecology of social life, on the other, are considered. Conventionalization in speech-associated gestures and in gestures that can be used without speech is discussed. Various kinds of "gesture systems" and sign languages used in speaking communities (alternate sign languages) are described along with their relationships to spoken language. Fully autonomous sign languages, as developed among the deaf, are briefly considered in regard to how signs and signing may be related to gestures and gesturing.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 487-514 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract As a strategy of self-representation and a device of power, Europeanization is fundamentally reorganizing territoriality and peoplehood, the two principles of group identification that have shaped modern European order. It is the result of a new level and intensity of integration that has been a reaction to the destruction of this century's first and second world wars and the collapse of the cold-war division of Europe into an East and West. Driven above all by the organizational and administrative power of the European Union (EU), Europeanization is still distinct from the EU. Neither Europeanization nor the EU will replace the nation-state, which, for now, remains a superior form for organizing democratic participation and territoriality. Nonetheless, they will likely force states to yield some questions of sovereignty-above all, military, political, and economic-to the EU or other transnational bodies. Nations are now being brought into new relations with each other, creating new alliances and enmities, and are even recreating themselves. The authors explore five domains of practice where the process of Europeanization might be fruitfully studied: language, money, tourism, sex, and sport. They suggest dealing with the EU as a continental political unit of a novel order and with Europeanization pragmatically as both a vision and a process.
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 459-481 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The neural substrate underlying learned vocal behavior in songbirds provides a textbook illustration of anatomical localization of function for a complex learned behavior in vertebrates. The song-control system has become an important model for studying neural systems related to learning, behavior, and development. The song system of zebra finches is characterized by a heightened capacity for both neural and behavioral change during development and has taught us valuable information regarding sensitive periods, rearrangement of synaptic connections, topographic specificity, cell death and neurogenesis, experience-dependent neural plasticity, and sexual differentiation. The song system differs in some interesting ways from some well-studied mammalian model systems and thus offers fresh perspectives on specific theoretical issues. In this highly selective review, we concentrate on two major questions: What are the developmental changes in the song system responsible for song learning and the restriction of learning to a sensitive period, and what factors explain the highly sexually dimorphic development of this system? We discuss the important role of sex steroid hormones and of neurotrophins in creating a male-typical neural song circuit (which can learn to produce complex vocalizations) instead of a reduced, female-typical song circuit that does not produce learned song.
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 157-184 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Recently, dozens of mutant mice generated with gene targeting or transgenic technologies have been shown to exhibit a distinct set of impairments in the brain and behavior. In this review, we discuss how studies of mutant mice have helped elucidate the mechanisms that underlie synaptic plasticity and the relationship of these synaptic mechanisms to the activity-dependent phase of neural development and learning and memory. We focus on the recent progress in the analysis of whisker-related pattern formation, elimination of climbing fibers, long-term potentiation, long-term depression, and various learning and memory tasks in mutant mice.
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 125-156 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Classical neurotransmitters are synthesized in the cytoplasm, so they require transport into secretory vesicles for regulated exocytotic release. Previous work has identified distinct vesicular transport activities for the different classical transmitters, and all depend on the H+-electrochemical gradient across the vesicle membrane but differ in the extent to which they rely on the chemical and electrical components of this gradient. Drugs that interfere with vesicular amine transport have implicated this activity in psychiatric disease. Selection for a cDNA encoding vesicular amine transport in the neurotoxin MPP+ also implicates the activity in Parkinson's disease. Molecular cloning of vesicular monoamine transporters shows sequence similarity to bacterial antibiotic resistance proteins, supporting a role for transport in detoxification and defining a novel mammalian gene family that now also includes a transporter for acetylcholine. Current work focuses on the mechanism of transport and the role that regulation of activity and its subcellular localization have in transmitter release, behavior, and neural degeneration.
