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  • 2021  (27)
  • 1
    Publication Date: 2021-09-29
    Description: The impact melt that records the formation time of basins is essential for the understanding of the lunar bombardment history. To better understand melt distribution on the Moon, this study investigates mixing of melt by small impacts using a Monte Carlo numerical model. The obtained mixing behavior is then integrated into a larger scale model developed in previous work. While large impacts produce most of the melt volume in both the regolith and megaregolith, we find that the dominant source of melt near the surface is small impacts. Material in the top meter is affected mainly by impacts that form craters 〈5 km in diameter. In the uppermost 10 cm, melt with age 〈0.5 Ga is abundant; while as depth increases older melt is increasingly present. This may indicate that the excess of impact melt 〈0.5 Ga in lunar samples from the near surface is caused by the cumulative mixing of small impacts. A comparison of the age distribution of melt derived from craters of different sizes with that of impact glass constrains the size of spherule‐forming impacts. Our model is consistent with observations if most impact glass spherules from the near surface are produced by 〈100 m craters and 〉100 m craters do not contribute abundant spherules. The distribution of the datable melt with depth is also analyzed, which is essential for future sampling missions. Excavated materials of young and large craters (〉100 m on highlands; 〉10 km on maria) appear to be the most fruitful targets.
    Description: Plain Language Summary: Hypervelocity impact events on the Moon generate great energy that melts materials in the near‐surface. The generated melt products record the age of impact craters. The abundance of impact melts of different ages is therefore essential for our understanding of the lunar bombardment history. Most of the returned samples are derived from the near‐surface, where the material composition has been significantly affected by the frequent gardening of small impacts. Improving our understanding of how impact processes change the material composition is helpful for sample interpretations. Here, we build a numerical model to investigate this issue. The simulation results show that craters 〈100 m likely lead to the excess of datable impact melt 〈0.5 Ga that has been found in returned samples. In addition, we delineate the distribution of datable melt in various depths. It provides insight into future lunar missions aiming to collect melt that can be easier to date. We suggest that ejecta blankets of young and large craters (〉100 m on highlands; 〉10 km on maria) would be the optimal targets.
    Description: Key Points: A numerical model is developed to investigate the effect of small impact gardening on ancient melt in the lunar near‐surface. Gardening of craters 〈100 m in diameter likely lead to the excess of datable impact melt 〈0.5 Ga in lunar regolith samples. Distribution of radiometrically datable melt in the regolith and the megaregolith is analyzed.
    Description: Deutche Forschungsgemeinshaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)
    Keywords: 523 ; 551.701 ; lunar regolith ; impact melts ; dating techniques ; datable samples ; simulation
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  • 2
    Publication Date: 2021-09-24
    Description: Mercury is embedded in a tenuous and highly anisotropic sodium exosphere, generated mainly by plasma-surface interactions. The absolute values of the sodium ion density are still under debate. Observations by MESSENGER's Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer (FIPS) instrument suggest the density of exospheric ions to be several orders of magnitude lower than the upstream solar wind density, indicating that the sodium exosphere has no substantial influence on the magnetospheric current systems. However, MESSENGER magnetic field observations of field line resonances revealed sodium ion densities comparable to the upstream solar wind density. To investigate how a dense exosphere would affect the current systems within Mercury's magnetosphere, we apply an established hybrid (kinetic ions, fluid electrons) model and conduct multiple model runs with gradually increasing exospheric density, ranging from no sodium ions at all to comet-like configurations. We demonstrate how a sufficiently dense exosphere leads to self-shielding of the sodium ion population from the ambient electric field and a significant inflation and symmetrization of Mercury's magnetosphere, which is decreasingly affected by the dipole offset. Once the sodium ion density is sufficiently high, Region 2 field-aligned currents emerge close to the planet. The modeled Region 2 currents are located below the orbit of MESSENGER, thereby providing a possible explanation for the absence of these currents in observations. The sodium exosphere also closes a significant fraction of the Region 1 currents through Pedersen and Hall currents before the “guiding” magnetic field lines even reach the planetary surface. The modeled sodium ion and solar wind densities agree well with observations.
