ALBERT

Description: Over the course of the past few decades, there has been an exponential growth in environmental courts and tribunals (ECTs). At present, over 350 of these specialized fora for resolving environmental disputes exist, spanning across every region throughout the world. Some of the ECTs have been more successful but others have been less successful. This article identifies 12 characteristics that experience suggests are required for an environmental court or tribunal to operate successfully in practice, drawing upon examples from multiple jurisdictions. In identifying best practices, both substantive and procedural, from existing ECTs, this article will assist two groups: first, stakeholders who are in the process of planning or creating environmental courts or tribunals in their jurisdictions and, secondly, stakeholders and countries that are looking to improve the functioning and performance of their own ECTs.

Description: Legal education plays an important but under-acknowledged role in anthropogenic environmental change because it shapes and qualifies people to become lawyers, judges and policy makers. Their work can prohibit and legitimate particular environmental practices. The conceptual framework of law, its taxonomy, as taught to students of law, often perpetuates an unsustainable relationship to the environment where it separates questions of entitlement to land and natural resources from questions of responsibility for them. The implication of perpetuating this separation in law curricula is that generations of legal practitioners will remain unlikely to develop a coherent system of environmental law that aligns rights with responsibilities. Environmental education scholar David Orr argues that ‘all education is environmental education’. But legal education often excludes environmental considerations even where these are materially relevant. Given the role of legal education in shaping future law, this article contends that rethinking its categories opens the possibility to create sustainable land use practice laws and policy.

Description: This article utilises the concept of interdisciplinarity as a background against which to reflect on the nature of environmental law scholarship. The article argues that, while interdisciplinary scholarship has some tangible benefits in terms of expanding the perimeters of a discipline, the effects of interdisciplinary work are often exaggerated. In fact, interdisciplinary scholarship may have the unintended consequence of entrenching academic disciplines even further. In light of this, it is argued that environmental law scholarship is best perceived and defined as a deliberative practice which takes place within, and speaks to, a specific community of scholars—an interpretive community. In order to secure a vibrant discipline, the article argues that the community ought to maintain a flexible, open-ended and broadly defined approach to environmental law scholarship.

Description: European Union (EU) legal studies generally picture the Member States’ local and regional authorities as implementers of national and supranational norms rather than independent regulators. Yet, sub-national authorities (SNAs) have become active regulators in the context of climate change mitigation and adaptation, a role not foreseen by EU primary law, which this article understands to constitute the surface of EU law. This article examines regulatory activity of SNAs from the perspective of EU law. It illustrates that sub-national, national, supranational and international actors are engaged in a process of mutual learning and experimentation and that, below its surface, EU law recognises that SNAs are not mere implementers of norms but also independent regulators.

Description: This article presents a fresh analysis of the implications of the 2006 judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Case C-244/05 Bund Naturschutz in Bayern , which clarified the standard of legal protection afforded to sites eligible for adoption as Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) under the EU’s Habitats Directive. The article argues that, as a result of this line of case law, it will be unlawful ( at least in certain cases, and perhaps in all) to apply the Article 6(4) Habitats Directive derogation in respect of eligible sites which have not yet been adopted by the European Commission as SCIs. The Commission appears to have been aware of this potential implication, and acted swiftly to minimise the potentially disruptive impact of the judgment on plans and projects within the EU. The article also considers the relevance of the CJEU’s Sweetman judgment ( C-258/11 ) to the Bund Naturschutz in Bayern line of jurisprudence.

Description: What does the specialised nature of an environment court entitle it to do? The recent decision of the New Zealand Supreme Court in Environmental Defence Society Incorporated v Marlborough District Council (‘the King Salmon case’)[2014] NZSC 38 helps to answer this question. For the past 20 years, the New Zealand Environment Court has decided applications within a framework of the broadly defined statutory purpose of sustainable resource management. The King Salmon case narrows this wide discretion. This article analyses the implications of the decision, suggesting that it helps to delineate between functions of specialist environment courts that may be considered appropriate (adjudicative and legislative fact finding) and decision-making that strays too far into the policy-sphere.

Description: This article compares the protection from unnecessary suffering afforded to wild animals with that afforded to domesticated animals and animals under human control. It considers various forms of species-specific biodiversity- and conservation-based protection for wild animals, under legislation such as the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010, as well as the general protection from intentionally inflicted unnecessary suffering afforded to wild mammals under the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996. The article then compares the standard of protection afforded to wild animals with that afforded to non-wild animals under section 4 of the Animal Welfare Act 2006, which criminalises unnecessary suffering unreasonably caused to non-wild animals.

Description: The essential thesis of this article is that, as corporate and project finance trends continue in nuclear power plant financing, resulting in diversified and much broader and more complex structures of foreign investment, international investment law will become increasingly relevant to and influential upon these transactions. This in turn will spawn a new wave of disputes based in international investment law claims, before international arbitral tribunals including the ICSID. After discussing the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, and the first international investment law case directly related to an investment in a nuclear power plant, the article begins by describing recent trends in the financing of nuclear power plants. These trends include a shift from almost exclusively sovereign-assumed financing cost and risk, to other financing models which increasingly access global capital markets, and spread risk among a larger and more diverse set of investors. It then proceeds to review and consider the international legal sources addressing nuclear energy development and related international trade and investment transactions, focusing on the sources of international investment law. It considers both the primary ways in which the current trends in nuclear power plant financing are making international investment law increasingly relevant to nuclear-power-plant-related investments, as well as the secondary effect this increasing relevance will likely have upon future structuring of financing arrangements for new nuclear power plants. The article provides detailed consideration of the application of international investment law to foreign investments in nuclear power plants, including areas in which host states of such investments are most likely to experience increased exposure to liability due to current financing trends. It concludes with a further consideration of the secondary effects caused by this increased host state exposure to liability, including effects on future structuring of financing arrangements for new nuclear power plants, and effects on (re)negotiations of international investment law instruments between actual or potential host states, and states that are actual or potential home states of nuclear vendors and investors.

Description: Shale gas developments in the USA have led to a hype about the energy security prospects for other world regions, eager to replicate the American success story. In Europe, shale gas developments have remained in their infancy. As we argue in this piece, it is likely that this situation will continue and the shale gas ‘revolution’ is one that remains restricted. We compare shale gas technology to solar and nuclear, each at the time coined a game changer for energy security, and hyped as key to a sustainable energy future. We argue that shale gas perceived as an unproven and risky technology, fails to surpass essential policy, industry and social barriers required for a new energy technology innovation to succeed.

Description: Liberia has huge potential to be an oil-producing nation in the near future. With an increasing number of hydrocarbon discoveries in West Africa over the past few years and oil discovery in February 2012 in the Narina well offshore Liberia by African Petroleum, interest in Liberia and West Africa should only accelerate. Indeed, major oil and gas companies such as Chevron, Tullow, Repsol, Anadarko and ENI already hold acreage in Liberia, and ExxonMobil recently acquired an interest. This article looks at a new model of Production Sharing Contract, which was developed as part of a recent transaction whereby Canadian Overseas Petroleum (Bermuda) Limited (COPLB) and ExxonMobil Exploration and Production Liberia Limited (ExxonMobil Liberia) acquired 20 per cent and 80 per cent, respectively, of Liberia Offshore Block LB-13 (Block LB-13). This article examines certain key features of the Production Sharing Contract entered into as part of the above transaction and how the issues addressed in this Production Sharing Contract might be applied to other emerging oil nations in West Africa.