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    Annual Review of Neuroscience 20 (1997), S. 185-215 
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Thalamocortical activity exhibits two distinct states: (a) synchronized rhythmic activity in the form of delta, spindle, and other slow waves during EEG-synchronized sleep and (b) tonic activity during waking and rapid-eye-movement sleep. Spindle waves are generated largely through a cyclical interaction between thalamocortical and thalamic reticular neurons involving both the intrinsic membrane properties of these cells and their anatomical interconnections. Specific alterations in the interactions between these cells can result in the generation of paroxysmal events resembling absence seizures in children. The release of several different neurotransmitters from the brain stem, hypothalamus, basal forebrain, and cerebral cortex results in a depolarization of thalamocortical and thalamic reticular neurons and an enhanced excitability in many cortical pyramidal cells, thereby suppressing the generation of sleep rhythms and promoting a state that is conducive to sensory processing and cognition.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 93-124 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Naturally occurring genetic disorders of the immune system provide many models for the study of its development and function. In a way, their analysis complements the information provided by the generation of genetic defects in mice created using homologous recombination techniques. In this review, the recent findings made in three areas are focused upon deficiencies in T cell differentiation and in T lymphocyte activation, and on the control process of peripheral immune response.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 39-61 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract H-Y was originally discovered as a transplantation antigen. In vivo primary skin graft responses to H-Y are controlled by immune response (Ir) genes mapping to the MHC. In vitro T cell responses to H-Y are controlled by MHC class I and II Ir genes, which-respectively, restrict CD8 and CD4 T cells: These can be isolated as T cell clones in vitro. T cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mice have been made from the rearranged TCR genes of several of these, of which that specific for H-Y/Db is the best studied. Non-MHC Ir genes also contribute to the control of in vitro CTL responses to H-Y. The Hya/HYA gene(s) encoding H-Y antigen have been mapped using translocations, mutations, and deletions to Yq in humans and to the short arm of the Y chromosome in mice, where they lie in the deletion defined by the Sxrb mutation between Zfy-1 and Zfy-2. Hya/HYA has been separated from the testis-determining gene, Sry/SRY, in both humans and mice and in humans the azoospermia factor AZF has been separated from HYA. In mice transfection of cosmids and cDNAs mapping to the Sxrb deletion has identified two genes encoding H-Y peptide epitopes. Two such epitopes, H-Y/Kk and H-Y/Dk, are encoded within different exons of Smcy and a third, H-Y/Db, by a novel gene, Uty. Peptide elution approaches have isolated a human H-Y epitope, H-Y/HLA-B7, and identified it as a product of SMCY. Each of the Hya genes in mice is ubiquitously expressed but of unknown function. Their X chromosome homologues do not undergo X inactivation.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 177-202 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The autosomal recessive human disorder ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) was first described as a separate disease entity 40 years ago. It is a multisystem disease characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous telangiectasia, radiosensitivity, predisposition to lymphoid malignancies and immunodeficiency, with defects in both cellular and humoral immunity. The pleiotropic nature of the clinical and cellular phenotype suggests that the gene product involved is important in maintaining stability of the genome but also plays a more general role in signal transduction. The chromosomal instability and radiosensitivity so characteristic of this disease appear to be related to defective activation of cell cycle checkpoints. Greater insight into the nature of the defect in A-T has been provided by the recent identification, by positional cloning, of the responsible gene, ATM. The ATM gene is related to a family of genes involved in cellular responses to DNA damage and/or cell cycle control. These genes encode large proteins containing a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase domain, some of which have protein kinase activity. The mutations causing A-T completely inactivate or eliminate the ATM protein. This protein has been detected and localized to different subcellular compartments.