    Keywords: 523 ; exosphere ; magnetosphere ; field-aligned currents ; hybrid-model ; Mercury ; sodium
    Language: English
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  • 3
    Publication Date: 2021-09-15
    Description: Forbush decreases (FDs), which are short-term drops in the flux of galactic cosmic rays, are caused by the shielding from strong and/or turbulent magnetic structures in the solar wind, especially interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) and their associated shocks, as well as corotating interaction regions. Such events can be observed at Earth, for example, using neutron monitors, and also at many other locations in the solar system, such as on the surface of Mars with the Radiation Assessment Detector instrument onboard Mars Science Laboratory. They are often used as a proxy for detecting the arrival of ICMEs or corotating interaction regions, especially when sufficient in situ solar wind measurements are not available. We compare the properties of FDs observed at Earth and Mars, focusing on events produced by ICMEs. We find that FDs at both locations show a correlation between their total amplitude and the maximum hourly decrease, but with different proportionality factors. We explain this difference using theoretical modeling approaches and suggest that it is related to the size increase of ICMEs, and in particular their sheath regions, en route from Earth to Mars. From the FD data, we can derive the sheath broadening factor to be between about 1.5 and 1.9, agreeing with our theoretical considerations. This factor is also in line with previous measurements of the sheath evolution closer to the Sun.
    Keywords: 539.7223 ; 523 ; ICME ; Forbush decrease ; GCR ; MSL ; Mars mission ; radiation
    Language: English
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  • 4
    Publication Date: 2021-09-15
    Description: We use a large data set of 3D thermal evolution models to predict the distribution of present‐day seismic velocities in the Martian interior. Our models show a difference between maximum and minimum S wave velocity of up to 10% either below the crust, where thermal variations are largest, or at the depth of the olivine to wadsleyite phase transition, located at around 1,000–1,200 km depth. Models with thick lithospheres on average have weak low‐velocity zones that extend deeper than 400 km and seismic velocity variations in the uppermost 400–600 km that closely follow the crustal thickness pattern. For these cases, the crust contains more than half of the total amount of heat‐producing elements. Models with limited crustal heat production have thinner lithospheres and shallower but prominent low‐velocity zones that are incompatible with Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) observations. Seismic events suggested to originate in Cerberus Fossae indicate the absence of S wave shadow zones in 25°–30° epicentral distance. This result is compatible with previous best fit models that require a large average lithospheric thickness and a crust containing more than half of the bulk amount of heat‐producing elements to be compatible with geological and geophysical constraints. Ongoing and future InSight measurements that will determine the existence of a weak low‐velocity zone will directly bear on the crustal heat production.
    Description: Plain Language Summary: The crustal thickness variations and the crustal enrichment in heat‐producing elements directly affect the thermal state of the lithosphere and in turn the distribution of seismic velocities in the interior of Mars. Thermal evolution models in a 3D geometry with a crust that contains more than half of the total radioactive heat production show large variations of the seismic velocities in the lithosphere. These models are characterized by a weak low‐velocity zone that extends locally to depths larger than 400 km and a seismic velocity pattern similar to the crustal thickness pattern down to 600 km depth. Models, with limited crustal heat production, and hence higher mantle heat production, lead to a thinner lithosphere that results in shallower but more prominent low‐velocity zones. The latter produce S wave shadow zones that are incompatible with clear S‐phase arrivals for events located close to Cerberus Fossae. The absence of S wave shadow zones between the Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) landing site and Cerberus Fossae is in line with other geological and geophysical constraints that require a large fraction of heat‐producing elements to be located in the Martian crust. Future InSight measurements will put further constraints on the distribution of heat‐producing elements in the Martian interior.
    Description: Key Points: Models show up to 10% difference between maximum and minimum S wave velocity either below the crust or at the depth of phase transitions. The seismic velocity pattern in the lithosphere correlates with the crustal thickness dichotomy and can extend to depths 〉400 km. Models with a crust containing 〈20% of the total heat production show shadow zones that are incompatible with current seismic observations.
    Description: DLR Management Board Young Research Group Leader Program and the Executive Board Member for Space Research and Technology
    Description: National Aeronautics and Space Administration http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000104
    Description: European Space Agency http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000844
    Description: Belgian Federal Science Policy Office http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002749
    Description: Belgian Federal Science Policy Office http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002749
    Description: Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002830
    Description: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002347
    Keywords: 523 ; heat‐producing elements distribution ; InSight ; lithospheric thermal structure ; Mars ; seismic velocities ; thermal evolution
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  • 5
    Publication Date: 2021-07-25
    Description: Cassini detected numerous hydrocarbon seas/lakes in the polar region of Titan and wide areas of sand seas in the tropical region, which initially led to the perception that Titan's tropical region may be too dry for lakes. Yet, a few tropical lakes were possibly seen on Cassini's near-infrared images, while they were not seen by other imaging instruments. This study shows by a lake balance model in combination with a global climate model and global topography map that a few lakes can perennially exist in Titan's tropical drainage basins of Shangri-La, Tui Regio, and Hotei Regio. This is possible because the lakes are fed by precipitation in a huge catchment area, while efficient lake evaporation occurs only in a small area inside of deep topographic depressions. However, tropical lakes may occasionally desiccate due to orbitally forced changes in tropical precipitation.