Description: The Brazilian regulatory framework for petroleum exploration and production activities was significantly altered after the discovery of pre-salt province. In addition to Act No. 9.478, of 6 August 1997, four new Laws were launched since 2010, creating a new oil company—Pre-Sal Petroleo S.A. (PPSA)—and establishing two other types of international petroleum agreement—production sharing contract (PSC) and onerous assignment agreement. This article aims to explain the new rules launched, and also assess the role of the agents involved and their competences. Present article will also analyse the three petroleum agreements provided by Brazilian Law: concession agreements, onerous assignment and PSC.

Description: James Baily and Rachel Lidgate consider current issues arising in relation to LNG price reviews, set against the historical background to such disputes and the recent, unprecedented volatility seen in gas markets.

Description: A lawyer’s perspective on the history of what has become the largest integrated oil and gas company in the world, the challenges faced by Saudi Aramco as the national oil company of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its response to those challenges.

Description: During the week of 9 December 2013 Mexico’s Congress officially launched Mexico’s long awaited, heavily debated, and much talked about Energy Sector Reform. Indeed, in less than 10 days Mexico’s Congress and States passed the Energy Reform and rendered the Energy Reform a reality. After Congressional and State approval, the Reform was then signed into law by President Peña Nieto. The Law also published in the Federal Official Gazette on 20 December 2013.

Description: ‘It’s Scotland’s oil.’ This Scottish National Party (SNP) electoral slogan encapsulates the importance of oil in the debate on Scotland’s constitutional future. In contrast therefore, the decision by the SNP-led Scottish Government in 2013 to apparently give up a claim to around 6,000 square miles of territory in the North Sea, encompassing several oilfields, is puzzling. This article contends that any dispute over North Sea boundaries would have resulted in unwelcome legal and diplomatic uncertainties for a putative independent State. The Scottish Government therefore may have taken the pragmatic decision to sacrifice this portion of its territory in favour of stability and certainty.

Description: Legal English is inevitably different to the ordinary use of language but this does not excuse the use of language which is verbose, obscure, repetitive or incorrect. Happily there is a growing trend toward the use of legal language which is plain and intelligible. In this transcript of his recent talk, Lord Justice Lewison considers the evidence for that trend, and also considers the way in which the English Courts have recently approached the interpretation of contracts.

Description: The US ‘shale gas revolution’ has triggered a worldwide search for unconventional gas in different forms on other continents. Asia’s growing demand for energy and need to switch from coal to natural gas has made governments in this region determined to exploit these newly accessible resources, inspired by the US experience. However, in addition to geological differences, the above-ground conditions in Asian countries are quite different from those in the USA. The papers in this Special Issue analyse the investment frameworks and the consequent outlook for unconventional gas production in China, Indonesia and Vietnam. Our paper sets the context for these accounts by identifying some relevant insights from the experience of the USA and summarizes some of the key conclusions from the later papers. A number of common themes emerge from the case studies, for example: the limited capacity of government, the role of the national oil companies and other interested economic actors, complex approval procedures, poor coordination between different government agencies and between different levels of government, access to land, and inadequate infrastructure, as well as the inappropriate nature of the prevailing laws, regulations and contracts designed for the extraction of conventional hydrocarbons. Despite these commonalities, the specific nature of each potential constraint and their relative importance varies between each country and even across an individual country. One challenge arising from the nature of unconventional gas extraction that is common to all countries is the need for effective engagement with society.

Description: China has huge unconventional gas resources and the largest is coal bed methane (CBM). Initial appraisal of CBM resources commenced in the 1990s, the first production sharing contract was signed in 1998 and first commercial production was in 2006. Eight years later, production has only reached 3 Bcm far lower than forecast despite PetroChina and CNOOC championing the development of these resources. Progress has been slow but better technology is being introduced, many of the issues that have delayed development over the last 25 years have been resolved and the government is prepared to offer further incentives to make the sector more attractive and speed up development. CBM production of 16 Bcm by 2015 remains most unlikely, but more projects are getting close to commercial production so we should see steady rather than spectacular growth over the course of the decade.

Description: This article examines the progress made towards achieving material commercial coal bed methane (CBM) production in Indonesia during the period since the publication in 2010 of ‘Coal Bed Methane Development in Indonesia: Golden Opportunity or Impossible Dream?’ (2010 Paper; P Godfrey, Tan Ee and T Hewitt, ‘Coal Bed Methane Development in Indonesia: Golden Opportunity or Impossible Dream?’ (2010) 28(2) JERL 233–64) by the Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law. Although blessed by favourable geology, and despite some quite extensive exploration activities, Indonesia has not yet seen CBM become a significant contributor to its energy supply mix. This is the case both in relation to domestic gas demand and in terms of contribution to spare capacity in liquefied natural gas export facilities. The Government of Indonesia has continued to use the production sharing contract (PSC) as the centrepiece of its regulation of the CBM sector. Except for the issue of a newish regulation on bidding for unconventional gas acreage, the regulatory regime pertaining to CBM exploration and production (E&P) has remained basically unchanged since 2010. Generally speaking, bureaucratic inertia at central and local levels of Government continues to be an unfortunate characteristic of the administration of the sector. However, at the same time, a lack of suitable specialized drilling equipment together with a lack of commitment by some CBM operators has also played a significant part in disappointing progress overall.

Description: Conventional gas is a key energy source for Vietnam but it may not be sufficient to meet growing demand in the future. Unconventional gas could potentially be part of the solution to meet the shortfall. This article examines Vietnam’s institutional and regulatory context to identify key constraints for the development of unconventional gas. Key players from the Communist Party of Vietnam to the Government agencies and local communities will be analysed to understand their roles and interaction. Other major issues such as gas sales price negotiations, access to land, environmental protection and the model form for petroleum contracts will be also discussed. The article concludes that Vietnam is at the early stage of unconventional gas development and therefore more work and effort are required to bring about adequate human and technical capacities, as well as institutional and regulatory infrastructures to deal with the new resource.

Description: The Chinese authorities have great hopes for the fledgling shale gas industry in China. However, while China is widely acknowledged to have abundant shale gas reserves, it would likely be difficult for China to realize these lofty ambitions, at least in the near future. China has issued encouraging policy statements to support the shale gas industry, as well as announced a number of discrete financial incentives. However, its shale gas industry faces technical challenges as well as a critical lack of detailed regulations regarding the exploration for and the production of shale gas in China. There is also a lack of guidance over the manner in which foreign investments can be made in the Chinese shale gas industry; significantly, the tussle between the ‘production sharing contract’ model and the ‘joint venture model’ still remains to be resolved. There are steps that China can take to address the hitherto lost opportunities to realize its exciting shale gas potential, the most important of which is to put in place appropriate clear and detailed regulations which are administered by a clear regulatory structure.

Description: Associated petroleum gas (APG), also known as associated gas or flared gas, was for many years considered to be an ‘unwanted by-product’ of oil production. APG is the natural gas that comes from oil wells, found in association with the oil, either dissolved in the crude (dissolved gas) or separated from the oil (free gas). Unfortunately, APG flaring and venting has proven to be not only harmful to the global environment by substantially contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and global warming, but also represents a community health hazard and deprives local populations of additional revenues and socio-economic development opportunities by the misuse of a valuable and environmentally friendly, non-renewable resource, natural gas. Currently, Kazakhstan’s legislation prohibits APG flaring and venting but the effectiveness of the Government’s efforts in achieving its APG flaring and venting reduction goals is still unclear. What form should a roadmap to virtually eliminate APG flaring and venting in Kazakhstan take? This article examines the impact of APG flaring and venting on the environment and health, the challenges, opportunities and incentives of APG utilization as well as its contribution to Kazakhstan’s economic development. While recognizing that options for dealing with APG exist, they are often limited in capacity and/or expensive to implement. The gas utilization performance of two of the three largest hydrocarbon fields in Kazakhstan (ie fields with a significant amount of oil and APG production) are discussed and a roadmap is proposed with recommendations on how to utilize associated gas and virtually eliminate further APG flaring and venting in Kazakhstan.