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 271-296 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) play a crucial role in the attempt to control infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Variation in epitopes recognized by CTL is common and frequently offers potential escape routes for mutant virus. Proof of escape, however, requires demonstration of increased frequency of virus particles or provirus that carry the escape sequence. There are now several recorded examples of virus variants that escape from CTL and are then selected. Most dramatic are those in which the CTL response has been dominated by CTL recognizing a single epitope that has suddenly changed, resulting in escape to fixation. This has been seen both early and late in the infection, leaving no doubt that escape occurs. Such escape is likely to be favored when the antiviral CTL response is oligoclonal and focused on a small number of immunodominant epitopes. The heterogeneous CTL response seen in many HIV-infected patients may result from successive waves of virus escape followed by new CTL responses specific for subdominant epitopes. Mutant virus can escape by several different routes, including failure of the mutated peptide to bind to the presenting HLA molecule and altered interactions with T cell receptors (TCR), including antagonism.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 371-404 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Intracellular signal transduction following the extracellular ligation of a wide variety of different types of surface molecules on leukocytes involves the activation of protein tyrosine kinases. The dependence of successful intracellular signaling on the functions of the nontransmembrane class of protein tyrosine kinases coupled with the cell type-specific expression patterns for several of these enzymes makes them appealing targets for therapeutic intervention. Development of drugs that can interfere with the catalytic functions of the nontransmembrane protein tyrosine kinases or that can disrupt critical interactions with regulatory molecules and/or substrates should find clinical applications in the treatment of allergic diseases, autoimmunity, transplantation rejection, and cancer.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 675-705 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Interleukin 8, the first chemokine to be characterized, was discovered nearly ten years ago. Today, more than 30 human chemokines are known. They are often upregulated in inflammation and act mainly on leukocytes inducing migration and release responses. The present review deals largely with the new developments of the last three years. Several structural studies have shown that most chemokines form dimers. The dimers, however, dissociate upon dilution, and the monomers constitute the biologically active form. Chemokine activities are mediated by seven-transmembrane-domain, G protein coupled receptors, five of which were discovered in the past three years. The primary receptor-binding domain of all chemokines is near the NH2 terminus, and antagonists can be obtained by truncation or substitutions in this region. Major progress has been made in the understanding of chemokine actions on T lymphocytes that respond to several CC chemokines but also to IP10 and Mig, two CXC chemokines that selectively attract Tcells via a novel receptor. Effects of chemokines on angiogenesis and tumor growth have been reported, but the data are still contradictory and the mechanisms unknown. Of considerable interest is the recent discovery that some chemokines function as HIV-suppressive factors by interacting with chemokine receptors which, together with CD4, were recognized as the binding sites for HIV-1.
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    Annual Review of Immunology 15 (1997), S. 821-850 
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Class I and class II MHC molecules bind peptides during their biosynthetic maturation and provide a continuously updated display of intracellular and environmental protein composition, respectively, for scrutiny by T cells. Receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis all contribute to antigen uptake by class II MHC-positive antigen-presenting cells. Capture of antigenic peptides by class II MHC molecules is facilitated because antigen catabolism and class II MHC maturation take place in the same compartments or in communicating compartments of the endosome/lysosome system. These class II MHC-rich, multivesicular endosomes receive incoming antigen and can support not only antigen processing and class II MHC peptide loading but also the export of peptide/class II MHC complexes to the cell surface. A balance between production and destruction of antigenic peptides is achieved by the activity of local proteases and may be influenced by binding of antigen to other proteins both prior to the onset of processing (e.g. antibodies) and during antigen unfolding (e.g. MHC molecules). T cell determinants that can be released for MHC binding without a substantial processing requirement may be able to utilize a distinct minor population of cell surface class II MHC molecules that become available during peripheral recycling. Although peptides derived from exogenous protein sources are usually excluded from presentation on class I MHC molecules, recent evidence shows that this embargo may be lifted in certain professional antigen-presenting cells to increase the spectrum of antigens that may be displayed on class I MHC.