    Keywords: 523 ; Titan ; lakes ; tropical lakes
    Language: English
    Type: article
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  • 6
    Publication Date: 2021-07-21
    Description: We have analyzed mass wasting features, their distribution and deposit geometry on the two largest main asteroid belt objects—protoplanet Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres—and compared their geomorphology and mobility. Both asteroids have similar surface accelerations, but different surface compositions. Based on our observations and previous studies, we categorized three distinct morphological mass wasting classes: slumps, slides, and flow‐like movements. We conclude that Ceres has abundant features of flow‐like mass movements. Further, sliding and flow‐like characteristics are identified in craters within mid‐latitudes which supports the possibility of the presence of water ice in the near subsurface of Ceres. Vesta predominantly shows characteristics of dry granular‐like slide features which are distributed homogenously across the surface. By plotting the ratio between fall height (H) and run‐out length (L) (effective coefficient of friction, H/L) against the run‐out length and spreading width (W), we demonstrate that deposits on Vesta terminate on shorter distances, whereas on Ceres they travel longer distances. The deposit geometry and the similar surface gravity on both asteroids suggest that the material composition and volatile component have a significant effect on deposit emplacement. However, both bodies’ mass movements have similar effective coefficients of friction, even though Vesta's regolith is comparatively dry, whereas Ceres is rich in water ice. This leads to the conclusion that volatile content alone cannot be responsible for low effective coefficients of friction, and that more than one geological process is needed to explain the mass motion behavior and morphology.
    Description: Plain Language Summary: Landslides are one of the most studied geological events on planetary bodies. Many scientists have contributed to a diverse database of knowledge with the aim to better understand these processes. They have been observed for various environmental conditions and are affected by gravity and the physical and chemical composition of the hosting body. However, it is challenging to delineate which specific type or morphology of landslide is sensitive to which parameter. On airless asteroids Vesta and Ceres, landslides have been well preserved, allowing for in‐depth analysis using remote sensing data. Interestingly, Vesta and Ceres’ substantially different surface compositions have a major effect on landslides, despite their similar gravity. In our study, we have examined and updated the landslide inventory on both bodies, and performed an analysis of deposit mobility which will further enhance our understanding related to the material conditions, their mobility, and surface evolution.
    Description: Key Points: We classified and estimated the H/L of mass movements to investigate the mechanisms of deposition on Vesta and Ceres Vesta has dry, granular‐like slides as dominant mass wasting feature, whereas Ceres has abundant features of flow‐like mass movements The mass wasting deposit mobility is influenced by the material composition and volatile content on Vesta and Ceres
    Keywords: 523 ; Ceres ; friction‐coefficient ; mass wasting ; Vesta
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  • 7
    Publication Date: 2021-07-21
    Description: The thermal and convective evolution of terrestrial planets like Mars is governed by a number of initial conditions and parameters, which are poorly constrained. We use Mixture Density Networks (MDN) to invert various sets of synthetic present‐day observables and infer five parameters: reference viscosity, activation energy and activation volume of the diffusion creep rheology, an enrichment factor for radiogenic elements in the crust, and initial mantle temperature. The data set comes from 6,130 two‐dimensional simulations of the thermal evolution of Mars' interior. We quantify the possibility of constraining a parameter using the log‐likelihood value from the MDN. Reference viscosity can be constrained to within 32% of its entire range (1019 − 1022 Pa s), when all the observables are available: core‐mantle‐boundary heat flux, surface heat flux, radial contraction, melt produced, and duration of volcanism. Furthermore, crustal enrichment factor (1–50) can be constrained, at best, to within 15%, and the activation energy (105 − 5 × 105 J mol−1) to within 80%. Initial mantle temperature can be constrained to within 39% of its range (1,600–1,800 K). Using the full present‐day temperature profile or parts of it as an observable tightens the constraints further. The activation volume (4 × 10−6 − 10 × 10−6 m3 mol−1) cannot be constrained. We also tested different levels of uncertainty in the observables and found that constraints on different parameters loosen differently, with initial temperature being the most sensitive. Finally, we present how a joint probability model for all parameters can be obtained from the MDN.