Description: While the regulatory and institutional reforms in the Nigerian electricity sector, as envisaged under the National Electric Power Policy 2001 and the Nigerian Electric Power Sector Reform Act 2005, appear to be on a steady path, the reforms in the petroleum industry, as envisaged under the National Oil and Gas Policy 2004 and the Petroleum Industry Bill, has remained in a mire of uncertainty, especially with regards to their conclusions and overall implementation. The effects of the uncertainty and the consequential lingering disequilibrium between the gas and electricity sectors, has critical implications for investments, infrastructure development and the overall gas supply to power outlook. The electricity sector reforms are largely dependent on the availability, affordability and reliability of domestic gas supply to over 70% of installed national power generation capacity. The regular shortages in gas supply to power electricity generation in Nigeria can be directly or indirectly linked to the regulatory inefficiency of the existing regulatory framework in domestic gas supply. Thus, while power sector assets are being privatized and liberalization is introduced in the medium to long term, it is essential to ensure that the parallel development of the appropriate regulatory framework is established for the domestic gas sector. Such a regulatory framework is required to create the required commercial environment where investments in gas supply infrastructure thrive. The aim of this article is to examine the existing and proposed laws, policies and regulations in relation to domestic gas supply in Nigeria as they affect power generation and the realization of identified economic and policy objectives.

Description: The purpose of this article is to outline the current state of the US domestic natural gas market, focusing on the regulatory climate related to exporting natural gas. Currently, companies must seek multiple levels of approval to export natural gas. Each company’s application is independently considered using a holistic and nebulous process. This article highlights differences between regulations as written and the practical effect of regulations affecting the exportation of domestic natural gas. While there is a long history of natural gas regulation in the USA, the current process remains unclear and inefficient. This article is a snapshot of the regulatory process faced by companies investing billions of dollars in the infrastructure necessary to export natural gas. The myriad organisations regulating natural gas exportation, time and politics are a few of the factors discussed that currently affect whether a company will be granted permission to export natural gas from the USA.

Description: This article looks at the conceptual framework of oil and gas unitization agreements from the standpoint of negotiators who must discuss and debate various provisions as they work to come to an agreement. It uses game theory to analyse the motivations of individuals in a rule of capture regime and the need for compulsory unitization statutes. It then uses game theory to look at the negotiation drivers in determining a mutually acceptable allocation formula. Finally, this article provides some suggestions on how to resolve the potential stalemate that may result in cooperative negotiations.

Description: This article will examine and discuss national petroleum reservations. While such reservations are a common feature of the regulatory framework for petroleum producing countries, the details will vary. A national policy will be different for each country as it will depend on a large variety of internal considerations like amount of oil and gas reserves, amount of oil and gas production, refining capacity, size of the population, infrastructure, geographic location and access to international markets, diversity on the energy matrix and so-on. The impact of such policies on international investments will vary greatly depending on questions such as triggers of the national supply obligation or the choices relating to pricing. At a more abstract and academic level, this article will discuss the difference between an ‘energy policy’ and a ‘resources policy’.

Description: The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) forms of construction contracts are widely used in oil and gas transactions as they are considered to give the right balance to the interests of all parties and to have a degree of complexity in line with such transactions. Yet the standardization of the relevant content may represent a serious setback and force the parties to engage in exhausting negotiations aimed at tailoring the relevant content to the actual interests of the contracting parties. This article aims at providing a general overview of FIDIC construction contracts and their use in relation to the construction of oil and gas facilities, suggesting some possible amendments that contractors may seek in order to render the agreement more adherent to their needs. The article will only focus on the Conditions of Contract for Plant & Design-Build for Electrical & Mech. Plant & for Building & Engineering Works Designed by the Contractor (the ‘Yellow Book’) and the Conditions of Contract for Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) Turnkey Projects (the ‘Silver Book’), 1 both included in the collection of contracts published by FIDIC in 1999 (the ‘Rainbow Suite’ 2 ).

Description: This article assesses the legal and political nature of decision-making with regards to nuclear energy policy in Turkey. The main focus is on the choice of nuclear technology and the associated safety and liability issues for Turkey’s new nuclear development plans. The article highlights the importance of legal certainty for both safety and liability in the nuclear energy sector. In particular, the liability regime in case of a nuclear accident must be clear and transparent. It also concludes that it is not the environmental impact assessment, safety concerns or liability regime but politics that is the key determinant in the choice of nuclear technology for a new nuclear project. In addition, with the planned use of the new financial model of Build-Own-Operate, this results in legal certainty being even more important for new nuclear development in Turkey.

Description: In a February 2014 State of the Nation address, Ghana’s President John Dramani Mahama stated, ‘Corruption erodes national resources and deprives government of the capacity to invest in our people ... We will fight this battle on two fronts: Firstly, to put in place the measures to prevent corruption, and secondly, to pursue and punish corruption wherever it occurs ... We have the courage to investigate and expose corruption.’ As Ghana’s oil and gas industry grows, the topic of anti-corruption, transparency, and ethics has become even more prevalent. This is because of not only the examples from regional counterparts that have suffered the ‘resource curse’, but also because Ghana has learned its own lessons, dealing for years with other resources like gold. This article addresses the anti-corruption framework of Ghana by the components of national laws and institutions established to specifically ensure anti-corruption, transparency and ethics, and provides some recent measurements of Ghana’s related performance. The conclusion is that Ghana is in a seasonable position to successfully conduct a responsible and transparent petroleum sector that offers maximum good to all, however, enforcement of the law and political will are simply prerequisite.

Description: Presently, India is almost dependent on coal-based energy, which leads to the generation of a considerable amount of CO 2 . In the context of climate change, solar energy is accepted as an important alternative source of energy as it is green energy. But the single crystal silicon cells, which are the starting material for solar energy, are produced in exchange of greenhouse gas, the carbon dioxide. Present article highlights an estimation of solar energy production and carbon credit (CC) earning by the photovoltaic cells of mono-crystalline silicon in a definite module, largely used in West Bengal, India. In addition, the quantity of silicon required for the preparation of this module as well as its equivalent amount of carbon dioxide generation during the extraction from quartzite sand by the Czocharlski' technique has been calculated. This analysis is based on the experimental and theoretical performance of the system. The study reveals that, on considering average light intensity (4.5 kWh) for 10h/day, the power output of this solar module is 0.60 kWh/m 2 /day. CC earned is computed as 0.33 tonnes/MWh/year, under West Bengal climatic condition as per the norms of the Kyoto protocol. For obtaining 11.86 kg of silicon, which is the raw material of soar cell used in this study, the amount of CO 2 production is calculated as 8.70 kg/MWh/year. Considering 35 kg CO 2 /MWh as reference, this amount of CO 2 production corresponds to 25% of the total carbon footprint.

Description: In this study, analysis studies of the first and second law of thermodynamics are carried out for vapor compressed refrigeration systems using an alternative refrigerant HFO-1234yf to HFC-134a. No important differences between cycle efficiencies were observed for both refrigerants. However, the exergy destruction rate of the compressor obtained with HFO-1234yf is lower than that calculated for R-134a. According to the exergy and energy analysis results obtained with this study, it can be evaluated that HFO-1234yf is a good alternative to R-134a. If the safety requirements (flammability problem of the refrigerant) have been satisfied refrigeration systems charged with HFO-1234yf, this alternative refrigerant can be commonly used in the systems.