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 27-50 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Despite a potentially key role in cell-to-cell communication, plant intercellular connections-the plasmodesmata-have long been a biological "black box." Little is known about their protein composition, regulatory mechanisms, or transport pathways. However, recent studies have shed some light on plasmodesmal function. These connections have been shown to actively traffic proteins and protein-nucleic acid complexes between plant cells. This review describes these transport processes-specifically, cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses as well as endogenous cellular proteins-and discusses their possible mechanism(s). For comparison and to provide a broader perspective on the plasmodesmal transport process, the current model for nuclear import, the only other known example of transport of large proteins and protein-nucleic acid complexes through a membrane pore, is summarized. Finally, the function of plasmodesmata as communication boundaries within plant tissue is discussed.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 165-190 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Since its inception, light microscopy has shown the elegance and subtlety with which function is expressed in the form of the cells, tissues, and organs of the plant. Recently, light microscopy has seen a resurgence in use fueled by advances in microscope design and computer-based image analysis. The structural resolution afforded by static, fixed samples is being increasingly supplemented by approaches using fluorescent analogs and selective fluorescent indicators, which visualize the dynamic processes in living, functioning cells. This review describes some of these approaches and discusses how they are taking us a step closer to viewing the intricate complexity with which plants organize and regulate their functions down to the subcellular level.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 251-275 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Rapid generation of superoxide and accumulation of H2O2 is a characteristic early feature of the hypersensitive response following perception of pathogen avirulence signals. Emerging data indicate that the oxidative burst reflects activation of a membrane-bound NADPH oxidase closely resembling that operating in activated neutrophils. The oxidants are not only direct protective agents, but H2O2 also functions as a substrate for oxidative cross-linking in the cell wall, as a threshold trigger for hypersensitive cell death, and as a diffusible signal for induction of cellular protectant genes in surrounding cells. Activation of the oxidative burst is a central component of a highly amplified and integrated signal system, also involving salicylic acid and perturbations of cytosolic Ca2+, which underlies the expression of disease-resistance mechanisms.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 191-222 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The transport events from the sieve elements to the sites of utilization within the recipient sink cells contribute to phloem unloading. The phenomenon links sink metabolism and/or compartmentation with phloem transport to, and partitioning between, sinks. The nature of the linkage depends upon the cellular pathway and mechanism of unloading. The common unloading pathway is symplasmic, with an apoplasmic step at or beyond the sieve element boundary reserved for specialized situations. Plasmodesmal conductivity exerts the primary control over symplasmic transport that occurs by diffusion with bulk flow anticipated to be of increasing significance as import rate rises. In the case of an apoplasmic step, efflux across the plasma membranes of the vascular cells occurs by simple diffusion, whereas efflux from nonvascular cells of developing seeds is facilitated and, in some cases, energy coupled. Accumulation of sugars from the sink apoplasm universally occurs by a plasma membrane-bound sugar/proton symport mechanism.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 277-296 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The simple gas ethylene influences a diverse array of plant growth and developmental processes including germination, senescence, cell elongation, and fruit ripening. This review focuses on recent molecular genetic studies, principally in Arabidopsis, in which components of the ethylene response pathway have been identified. The isolation and characterization of two of these genes has revealed that ethylene sensing involves a protein kinase cascade. One of these genes encodes a protein with similarity to the ubiquitous Raf family of Ser/Thr protein kinases. A second gene shows similarity to the prokaryotic two-component histidine kinases and most likely encodes an ethylene receptor. Additional elements involved in ethylene signaling have only been identified genetically. The characterization of these genes and mutants will be discussed.