    Description: Plain Language Summary: The mantle of rocky planets like Mars behaves like a highly viscous fluid over geological time scales. Key parameters and initial conditions for the non‐linear partial differential equations governing mantle flow are poorly known. Machine Learning (ML) can help us avoid running several thousand computationally expensive fluid dynamic simulations each time to determine if an observable can constrain a parameter. Using an ML approach, we invert a set of synthetic observables such as present‐day surface heat flux, duration of volcanism and radial contraction to constrain important parameters controlling the long‐term evolution of the planet's interior, such as the reference mantle viscosity or the partitioning of radiogenic heat sources between mantle and crust. We demonstrate that by training a probabilistic ML algorithm on the data and applying it, we can quantify the constraints on parameters. This provides a high‐dimensional framework for analyzing inverse problems in geodynamics.
    Description: Key Points: Mixture Density Networks provide a probabilistic framework for inverting observables to infer parameters of Mars' interior evolution Reference viscosity, crustal enrichment in heat‐producing elements and initial mantle temperature can be well constrained Activation energy of diffusion creep can be weakly constrained; constraining activation volume requires new observational signatures
    Description: Helmholtz Einstein International Berlin Research School in Data Science (HEIBRiDS)
    Description: Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data (BIFOLD)
    Description: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Research Unit FOR 2440
    Keywords: 523 ; inverse problem ; mantle convection ; Mars ; mixture density networks
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  • 8
    Publication Date: 2021-07-21
    Description: Metallic and silicate ions carry essential information about the evolution of the Earth and near‐Earth small bodies. Despite this, there has so far been very little focus on ions with atomic masses higher than oxygen in the terrestrial magnetosphere. In this paper, we report on abundances and properties of energetic ions with masses corresponding to that of silicon (Si) and iron (Fe) in Earth's geospace. The results are based on a newly derived data product from the Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detectors on Cluster. We find traces of both Si and Fe in all of the regions covered by the spacecraft, with the highest occurrence rates and highest intensities in the inner magnetosphere. We also find that the Fe and Si abundances are modulated by solar activity. During solar maximum, the probability of observing Fe and Si in geospace increases significantly. On the other hand, we find little or no direct correlation between geomagnetic activity and Si and Fe abundance in the magnetosphere. Both Si and Fe in the Earth's magnetosphere are inferred to be primarily of solar wind origin.
    Description: Key Points: A new data product from the Cluster mission is utilized to study heavy ions in geospace. Traceable amounts of silicon (Si) and iron (Fe) are found in all regions of space traversed by Cluster. The detected Si and Fe are most likely of solar wind origin.
    Description: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und Raumfahrt (DLR) http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002946
    Keywords: 523 ; composition ; Fe abundance ; geospace ; iron ; silicon ; Si abundance
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  • 9
    Publication Date: 2021-07-21
    Description: The Apollo 16 sample 66095, named “Rusty Rock”, is enriched in volatile and moderately volatile elements. The impact melt breccia is characterized by abundant Fe‐rich sulfide and chloride alteration phases, including FeS, ZnS, and FeCl2. These phases have previously been interpreted to be the result of fumarolic alteration of the breccia. Here we present the results of two different experimental approaches, which aim to constrain the temperature conditions and the process under which the “Rusty Rock” alteration formed. The first experimental set‐up assumes that the metals Zn, Cu, and Fe were introduced into the rock by a C‐O‐S‐Cl gas phase, and that the Fe‐rich sulfides and chlorides were deposited from this gas phase. This “gas deposition” experiment suggests that the alteration assemblage formed over the temperature range of 538–638 ± 5°C. The second experimental set‐up simulates a scenario, where Fe metal particles in the lunar rock react with a Zn‐C‐O‐S‐Cl gas phase at six different temperatures between 396 ± 5°C and 1,005 ± 5°C. This latter “metal reaction” experiment resulted in the formation of sulfide and chloride coatings on the Fe metal chips. The “Rusty Rock” alteration phases FeCl2 and (Zn,Fe)S were abundantly present in the coating of the Fe metal chip reacted at 580 ± 10°C. Both experiments lead to results which are in agreement, providing a temperature of 580 ± 50°C for the fumarolic alteration on the Moon, as observed in the Apollo 16 “Rusty Rock”.