Description: Water is one of the earth's most abundant resources, covering about three-quarters of the planet's surface. Yet, there is an acute shortage of potable water in many countries, especially in Africa and the Middle East region. The reason for this apparent contradiction is, of course, that ~97.5% of the earth's water is salt water in the oceans and only 2.5% is fresh water in ground water, lakes and rivers and this supplies most human and animal needs. Tackling the water scarcity problem must involve better and more economic ways of desalinating seawater. This article presents a comprehensive review of water desalination systems, whether operated by conventional energy or renewable energy, to convert saline water into fresh water. These systems comprise the thermal phase change and membrane processes, in addition to some alternative processes. Thermal processes include the multistage flash, multiple effects boiling and vapour compression, cogeneration and solar distillation, while the membrane processes include reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and membrane distillation. It also covers the integration into desalination systems of potential renewable energy resources, including solar energy, wind and geothermal energy. Such systems are increasingly attractive in the Middle East and Africa, areas suffering from shortages of fresh water but where solar energy is plentiful and where operational and maintenance costs are low. The advantages and disadvantages, including the economic and environmental aspects, of these desalination systems are presented.

Description: Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are widely employed in micro-combined heat and power cogeneration (micro-CHP) systems and the feed to them should be essentially free of CO. CO preferential oxidation is an effective method for deeply removal of the CO content in synthesis gas. A series of Pt/-Al 2 O 3 catalysts are made and tested for their CO cleaning capabilities. The catalyst is prepared from chloroplatinic acid and -Al 2 O 3 powder by normal or ultrasonic impregnation. Catalyst performance is investigated in a micro-reactor system. Effects of Pt loading, ultrasonic processing, CO space velocity, oxygen to CO ratio and reaction temperature on catalyst performance are studied. A CO preferential reactor for a kilowatt-scale CHP system is designed and tested. A special catalyst loading pattern is tried to maintain a uniform bed temperature distribution and high CO conversion. A CO concentration of 〈10 ppm is achieved when the CO concentration in the gas feed is 0.45%.

Description: In this article, the performances of a walk-in air cooler working with R22 and its substitute R422D are experimentally studied. To define a full comparison on the performance characteristics of R22 and R422D, both an energetic and an exergetic analyses are proposed. The experimental investigation was carried out considering four levels of refrigeration capacity: 920, 1340, 1925 and 2250 W. All tests were run at steady-state conditions and by keeping the value of the external air temperature equal to 22°C. The experimental analysis allowed the determination of the COP, the exergetic efficiency, the exergy flow destroyed in each component and other variables characterizing the working of the plant. The results demonstrated that COP of R422D is, on average, 20% lower than that of R22. Furthermore, for plant whose condenser is air cooled, R422D could lead to increase the fan speed or to adopt bigger blowers.

Description: According to the constructal area–point heat conduction model, the thermal current in the high-conductive path increases only at conjunction points. If the optimum number of the lower order constructs which formed higher order constructs is finite, the number of the conjunction points is finite and the thermal current in the high-conductive path increases discretely. The cross-section of the high-conductive path should be adapted to the change of the thermal current through it. The area–point heat conduction problem is re-optimized based on entransy dissipation rate minimization using a discrete variable cross-section conducting path. The optimization process confirms that the mean temperature difference will decrease by resembling constructs which is expected by the constructal theory. Constructing the next assemble by a four optimization unit and making the high-conductive path cross-section scale by 2:1 will decrease the mean temperature difference regularly at an interval of two assembly levels, and the mean temperature difference will approach a constant. Optimization results show that the minimum mean temperature difference of the ninth assembly level decreases further by 2.84% compared with the optimization result without the premise of an optimized last-order construct.

Description: Taking into account the heat resistance losses between the heat reservoirs and the working fluid, irreversible compression and expansion losses in the compressors and the turbine, pressure drop losses in the piping and finite thermal capacity rate properties of the heat reservoirs, a real, intercooled, regenerated gas-turbine cogeneration plant model is established using finite-time thermodynamics. The finite-time exergoeconomic performance of the plant is studied by taking the dimensionless profit rate as the optimization objective. Analytical formulae about the dimensionless profit rate and exergy efficiency are derived. By numerical examples, the two cases with fixed and variable total pressure ratios are discussed, and meanwhile the effects of the cycle parameters on the performance of the plant are analyzed. The relationship of the dimensionless profit rate versus exergy efficiency is investigated, and the characteristic curve is found to be loop shaped. Finally, it is found that there exists an optimal consumer temperature that leads to a double-maximum dimensionless profit rate.

Description: In this study, an experimental investigation of temperature distribution and efficiencies in conventional solar pond (SP) and integrated SP (ISP) systems is presented. Several temperature-measuring sensors connected to a data acquisition system are used to measure the temperature changes with respect to time and position. In addition, the monthly stored energies of SP and ISP are determined. The maximum and the minimum energy efficiencies of the SP and ISP are observed for the months of August as 28.41 and 33.55% and January as 8.28 and 9.48%, respectively. These then confirm that the SP storage efficiency can be increased by integrating the system with solar collectors.

Description: This paper describes the outcomes of a research project that investigates sustainable heating and cooling solutions for retail applications using a carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) natural refrigerant (R744) for food refrigeration. The paper presents the findings from an applied research study on a booster CO 2 (R744) system with high and medium temperature heat recovery. The paper includes a description of the conceptual design and a computer model along with its validation based on some experimental results. The energy consumption and carbon emission reduction are investigated using this novel system based on an existing supermarket as a case study.

Description: Homotopy perturbation method is a novel approach that provides an approximate analytical solution to differential equations in the form of an infinite power series. In this work, homotopy perturbation method has been used to evaluate temperature distribution, efficiency and effectiveness of straight fins exposed to convection. The fin efficiency and the fin effectiveness have been obtained as a function of thermogeometric fin parameter. The results have revealed that the homotopy perturbation method is a very effective and practical approach for a rapid assessment of physical systems. The resulting correlation equations can assist thermal design engineers for designing of straight fins with both constant and temperature-dependent thermal conductivity.

Description: A recent spurt in the universal interest to study alternatives to the conventional DX refrigeration systems and use of natural refrigerants as secondary fluids has been visible. This investigation presents a comparative analysis between carbon dioxide and other working fluids for use in forced circulation-type secondary loops suitable for various refrigeration and air conditioning applications. The comparison is made on the basis of equal heat transfer rate, frictional pressure drop per unit length, temperature drop/rise of secondary fluid and mean temperature difference between the secondary fluid and heat exchanger tube wall. Employing friction factor and heat transfer correlations, equations are obtained for diameter ratio, area ratio, mass ratio and pumping power ratio. Results show that employing carbon dioxide in place of other conventional secondary fluids except water leads to compact and lightweight heat exchangers, despite the high-pressure operation of carbon dioxide-based loops. The pumping power required is much smaller as well in case of carbon dioxide compared with all other fluids for the wide range of operating temperatures. Though results are presented here for the case of cooling only, calculations indicate similar trends for the heating configuration as well. Carbon dioxide appears to be an excellent secondary fluid for a wide range of refrigeration and air conditioning applications and it could turn out to be a disruptive technology for such applications in view of its benign environmental footprint.