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    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 48 (1997), S. 297-326 
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Plant transformation is now a core research tool in plant biology and a practical tool for cultivar improvement. There are verified methods for stable introduction of novel genes into the nuclear genomes of over 120 diverse plant species. This review examines the criteria to verify plant transformation; the biological and practical requirements for transformation systems; the integration of tissue culture, gene transfer, selection, and transgene expression strategies to achieve transformation in recalcitrant species; and other constraints to plant transformation including regulatory environment, public perceptions, intellectual property, and economics. Because the costs of screening populations showing diverse genetic changes can far exceed the costs of transformation, it is important to distinguish absolute and useful transformation efficiencies. The major technical challenge facing plant transformation biology is the development of methods and constructs to produce a high proportion of plants showing predictable transgene expression without collateral genetic damage. This will require answers to a series of biological and technical questions, some of which are defined.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 53-82 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Most animal species exhibit left-right asymmetry in their body plans and show a strong bias for one handedness over the other. The mechanism of handedness choice, recognized as an intriguing problem over a century ago, is still a mystery. However, from recent advances in understanding when and how asymmetry arises in both invertebrates and vertebrates, developmental pathways for establishment and maintenance of left-right differences are beginning to take shape, and speculations can be made on the initial choice mechanism.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 25-51 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Mitochondria import most of their proteins from the cytosol. Dynamic protein complexes in the mitochondrial outer and inner membranes are responsible for the specific recognition and membrane translocation of preproteins. The preprotein translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane contains several import receptors and a general import pore. The preprotein translocase of the inner membrane consists of a channel interacting with preproteins in transit and an import motor that includes the matrix heat shock protein Hsp70. Acidic patches of import components are thought to guide the import of positively charged signal sequences (acid chain hypothesis). Energy input is derived from the inner membrane potential and ATP. Proteins in the mitochondrial matrix are required for proteolytic processing and folding of imported proteins. The dynamic nature of the membrane translocase permits sorting of preproteins at distinct stages of the import pathway.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 147-170 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The Drosophila ovary provides a favorable model system in which to study cellular morphogenesis. The development of a mature egg involves a syncytium of 16 germline cells and over 1000 somatically derived follicle cells. Intercellular transport, stable intercellular bridges, cell migrations, cell shape changes, and specific subcellular localization of many embryonic patterning determinants contribute to egg development and require a dynamic cytoskeleton. We discuss many of the recent genetic and cell biological studies that have led to insights into how the actin cytoskeleton is assembled and regulated during the morphogenesis of the Drosophila egg.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 261-291 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) play a well-established role in the regulation of the eukaryotic cell division cycle and have also been implicated in the control of gene transcription and other processes. Cdk activity is governed by a complex network of regulatory subunits and phosphorylation events whose precise effects on Cdk conformation have been revealed by recent crystallographic studies. In the cell, these regulatory mechanisms generate an interlinked series of Cdk oscillators that trigger the events of cell division.
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    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 13 (1997), S. 203-229 
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract To grow and develop optimally, all organisms need to perceive and process information from both their biotic and abiotic surroundings. A particularly important environmental cue is light, to which organisms respond in many different ways. Because they are photosynthetic and non-motile, plants need to be especially plastic in response to their light environment. The diverse responses of plants to light require sophisticated sensing of its intensity, direction, duration, and wavelength. The action spectra of light responses provided assays to identify three photoreceptor systems absorbing in the red/far-red, blue/near-ultraviolet, and ultraviolet spectral ranges. Following absorption of light, photoreceptors interact with other signal transduction elements, which eventually leads to many molecular and morphological responses. While a complete signal transduction cascade is not known yet, molecular genetic studies using the model plant Arabidopsis have led to substantial progress in dissecting the signal transduction network. Important gains have been made in determining the function of the photoreceptors, the terminal response pathways, and the intervening signal transduction components.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 315-335 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Modification of Ser and Thr residues by attachment of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine [Ser(Thr)-O-GlcNAcylation] to eukaryotic nuclear and cytosolic proteins is as dynamic and possibly as abundant as Ser(Thr) phosphorylation. Known O-GlcNAcylated proteins include cytoskeletal proteins and their regulatory proteins; viral proteins; nuclear-pore, heat-shock, tumor-suppressor, and nuclear-oncogene proteins; RNA polymerase II catalytic subunit; and a multitude of transcription factors. Although functionally diverse, all of these proteins are also phosphoproteins. Most O-GlcNAcylated proteins form highly regulated multimeric associations that are dependent upon their posttranslational modifications. Evidence is mounting that O-GlcNAcylation is an important regulatory modification that may have a reciprocal relationship with O-phosphorylation and may modulate many biological processes in eukaryotes.