    Description: Plain Language Summary: The Apollo 16 sample 66095, colloquially named “Rusty Rock”, is an unusual lunar rock which is enriched in volatile elements such as sulfur and chlorine. We investigate two processes by which sulfides and chlorides may form in a lunar fumarolic system, by conducting experiments in evacuated silica glass tubes at reducing conditions. First, we assume that metals and volatiles (Zn, Cu, Fe, S, and Cl) are all deposited from a gas phase (gas deposition experiments), and second, we assume that Fe metal is already present in the rock and that the Fe altered by the introduction of a Zn‐S‐Cl‐bearing gas phase (metal reaction experiment). In both experimental setups we observe the formation of “Rusty Rock” alteration phases FeCl2 and (Zn, Fe)S at 580 ± 50°C, constraining the temperature of fumarolic alteration recorded in the Apollo 16 sample 66095. Hence, our experiments confirm that the characteristic S‐ and Cl‐rich minerals found in the lunar “Rusty Rock” were formed by a lunar fumarole. More broadly, lunar metal deposits may be associated with ancient fumarolic processes.
    Description: Key points: Experiments constrain the temperature of fumarolic Apollo 16 “Rusty Rock” alteration to 580 ± 50°C. The phase assemblage of FeCl2 and (Zn,Fe)S constrains the composition of the fumarolic gas at 600°C. Gas deposition and gas‐solid metal reaction experiments reproduce the “Rusty Rock” alteration phases FeCl2 and (Zn, Fe)S.
    Description: Swiss National Science Foundation
    Description: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
    Keywords: 523 ; 551.9 ; Apollo 16 ; fumarolic gas ; gas‐solid reaction ; metal transport ; rusty rock ; sulfidation
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  • 10
    Publication Date: 2021-07-21
    Description: The observations made by the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN spacecraft in the topside (≥200 km) ionosphere of Mars show that this region is very responsive to the variations of the external (solar extreme ultraviolet flux, solar wind, and interplanetary magnetic field [IMF]) and internal (the crustal magnetic field) drivers. With the growth of the solar irradiance the ionosphere broadens while with increase of the solar wind dynamic pressure it shrinks. As a result, the upper ionospheric boundary at solar zenith angles of 60–70° can move from ∼400 to ∼1,200 km. Similar trends are observed at the nightside ionosphere. At Pdyn ≥ 1–2 nPa the nightside ionosphere becomes very fragmented and depleted. On the other hand, the ion density in the nightside ionosphere significantly (up to a factor of 10) increases with the rise of the solar extreme ultraviolet flux. Large-amplitude motions of the topside ionosphere also occur with variations of the value of the cross-flow component of the IMF. The upper dayside ionosphere at altitudes of more than 300–400 km is sensitive also to the direction of the cross-flow component of the IMF or, correspondingly, to the direction of the motional electric field in the solar wind. The ionosphere becomes very asymmetrical with respect to the Vsw×BIMF direction and the asymmetry strongly enhances at the nightside. The topside ionosphere above the areas with strong crustal magnetic field in the dayside southern hemisphere is significantly denser and expands to higher altitudes as compared to the ionosphere above the northern nonmagnetized lowlands. The crustal magnetic field also protects the nightside ionosphere from being filled by plasma transported from the dayside. The draping IMF penetrates deeply into the ionosphere and actively influences its structure. Weak fields and, correspondingly, weak magnetic field forces only slightly affect the ionosphere. With increase of the induced magnetic field strength the transport motions driven by the magnetic field pressure and field tensions seem to be intensified and we observe that the local ion densities at the dayside considerably decrease. A different trend is observed at the nightside. The ion density in the nightside ionosphere above the northern lowlands is higher than in the southern hemisphere indicating that plasma transport from the dayside is the main source of the nightside ionosphere. Nonstop variations in the solar wind, the IMF and the solar irradiance together with planetary rotation of the crustal magnetic field sources lead to a continuous expansion/shrinking and reconfiguration of the topside ionosphere of Mars.
    Keywords: 523 ; Mars ; MAVEN ; Ionosphere ; Solar Wind ; IMF ; Crustal magnetic field
    Language: English
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