Description: Stewardship is a broad concept that is used in different disciplines, in a variety of different ways. Even within discrete disciplines there is plurality in the concept, so for example, in environmental law, stewardship constitutes a general, universal duty to care for the planet, but also a specific duty requiring landowners to carefully manage their land. This multiplicity of uses has led to conceptualisations too imprecise for it to have analytical utility. In order for stewardship to be an effective concept with which to analyse and inform environmental law, this article maps the different permutations of the concept according to a network of actors and interests, and a spectrum of relationships and duties.

Description: The recent decision of the High Court (Administrative Court) in Thames Water v Bromley Magistrates’ Court [2013] EWHC 472 (Admin), [2013] Env LR 25 exemplifies the tensions present in the interpretation of environmental offences. The court’s conclusion that unintended escapes can be deposits for the purposes of section 33(1)(a) Environmental Protection Act 1990 is based on faulty reasoning, both as a matter of authority, and as a matter of policy. The appeal of taking a purposive approach to such an interpretative task is apparent, but so too are the dangers of taking an expansive approach. The decision is based on an approach that leads to unacceptable uncertainty and which should not be adopted in future cases. This case note discusses the results of treating the definition of ‘deposit’ as a question of fact, not law; the practicability of taking a ‘purposive approach’ to this definition; and the relevance of the criminal law context.

Description: This article considers and reviews the judgment of the European Court of Justice in Case C-237/07 Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern [2008] ECR I-06221, which followed a reference for a preliminary ruling by the Bundesverwaltungsgericht in Germany. It also considers later German cases concerning the law on air quality plans. The analysis elucidates the aims and legal scope of EU air quality law and reflects on the questions referred to the Court of Justice of the European Union by the UK Supreme Court following the judgment in R (on the application of ClientEarth) v The Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [2013] UKSC 25.

Description: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) included a target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015—a right recognised as fundamental to human needs. Small independent water vendors are often the only water supply option in peri-urban neighbourhoods in developing countries and fill a critical gap in the municipal system, but there is concern about the quality and price of their water. Such vendors need to be recognised and regulated due to their role in meeting basic water needs. This article reflects on the lack of regulation and discusses a recent multidisciplinary research project in Kenya and Ethiopia that considered whether there is a case for regulation of competition, price and quality. It concludes that recognising small independent water vendors as part of a regulatory framework will result in increased access to water for the poor and assist in the realisation of the MDGs, the right to water and intergenerational equity.

Description: Climate change demands new forms of environmental decision-making. The concept of adaptive management can contribute to this transformation. Adaptive management recognises the dynamism of natural systems and the importance of monitoring, review, and modification of projects, plans and activities in response to new understanding. As the dominant approach in natural resource management, it finds remarkably little explicit reflection in legal frameworks. Five key mechanisms are advocated by which to implement adaptive management in law: changing statutory objectives; requiring monitoring and evaluation of projects, plans and activities; staged approvals processes; conditional approvals and statutory triggers; and proportionate resource allocation models. Wider use of these flexibility mechanisms would enable environmental decision-making to respond to the impacts of climate change, while continuing to provide a level of legal certainty. Their uptake requires shifts in the institutional culture of administering agencies and the assumptions underpinning current approaches to environmental and resource management law.

Description: Groundwater law in India gives individual landowners overwhelming control over groundwater. This is inappropriate in a context where groundwater is now the main source of water for the realisation of the human right to water. This also fails to provide the basis for effective protection of groundwater at aquifer level. Increasing dependence on groundwater for all the main water uses has made the need for reforms of the legal framework increasingly acute. This article argues that groundwater law must be reconceived around a new set of principles that recognise the common nature of groundwater, its importance in realising the human right to water, the need for a governance framework starting at the local level and the need for a strong aquifer protection regime. The proposed new framework is then examined in the context of the Groundwater Model Bill, 2011 that reflects in large part this new framework.

Description: Compliance is a precondition for a regulatory system to be effective. This article analyses the drivers behind non-compliance and ways of enhancing compliance by empirically investigating the assumptions of compliance theories in the regulation of biodiversity conservation in private forests in Finland. The article shows that institutional factors, such as the characteristics of the decision-making procedure and the roles professional forest organisations, as well as market pressure on large corporate actors, explain to a large extent the identified low level of non-compliance. Knowledge, information and coordination are identified as the most important bottlenecks in the enhancing the implementation of regulation on habitat conservation. We propose the following combination for the promotion of compliance: building on a cooperative strategy by improving the knowledge base and sharing; following a responsive regulation strategy by maintaining existing deterrence tools; and applying true smart regulation through more ambitious institutional arrangements for engagement with new third parties.

Description: The heat pump market in the UK has grown rapidly over the last few years. Performance analyses of vertical ground-loop heat exchanger configurations have been widely carried out using both numerical modelling and experiments. However, research findings and design recommendations on horizontal slinky-loop and vertical slinky-loop heat exchangers are far fewer compared with those for vertical ground-loop heat exchanger configurations, especially where the long-term operation of the systems is concerned. The paper presents the results obtained from a numerical simulation for the horizontal slinky-loop and vertical slinky-loop heat exchangers of a ground-source heat pump system. A three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model was developed to study the thermal performance of various heat exchanger configurations. The influence of the loop pitch (loop spacing) and the depth of a vertical slinky-loop installation were investigated and the thermal performance and excavation work required for the horizontal and vertical slinky-loop heat exchangers were compared. The influence of the installation depth for vertical slinky-loop configurations was also investigated. The results of this study show that the influence of the installation depth of the vertical slinky-loop heat exchanger on the thermal performance of the system is small. The maximum difference in the thermal performance between the vertical and horizontal slinky-loop heat exchangers with the same loop diameter and loop pitch is less than 5%.

Description: This article investigates the yearly operation of a building-integrated micro-cogeneration system through transient simulations; both energy and economic performance of the proposed system are analyzed and compared with those of a conventional system based on separate energy production in order to assess the potential savings. The energy comparison is carried out in terms of primary energy with respect to the specific Italian electricity mix; the economic analysis is performed by considering both the operating and capital costs, with the energy unit costs as well as the incentives for supporting the cogeneration technology evaluated according to the Italian scenario.

Description: An atrium is a great glassed volume on a building that allows the light to enter within it. Its border location between indoor and outdoor implies that the environmental conditions like solar radiation, ventilation and heat energy appear intensified, turning them into spaces with a great environmental potential. However, in Santiago, these spaces have been designed imitating the aesthetic of buildings suited for colder climates. This has resulted in the fact that atrium buildings are often known by their low comfort standards and excessive cooling demands. The aim of this article is to answer in which way some design considerations on atrium buildings can maximize their energy saving potential in the Mediterranean climate of Santiago Chile. This is carried out with software Tas, which allows us to simulate the effect on thermal demand over a theoretical atrium building when changing three glazing types, three ventilation regimes and three solar protections forms; resulting in 27 iterations that reveal the more environmentally efficient combinations.

Description: Compared with the traditional refrigerants, a solar ejector cooling system using R236fa was developed. Based on the established computation model, the operating performance of the ejector cooling system was simulated. Combined with the numerical computation, an experimental study on the system using R236fa, R141b and R123 was carried out. The experimental conditions were evaporator temperature (5–10°C), condenser temperature (30–36°C) and generator temperature (82–94°C). It was found that with refrigerant R236fa the optimum Coefficient of Performance (COP) (=0.413) of the ejector cooling system and the optimum overall COP (=0.243) of the solar ejector cooling system could be obtained.