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 269-313 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Two X-ray structures of cobalamin (B12) bound to proteins have now been determined. These structures reveal that the B12 cofactor undergoes a major conformational change on binding to the apoenzymes of methionine synthase and methylmalonyl-coenzyme A mutase: The dimethylbenzimidazole ligand to the cobalt is displaced by a histidine residue from the protein. Two methyltransferases from archaebacteria that catalyze methylation of mercaptoethanesulfonate (coenzyme M) during methanogenesis have also been shown to contain histidine-ligated cobamides. In corrinoid iron-sulfur methyltransferases from acetogenic and methanogenic organisms, benzimidazole is dissociated from cobalt, but without replacement by histidine. Thus, dimethylbenzimidazole displacement appears to be an emerging theme in cobamide-containing methyltransferases. In methionine synthase, the best studied of the methyltransferases, the histidine ligand appears to be required for competent methyl transfer between methyl- tetrahydrofolate and homocysteine but dissociates for reductive reactivation of the inactive oxidized enzyme. Replacement of dimethylbenzimidazole by histidine may allow switching between the catalytic and activation cycles. The best-characterized B12-dependent mutases that catalyze carbon skeleton rearrangement, for which methylmalonyl-coenzyme A mutase is the prototype, also bind cobalamin cofactors with histidine as the cobalt ligand, although other cobalamin-dependent mutases do not appear to utilize histidine ligation. It is intriguing to find that mutases, which catalyze homolytic rather than heterolytic cleavage of the carbon-cobalt bond, can use this structural motif. In methylmalonylCoA mutase a significant feature, which may be important in facilitating homolytic cleavage, is the long cobalt-nitrogen bond linking histidine to the cofactor. The intermediate radical species generated in catalysis are sequestered in the relatively hydrophilic core of an alpha/beta barrel domain of the mutase.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 437-474 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Transposable elements are discrete mobile DNA segments that can insert into nonhomologous target sites. Diverse patterns of target site selectivity are observed: Some elements display considerable target site selectivity and others display little obvious selectivity, although none appears to be truly "random." A variety of mechanisms for target site selection are used: Some elements use direct interactions between the recombinase and target DNA whereas other elements depend upon interactions with accessory proteins that communicate both with the target DNA and the recombinase. The study of target site selectivity is useful in probing recombination mechanisms, in studying genome structure and function, and also in providing tools for genome manipulation.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 61-92 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Replication protein A [RPA; also known as replication factor A (RFA) and human single-stranded DNA-binding protein] is a single-stranded DNA-binding protein that is required for multiple processes in eukaryotic DNA metabolism, including DNA replication, DNA repair, and recombination. RPA homologues have been identified in all eukaryotic organisms examined and are all abundant heterotrimeric proteins composed of subunits of approximately 70, 30, and 14 kDa. Members of this family bind nonspecifically to single-stranded DNA and interact with and/or modify the activities of multiple proteins. In cells, RPA is phosphorylated by DNA-dependent protein kinase when RPA is bound to single-stranded DNA (during S phase and after DNA damage). Phosphorylation of RPA may play a role in coordinating DNA metabolism in the cell. RPA may also have a role in modulating gene expression.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 173-197 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The 3'-ends of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic mRNA are polyadenylated, but the poly(A) tracts of prokaryotic mRNA are generally shorter, ranging from 15 to 60 adenylate residues and associated with only 2-60% of the molecules of a given mRNA species. The sites of polyadenylation of bacterial mRNA are diverse and include the 3'-ends of primary transcripts, the sites of endonucleolytic processing in the 3' untranslated and intercistronic regions, and sites within the coding regions of mRNA degradation products. The diversity of polyadenylation sites suggests that mRNA polyadenylation in prokaryotes is a relatively indiscriminate process that can occur at all mRNA's 3'-ends and does not require specific consensus sequences as in eukaryotes. Two poly(A) polymerases have been identified in Escherichia coli. They are encoded by unlinked genes, neither of which is essential for growth, suggesting significant functional overlap. Polyadenylation promotes the degradation of a regulatory RNA that inhibits the replication of bacterial plasmids and may play a similar role in the degradation of mRNA. However, under certain conditions, poly(A) tracts may lead to mRNA stabilization. Their ability to bind S1 ribosomal protein suggests that poly(A) tracts may also play a role in mRNA translation.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 337-345 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract d-amino acids have been detected in a variety of peptides synthesized by animal cells. These include opiate and antimicrobial peptides from amphibian skin, neuropeptides from snail ganglia, a hormone from crustaceans, and a constituent of a spider venom. cDNA cloning has shown that at those positions where a d-amino acid is found in the end-product, a normal codon for the corresponding l-amino acid is present. This implies that the d-residues are formed from l-amino acids by a posttranslational reaction. A prototype enzyme catalyzing such a reaction has recently been isolated from the venom of the funnel web spider.