Description: Finite-time thermodynamics is applied to establish a real intercooled regenerated gas turbine cogeneration plant model in Part 1 of this article and the profit rate performance of the plant is researched using finite-time exergoeconomic analysis. In this part, the optimization of finite-time exergoeconomic performance of the plant is performed by optimizing the intercooling pressure ratio and the heat conductance distributions among the hot-, cold- and consumer-side heat exchangers, the intercooler and the regenerator together, and it is found that the optimal heat conductance distribution of the regenerator is zero. When the heat conductance distribution of the regenerator is fixed, the results show that there exists an optimal intercooling pressure ratio and a group of optimal heat conductance distributions among the other four heat exchangers, which leads to a maximum dimensionless profit rate for the fixed total pressure ratio. When the total pressure ratio is variable, a double-maximum dimensionless profit rate is obtained. The characteristics of the double-maximum dimensionless profit rate, the corresponding exergetic efficiency, heat conductance distributions and total pressure ratio versus some main design parameters are analyzed in detail. Finally, it is found that the dimensionless profit rate has a thrice-maximum value with respect to the thermal capacitance rate matching between the working fluid and the heat reservoir.

Description: An analysis of the effects that groundwater flow has on the thermal regime created by a ground source energy system is presented. The change in the development of the sub-surface thermal regime caused by a groundwater flow across a site, relative to a scenario where groundwater flow does not exist, is examined. Analysis is performed using bespoke finite-element formulations of both single- and multi-borehole systems. The results of this work show that even a modest groundwater flow across a site can lead to a significant change in the development of the sub-surface thermal regime.

Description: The main purpose of this paper is to present an evaluation of the in-use energy performance of the Richard Feilden House student accommodation at Queen Mary University, London, UK. The building was completed and occupied in October 2007 and the study was conducted over a 2-year period (January 2008–December 2009). Analysis of the energy audit carried out as part of the study is presented in this paper. The findings suggest that the energy performance of the Richard Feilden House student accommodation is in accordance with its design intent and better than the Good Practice Benchmarks. High levels of insulation, thermal mass, ventilation heat recovery, decentralised electric heating, a greater reliance on internal heat gains for space heating and a proactive building management approach have contributed to this success. However, strategies similar to those adopted by the Passivhaus Standards will be required if future targets of low-carbon buildings are to be met. Currently, there is limited knowledge on the in-use energy performance of student housing in the UK, and while the findings from this study can be helpful for benchmark comparison, more such studies of this building types in the UK are required.

Description: A re-analysis of the ‘tree-shaped network’ constructal method for triangular-shaped electronics is presented. The high effective conduction channel distribution has been re-optimized by using a triangular elemental area, without the premise that the new-order assembly construct must be assembled by the optimized last-order construct. A more optimal construct with triangular elemental area is obtained, and when the thermal conductivity and the proportion of the two heat conduction materials are constants, the limit of the minimum heat resistance with the triangular elemental area is derived. All these conclusions can be used as a guide for engineering applications.

Description: Rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems can be readily deployed on industrial halls with a relatively large rooftop area. The feed-in tariff above the base price of electricity is offered in many countries to subsidize the high initial investment of PV systems. To fully capitalize the benefit of the feed-in tariff, the investigation of the actual performance of PV systems under case-specific conditions is very important. With building energy simulation, this paper explores the cost–benefit of implementing PV systems of different capacities for a few different cases of industrial halls. The impact of various economic parameters is also investigated.

Description: Recently, the Palestinian energy authority has approved a renewable energy policy to resolve the electricity problem caused by the Palestinian-Israeli energy dispute. Based on this, clear technical aspects in regards to renewable energy systems must enforced. In this research, a renewable energy system consisting of a PV and a wind energy source is proposed to be connected to Nablus city electricity grid. The proposed system is optimally designed taking into consideration maximum system productivity and inverter size. Two evaluating factors are used to optimally choose the configuration of the proposed system namely final yield factor (FY) and capacity factor (CF). As for the inverter, a liner programming optimization is performed to find out the optimum inverter sizing ratio (the rated power of the energy source to the rated power of the inverter). The results show that the use of PV energy sources is more feasible as compared to wind energy sources in Nablus. Therefore, a grid-connected system consisting of PV array only as an energy source is recommended. Moreover, the optimum sizing ratio of the inverter in the proposed system is 1.42.

Description: In the present work, a computational fluid dynamics analysis has been carried out for analysing heat transfer from a longitudinal fin with step change. For the aforementioned problem, heat is transferred by conduction through the fin along its length and dissipated from the fin surface via natural convection to the ambient and thermal radiation to the surrounding. For a given volume or mass, the total amount of heat dissipated from the fin surface, fin effectiveness and fin efficiency have been determined for two novel fin profiles and the results have been compared with that of conventional rectangular fin (CRF). Numerical calculations have been carried out for five different cases. It has been concluded that novel fin configurations dissipate more heat and produce higher fin efficiency than the CRF profile. The rectangular fin with single-step change has been found to be the most efficient fin profile in terms of maximum heat loss and fin efficiency. The optimum fin dissipated ~3.4% more heat and provided 2% higher efficiency than the CRF profile. Some recommendations have been made about the potential application areas of proposed fin configurations.

Description: In the present study, energetic and exergetic analyses of a transcritical nitrous oxide (N 2 O) heat pump cycle are carried out on the basis of the optimization of discharge pressure. A simulation code was developed to study cycle performances for the given design and operating parameters. This code was integrated with the thermodynamic property subroutine ‘N 2 OPROP’ to estimate the thermodynamic properties of N 2 O in subcritical and supercritical regions. Variation trends of optimal parameters for an N 2 O system are similar to those of a CO 2 system. However, the N 2 O cycle exhibits higher cooling COP, lower compressor pressure ratio and lower discharge pressure and temperature, and higher second-law efficiency than those of CO 2 -based systems. An N 2 O system is inferior in terms of volumetric cooling capacity compared with a transcritical CO 2 system. The maximum exergy loss is observed in the throttle valve (expansion valve) as in the case of a CO 2 transcritical system due to low critical temperature.

Description: Double-skin façades (DSF) are considered an innovative energy efficient technique that gained an increasing interest worldwide. The aim of this article is to perform a parametric study for the DSFs’ configuration in hot climatic conditions. The parameters under investigation are the ventilation rate, the shading requirements and the cavity dimensions. A newly erected building with surface area of 18 500 m 2 is considered as the basis for the parametric study. The building is monitored and simulated using Energy Plus. The parametric analysis showed that the ventilation rate in the DSFs’ configuration is of a major importance especially during the cooling season. The lack of adequate ventilation increases the cooling demands and deteriorates the DSF's effectiveness. Finally, the integration of shading in the overall construction, especially the external ones, results to 24% annual energy conservation.

Description: The power and efficiency of the open regenerative cycle of an externally fired micro gas turbine power plant without blade cooling with pressure drop irreversibilities are optimized based on the model established using thermodynamic optimization theory in Part 1 of this article by adjusting the mass flow rate (or the distribution of pressure losses along the flow path). It is shown that there are optimal air mass flow rates (or the distribution of pressure losses along the flow path) which maximize the net power output, and the maximum has an additional maximum with respect to the compressor pressure ratio. When the optimization is performed with the constraints of the fixed fuel flow and the plant size, the net power output and the thermal conversion efficiency of the cycle can be maximized again by properly allocating the fixed flow area among the compressor inlet and the power turbine outlet. The numerical examples show the effects of the design parameters on the power output and heat conversion efficiency and that both the power output and conversion efficiency increase with the increase in the effectiveness of the regenerator, which is different from the open cycle regenerator gas turbine power plant.

Description: Produced water is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds and the largest volume of by-product generated during oil and gas recovery operations. The potential of oilfield produced water to be a source of fresh water for water-stressed oil-producing countries and the increasing environmental concerns in addition to stringent legislations on produced water discharge into the environment have made produced water management a significant part of the oil and gas business. This article reviews current technologies for the management of produced water, examines how electrochemical techniques may be used in these areas and compares the prospects for future development. It suggests that treatment technologies based on electrochemistry could be the future of produced water management, since produced water is a potential electrolyte because it has a relatively good conductivity. It also explains that by applying photoelectrochemistry, water electrolysis, fuel cell and electrodeposition, electrochemical engineering could achieve energy storage, production of clean water and recovery of valuable metals from produced water with minimal or no negative impact on the environment.

Description: Cities consume the vast majority of global energy and, therefore, are major contributors of worldwide CO 2 and greenhouse gas emissions. Energy use is chiefly driven by how electricity is produced, how energy is utilized within buildings and how people and materials are moved around a city. Thus, many cities today are committed to increasing the energy efficiency of buildings and the fraction of renewables in energy budgets. However, quantitative data on energy performance and costs are rarely available, making it difficult for cities to effectively evaluate which energy-saving concepts work today and which will work best in the future. This article contributes to the analysis of urban energy performance through a detailed study of three urban case studies. The German case studies cover a medium-sized city (Ludwigsburg) and two city quarters under development (Munich) as well as a recently built (Ostfildern). Although in all cases, solar technologies have the highest potential for decentral renewable supply, the main renewable sources used are biomass and deep geothermal energy, the main reason being today's cost-effectiveness. The Munich case study showed that deep geothermal energy can produce renewable heat at less cost and emissions than biomass or conventional fuels, but there is no renewable contribution to the electricity demand. The 350 ha development will rely on large-scale photovoltaic (PV) integration for a renewable electricity contribution. In the low energy building quarter of Ostfildern, a biomass cogeneration plant covers 80% of the heating and 35% of the electricity consumption. Another 45% of the electricity consumption could be theoretically covered by rooftop PV. The monitoring results show that even on a city quarter scale, it is very difficult to achieve a 100% renewable supply of heating and electricity, if the consumption levels stay at current levels.

Description: Medium temperature solar thermal applications have received remarkable interest in the recent years in both residential and industrial sectors. Solar concentrating systems can serve properly such applications with a temperature range of 80–250°C, taking advantage of their sun light focusing characteristic and high thermal and optical performance. Improvements and developments in the field of medium temperature solar thermal concentrators over the last 6 years are reviewed and analyzed in this article. Different types of solar thermal concentrators are examined, and a critical comparison among different concentrators is carried out based on the performance and the applicability. The most successful solar thermal applications are also presented along with the recent developments in sun-tracking technologies. It has been shown that the choice and design of the optimal concentrating system is largely dependent on the specific characteristics and nature of each application.

Description: Stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) systems are designed to operate independently from the electric utility grid, and are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC electrical loads. Generally, components in the stand-alone system are in discrete form; therefore, the number of components, costs and power losses are higher. This article presents an approach to model and simulate 1.12 kW integrated maximum power point tracking charge controller and inverter. MATLAB/Simulink software is used in the implementation of system modeling and simulation in order to simulate and predict the behavior of the real stand-alone PV system.

Description: This paper focuses on the research methods and steps involved in carrying out studies on different types of carbon footprints. Furthermore, a comparative study of different carbon footprint assessment standards was carried out to identify their similarities, differences and deficiencies. Goals, principles, research boundaries, calculation methods, data selection and other aspects of organizations footprint and product carbon footprint were analysed, respectively. Organizations carbon footprint assessment standards—ISO14064 and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) protocol and product carbon footprint assessment standards—PAS2050, TSQ0010, ISO14047 and Product and Supply Chain GHG Protocol were analysed comparatively. The selection of GHG, system settings, quantification and carbon footprint, selection of date and treatment of specific emissions are the most important part of the study of the carbon footprint and assessment standards, especially for organizations and products. Guidelines had been made on these issues from existing assessment standards, but further improvement is still needed.

Description: Water management is a critical issue in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), and it is normally achieved through the modification of surface wettability condition for the cell components. In this study, superhydrophobic surface-coating materials were developed and the gas flow channel surfaces were modified for superhydrophobic surface property with small sliding angles (SAs). The coated surface characteristics were measured, including static contact angle (CA), SA and CA hysteresis as well as surface geometrical properties. The flow characteristics through such surface-coated channels were measured, and comparison was made with hydrophilic channels and channels coated with poly(tetrafluoroethylene), a commonly used surface-coating agent in PEMFCs. It was found that the presently modified superhydrophobic flow channels yield the lowest resistance to the two-phase flow; and both the mechanical and thermal stabilities of the attained superhydrophobicity for the coated surfaces were also investigated. It was demonstrated experimentally that such coated flow channels result in improved PEMFC performance due to improved water management.

Description: Energy consumed in the building field accounts for 30–40% of social energy consumption in the entire world. The energy used in office-educational buildings, especially in developed countries, takes up a large proportion, because of the high occupant density, long running time and high brightness and comfort requirement. This research aims at predicting the renovation potential for office-educational building in the energy-saving aspect. One typical existing educational building in the UK has been chosen as the research object; EnergyPlus computer model, which accurately reflects the building style, material, structures and Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning system is established. After the simulation of energy performance and carbon emission of the original building, some insulation measures and renewable technologies (photovoltaics, solar thermal etc.) have been added as the renovation method. Then, theoretical calculation and computer simulation about the effect of the renovations above have been conducted to reflect the improvement. Carbon-saving effects of renovation methods were compared and analyzed. Only 2.2% of carbon emissions can be reduced by improving the air-tightness of the building and the U -value of windows, but great carbon saving achieved by adding renewable devices. About 40.8% of the carbon emissions reduced due to the application of all the renovation methods. The result of this study will provide some critical references for the choosing and prediction of renovation methods in the energy-saving field in the UK.

Description: Offshore oil and gas production in Brazil is one of drivers of the domestic economy and is expected to grow significantly in the coming years, especially with the recent discoveries in the subsalt layer. Regulatory authorities have an important role to assure that companies continually assess and improve their procedures for operational, occupational and environmental safety. In Brazil, the National Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency, Brazilian Navy, Ministry of Labour and Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources oversee offshore oil and gas exploration and production. This article aims to analyse the overlap among these authorities related to offshore oil and gas exploration and production in Brazil, with focus on drilling and production activities. Mechanisms for integrated action are proposed, including a new macro safety regulation framework and the establishment of a safety commission and operational committees focused on specific activities. The data and conclusions may help Brazil and other countries in their planning or review of offshore regulations.