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    Annual Review of Biochemistry 66 (1997), S. 581-611 
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of glucose in the liver and kidney and of glyceride-glycerol in white adipose tissue and the small intestine. The gene for the cytosolic form of PEPCK (PEPCK-C) is acutely regulated by a variety of dietary and hormonal signals, which result in alteration of synthesis of the enzyme. Major factors that increase PEPCK-C gene expression include cyclic AMP, glucocorticoids, and thyroid hormone, whereas insulin inhibits this process. PEPCK-C is absent in fetal liver but appears at birth, concomitant with the capacity for gluconeogenesis. Regulatory elements that control transcription of the PEPCK-C gene in liver, kidney, and adipose tissue have been delineated, and many of the transcription factors that bind to these elements have been identified. Transgenic mice have been especially useful in elucidating the physiological roles of specific sequence elements in the PEPCK-C gene promoter and in demonstrating the key role played at these sites by the isoforms of CAAT/enhancer binding protein in patterning of PEPCK-C gene expression during the perinatal period. The PEPCK-C gene provides a model for the metabolic control of gene transcription.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 207-230 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Studies of dispersal polymorphism in insects have played a pivotal role in advancing our understanding of population dynamics, life history evolution, and the physiological basis of adaptation. Comparative data on wing-dimorphic insects provide the most definitive evidence to date that habitat persistence selects for reduced dispersal capability. The increased fecundity of flightless females documents that a fitness trade-off exists between flight capability and reproduction. However, only recently have studies of nutrient consumption and allocation provided unequivocal evidence that this fitness trade-off results from a trade-off of internal resources. Recent studies involving wing-dimorphic insects document that flight capability imposes reproductive penalties in males as well as females. Direct information on hormone titers and their regulation implicates juvenile hormone and ecdysone in the control of wing-morph determination. However, detailed information is available for only one species, and the physiological regulation of wing-morph production remains poorly understood. Establishing a link betweeen the ecological factors that influence dispersal and the proximate physiological mechanisms regulating dispersal ability in the same taxon remains as a key challenge for future research.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 23-50 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Many unusual features of scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) can be explained as historical legacy. Developmental specializations in ancestral coccoids resulted in a neotenous adult female and a drastic metamorphosis of the male. Subsequent evolution led to numerous, often convergently derived, adaptations to parasitic life on higher plants. The sedentary lifestyle of female scale insects has favored the evolution of appendage reduction or loss, gross changes in body shape, and protective wax secretions, tests, and other scale covers. Morphological peculiarities of adult males relate to flight or to mating with concealed females. Scale insects have diverse egg-protecting methods, a range of chromosome behaviors (including several methods of sex determination), marked sexual dimorphism [even sometimes in first-instar nymphs (crawlers)], and more rarely sexual dichronism. Crawlers have evolved as the main agents of dispersal. The biotic interactions of scale insects include diverse endosymbioses with microorganisms, sometimes morphological and behavioral adaptations for obligate association with ants, and often highly specific host-plant associations that may lead to demic adaptation or the evolution of complex galls.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 147-177 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The acuity of compound eyes is determined by interommatidial angles, optical quality, and rhabdom dimensions. It is also affected by light levels and speed of movement. In insects, interommatidial angles vary from tens of degrees in Apterygota, to as little as 0.24o in dragonflies. Resolution better than this is not attainable in compound eyes of realistic size. The smaller the interommatidial angle the greater the distance at which objects-prey, predators, or foliage-can be resolved. Insects with different lifestyles have contrasting patterns of interommatidial angle distribution, related to forward flight, capture on the wing, and predation on horizontal surfaces.