Description: Global demand for internationally traded oil and gas is increasing. In order to meet this increasing demand, oil and gas transportation, including by cross-border pipeline, is clearly critical. This article examines risk factors associated with cross-border oil and gas pipelines and will argue that the likelihood and consequence of risk could be greatly reduced if certain actions are taken at the international and state (policy) level and at the pipeline company level. Fifty-five cross-border pipelines (in development and operational) are examined to provide evidence for sources of risk based upon concrete case studies. The article will first explore two of the most acute geographical constraints encountered when trying to secure supplies of oil and gas: maritime ‘chokepoints' and the movement of production from landlocked countries via cross-border pipelines. These constraints reveal deficiencies in existing public international law—a key source of state-to-state risk to cross-border pipelines. The article will then examine other sources of risk (seven in total) within a comprehensive analytical framework. The various sources of risk identified are categorized as either internal (relating to enterprise risk management deficiencies in the pipeline company) or external (relating to the company's interface with host governments, commercial counterparties, local people and communities or hostile third parties) and ranked. The article further examines the dynamics of risk allocation within a government-to-government, government-to-company, company-to-commercial-counterparty and company-to-local community context. It will also examine risk factors during the two key stages of a pipeline project's life cycle (pre and post-completion). Recommendations will be offered on the development and negotiation of bespoke agreements to allocate state-to-state, state-to-company and commercial risk. Managing hostile third-party risk requires that measures are taken by public security forces in coordinattion with private (pipeline company) security and consistent with international security standards including the Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights. Other forms of external (community-based) risk require that pipeline companies rigorously adhere to applicable law and internal systems of enterprise risk management. At a minimum, these standards should include prevailing international environmental, safety and social standards as well as the UN Guidelines on Business and Human Rights.

Description: Brazil is one of the world’s leading petroleum province frontiers and is thus an interesting case for a close examination of the future role of the petroleum industry in the promotion of industrial development in emerging economies. A major instrument for accomplishing such industrial development is the establishment of minimum local content requirements in auctions granting exploration licences. The Brazilian National Petroleum Agency (ANP) has recently proposed changes to the country’s fiscal regime with regard to local content and unitization. These changes are aimed at harmonizing the local content requirements which would apply to two areas undergoing a unitization process. This article evaluates the possibility of making gains from the subadditivity of costs owing to unitization and how this possible windfall profit could be perceived by the ANP. The new local content methodology presented by the ANP was tested by us for a case study, which included an analysis of the process of unitizing two areas of the Brazilian pre-salt layer which were held under different fiscal regimes. Our simulation verified the potential existence of gains from cost subadditivity and demonstrated that these gains could contribute to a windfall profit tax without reducing the overall profitability of the project before unitization.

Description: The rising costs of oil products on the global market and increasing dependency on fossil fuels have become a concern for both governments and international bodies. Aside from calls to governments to move towards alternatives in the form of renewable energy, the impact of government financial support to businesses in the oil sector in the form of subsides has also come under criticism. Advocates for oil subsidy removal argue that these subsidies only divert much needed investment in development projects especially in the developing economies, to rich players in the oil sector. In January 2012, the Nigerian government therefore announced its policy to remove the subsidies attached to oil products. The announcement was received with wide public protests which the government sought to calm with a ‘Subsidy Reinvestment and Empowerment (SURE-P) programme’. This article considers the broad context of oil subsidy removal in Nigeria. It investigates the necessity behind the Nigerian government’s oil subsidy removal policy and evaluates the practical economy of oil subsidy removal in this developing and mono (oil) dependent economy.

Description: Nigerian transparency initiatives have been driven by public demands for better governance and disclosure of commercial dealings in the public and private sector. This is particularly so because most aspects of the Nigerian petroleum industry have hitherto been characterized by a lack of contract transparency and incomplete reporting, resulting in institutional challenges impeding Nigeria’s ability to derive the maximum benefit from the sector. A number of policies, which have evolved into regulations and statutes, are now having a profoundly positive effect on how business is done in the Nigerian petroleum sector. New statutes such as the Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Act (2007) and the Freedom of Information Act (2011) exemplify the vigorous commitment of the Nigerian government towards entrenching openness and accountability in the petroleum sector. However notwithstanding the gains from transparency initiatives, current events enquiring into shortfalls in the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation’s revenues continue to demonstrate the ongoing challenges faced by the Nigerian petroleum sector. The need to continue to bolster up our oversight laws and institutions as illustrated by this article therefore remains an important future objective.

Description: A primary function of an oil and gas joint operating agreement is to allocate liability between the parties in respect of the oil and gas rights that are governed thereby. Limitation of liability clauses in a joint operating agreement usually limit the operator’s liability for lost profits and lost production. Case law from the UK suggests that drafting clauses that limit recovery for specific losses, particularly for consequential damages, is not as straightforward as many in business or law might anticipate. An application of the case law to oil and gas joint operating agreements suggests that the limitation of liability clause may not exempt an operator from liability for loss of profits and loss of production if careful attention is not paid to the specific wording of the clause. This article examines the specific wording of the limitation of liability clause in the AIPN 2012 Model Form International Operating Agreement in light of the case law and suggests drafting tips and areas of concern that may assist negotiators in drafting clauses that successfully limit operator liability for loss of profits and loss of production.

Description: In recent years, Mozambique has attracted international attention with the prospect of vast mineral wealth offered by large-scale gas discoveries and the potential of its fledgling mining sector. However, the journey from protracted civil war through socialism to sustainable economic development is long and arduous and among its toughest challenges is the need to tackle a pernicious culture of corruption. An effective legal framework is clearly part of the solution and an extensive programme of law reform in this area, which started in 2011, remains ongoing in Mozambique. However, the last 10 years have seen little impact on corruption made by a succession of related legal changes. In this article, Samuel Levy and Cerys Williams consider the lessons that can be learned from a decade of legislative history and whether the current legal response to corruption has the ability to succeed where previous attempts failed.

Description: With international arbitrations plaguing the rest of Latin America, Colombia has become the new hot spot for petroleum investment due to its attractive foreign investment policies. Unfortunately, foreign investors are not the only ones who have taken advantage of this favourable climate; the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) have, along with the E&P companies, also taken advantage of the newly liberated and surging Colombian oil and gas sector. However, while the E&P companies are vying for production, FARC has instead used this surging sector to highlight their half-century old struggle against the incumbent Colombian government through increased attacks on the sector. The Transandino pipeline, for example, suffered 51 attacks in 2011, while overall attacks on Colombian pipelines were up 460 per cent in the first seven months of 2012. 1 Coincidentally, oil production in Colombia has nearly doubled since 2007, finally surpassing the 1 million barrel per day mark in December 2012. 2 As the Colombian oil and gas sector continues to grow by leaps and bounds, it is likely that FARC will continue to target this sector for its political attacks. The question facing foreign investors—and what this article proposes to answer—is, ‘what recourse is available in case my investment is attacked?’

Description: The Energy Act 2013 received royal assent in December 2013. It implements the Feed-in-Tariff Contracts for Difference (the CfD) which is set to become the primary support scheme for low carbon generation in the UK by 2017. The CfD will be in the form of a long-term contract between a low carbon generator and a counterparty which is a state-owned limited liability company (the CfD Counterparty). It is intended to remove long-term price risk for low carbon generators which sell electricity into the market, thereby stabilizing their revenues and reducing the cost of financing their projects. This article comments on the uncertainties currently faced by generators (or developers) of existing (or planned) electricity generation plants in the UK brought on by the implementation of the CfD regime.

Description: Angola is a country blessed with abundant natural resources, a resilient national spirit and other essential ingredients for a bright future. One lacking ingredient for such future is a robust and diversified economy supported by vibrant democratic institutions. While Angola has made significant strides in that direction since the end of its protracted civil war, it still has a considerable way to go. Economic development and political transparency go hand in hand and both require rigorous and equitable enforcement of sound laws. In this article, Professors Feijó and Nadorff describe and analyse the anti-corruption laws of Angola as well as its treaty obligations in this area. They conclude that Angola has adopted an adequate number of anti-corruption laws and technically met most of its international obligations. What it most lacks is effective enforcement of these laws. The authors suggest several short- and long-term priorities designed to transform Angola’s legislative transparency framework into practical reality.