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 231-267 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Silks belong to the class of molecules called structural proteins. The ability to produce silk proteins has evolved multiple times in the arthropods, and silk secreting glands have evolved via two different pathways. The comparative data and phylogenetic analyses in this review suggest that the silk-secreting systems of spiders and insects are homologous and linked to the crural gland (origin of systemic pathway to silk production) and cuticular secretions (origin of surficial pathway to silk production) of an onychophoran-like ancestor. The evolution of silk secreting organs via a surficial pathway is possible in adult and larval hexapods, regardless of their developmental mode. Silk secretion via a systemic pathway is possible in either adult or larval hexapods, but only larval insects have dedicated silk producing glands. Spiders, however, have evolved silk producing systems via both systemic pathway and surficial pathways, and a single individual retains both throughout its lifespan. Early in the evolution of spiders, silk glands were undifferentiated, suggesting that the number of silk secreting glands of any individual was related to the spider's energetic need to produce large quantities of protein. However, the complex silk-producing systems that characterize the aerial web-building spiders and the diverse types of proteins they produce suggest that their silks reflect the diverse and increasing number of ways in which spiders use them. Because the muscular and innervated spinnerets and spigots of spiders allow them to control fiber functional properties, silk proteins represent an avenue through which animal behavior may directly affect the molecular properties of a protein.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 269-289 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Insects offer a vast array of teaching opportunities for precollege students. Here we address the basics teachers need in order to use insects successfully in their curricula. We identify exemplary resources in the printed North American literature and point out potentially productive places for teachers and students to search for ideas and materials. We review the roles of entomology in the educational framework, highlight favorite classroom arthropods and less well-known examples, and guide readers to entomological resources. Tips to help teachers identify, rear, and maintain classroom insects and find equipment and supplies are included. The review concludes with a plea for greater classroom and curricular involvement by those in the entomological profession.
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    Annual Review of Entomology 42 (1997), S. 291-321 
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review categorizes the diversity of life-styles in the Phytoseiidae, based primarily on food habits and related biological and morphological traits. The life-styles proposed are as follows: Type I, specialized predators of Tetranychus species represented by the Phytoseiulus species; Type II, selective predators of tetranychid mites (most frequently associated with species that produce dense webbing) represented by Galendromus, some Neoseiulus, and a few Typhlodromus species; Type III, generalist predators represented by some Neoseiulus species and most Typhlodromus and Amblyseius species, as well as species in all other genera about which information is available; Type IV, specialized pollen feeders/generalist predators represented by Euseius species. Consideration is given to the relative importance of each of these types in biological control and pest management programs.
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    Annual Review of Phytopathology 35 (1997), S. 45-66 
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The molecular basis of tumor formation on dicotyledonous plants by Agrobacterium relies on the transfer to the plant cell of a unique segment of bacterial DNA, the T-DNA. The T-DNA contains genes that are active in the plant cell and encode hormone biosynthetic enzymes, or proteins that deregulate the cell's response to phytohormones. Study of this process has yielded not only knowledge of how alterations in phytohormone homeostasis can affect plant cell growth, but also has provided the essential tools to study phytohormone signaling in transgenic plants. Furthermore, T-DNA insertion into the plant genome forms the basis of gene tagging, a versatile method for isolating genes involved in phytohormone signal transduction and action.
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    Annual Review of Phytopathology 35 (1997), S. 67-86 
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Capsid proteins of a number of plant viruses are permissive to genetic modifications in which foreign polypeptides are inserted in exposed loops or at their C termini. Plant viruses with these genetic alterations often grow at wild-type levels, providing gram quantities of modified viruses. Presented polypeptides studied most extensively correspond to antigenic epitopes of animal viruses and in some cases appropriately altered plant viruses generate neutralizing antibodies to the cognate animal virus when the plant virus is used as a vaccine. Structure-based analyses of these animal-plant virus chimeras have led to rational alterations to the presentation in efforts to increase the efficacy of the presented peptide.
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