ALBERT

Notes: Abstract With the discovery of the eukaryote nucleus, all living organisms were neatly divided into prokaryotes, which lacked a nucleus, and eukaryotes, which possessed it. As data derived directly from the genome became available, it was clear that prokaryotes were comprised of two groups, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. These were subsequently renamed at the new taxonomic level of Domain as Bacteria and Archaea, with the eukaryotes named as the Eucarya Domain. The interrelationships of the three Domains are still subject to discussion and evaluation, as is their monophyly. Further data, drawn from various protein sequences, suggest conflicting schemes, and resolution may not be straightforward. Additionally, Bacteria and Archaea as well as Eucarya are largely based on organisms already in culture. Investigation of the potentially enormous quantity of uncultured organisms in nature is likely to have as broad-ranging implications as the exploration of new protein sequences.

Notes: Abstract Comparative, quantitative biogeographic studies are revealing empirical patterns of interspecific variation in the sizes, shapes, boundaries, and internal structures of geographic ranges; these patterns promise to contribute to understanding the historical and ecological processes that influence the distributions of species. This review focuses on characteristics of ranges that appear to reflect the influences of environmental limiting factors and dispersal. Among organisms as a whole, range size varies by more than 12 orders of magnitude. Within genera, families, orders, and classes of plants and animals, range size often varies by several orders of magnitude, and this variation is associated with variation in body size, population density, dispersal mode, latitude, elevation, and depth (in marine systems). The shapes of ranges and the dynamic changes in range boundaries reflect the interacting influences of limiting environmental conditions (niche variables) and dispersal/extinction dynamics. These processes also presumably account for most of the internal structure of ranges: the spatial patterns and orders-of-magnitude of variation in the abundance of species among sites within their ranges. The results of this kind of "ecological biogeography"need to be integrated with the results of phylogenetic and paleoenvironmental approaches to "historical biogeography"so we can better understand the processes that have determined the geographic distributions of organisms.

Notes: Abstract Precise regulation of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) gene expression plays a crucial role in the control of the immune response. A major breakthrough in the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in MHC-II regulation has recently come from the study of patients that suffer from a primary immunodeficiency resulting from regulatory defects in MHC-II expression. A genetic complementation cloning approach has led to the isolation of CIITA and RFX5, two essential MHC-II gene transactivators. CIITA and RFX5 are mutated in these patients, and the wild-type genes are capable of correcting their defect in MHC-II expression. The identification of these regulatory factors has furthered our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate MHC-II genes. CIITA was found to be a non-DNA binding transactivator that functions as a molecular switch controlling both constitutive and inducible MHC-II expression. The finding that RFX5 is a subunit of the nuclear RFX-complex has confirmed that a deficiency in the binding of this complex is indeed the molecular basis for MHC-II deficiency in the majority of patients. Furthermore, the study of RFX has demonstrated that MHC-II promoter activity is dependent on the binding of higher-order complexes that are formed by highly specific cooperative binding interactions between certain MHC-II promoter-binding proteins. Two of these proteins belong to families of which the other members, although capable of binding to the same DNA motifs, are probably not directly involved in the control of MHC-II expression. Finally, the facts that CIITA and RFX5 are both essential and highly specific for MHC-II genes make possible novel strategies designed to achieve immunomodulation via transcriptional intervention.

Notes: Abstract Analysis of cytokine mRNA and protein in rheumatoid arthritis tissue revealed that many proinflammatory cytokines such as TNFalpha, IL-1, IL-6, GM-CSF, and chemokines such as IL-8 are abundant in all patients regardless of therapy. This is compensated to some degree by the increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and TGFbeta and cytokine inhibitors such as IL-1ra and soluble TNF-R. However, this upregulation in homeostatic regulatory mechanisms is not sufficient as these are unable to neutralize all the TNFalpha and IL-1 produced. In rheumatoid joint cell cultures that spontaneously produce IL-1, TNFalpha was the major dominant regulator of IL-1. Subsequently, other proinflammatory cytokines were also inhibited if TNFalpha was neutralized, leading to the new concept that the proinflammatory cytokines were linked in a network with TNFalpha at its apex. This led to the hypothesis that TNFalpha was of major importance in rheumatoid arthritis and was a therapeutic target. This hypothesis has been successfully tested in animal models, of, for example, collagen-induced arthritis, and these studies have provided the rationale for clinical trials of anti-TNFalpha therapy in patients with long-standing rheumatoid arthritis. Several clinical trials using a chimeric anti-TNFalpha antibody have shown marked clinical benefit, verifying the hypothesis that TNFalpha is of major importance in rheumatoid arthritis. Retreatment studies have also shown benefit in repeated relapses, indicating that the disease remains TNFalpha dependent. Overall these studies demonstrate that analysis of cytokine expression and regulation may yield effective therapeutic targets in inflammatory disease.

Notes: Abstract In contrast with the study of alphabeta T cells, that of gammadelta T cells is relatively recent and stems from the discovery of their rearranged genes, rather than from any knowledge of their biological function. Thus, experiments designed to characterize their specificity and function have drawn heavily on our knowledge of alphabeta T cells. During the past few years, many studies, especially with mice lacking either alphabeta or gammadelta T cells, have demonstrated that gammadelta T cells can contribute to immune competence, but they do so in a way that is distinct from alphabeta T cells. It is also evident that gammadelta T cells may not recognize antigen the same way as do alphabeta T cells. Analysis of three protein antigens-the murine MHC class II IEk, the nonclassical MHC T10/T22, and the Herpes virus glycoprotein gI-indicates that gammadelta T cell recognition does not require antigen processing and that the proteins are recognized directly. In all three cases, recognition by these T cell clones involves neither peptides bound to these proteins nor peptides derived from them. Moreover, a group of small phosphate-containing nonpeptide compounds derived from mycobacterial extracts has been found to stimulate a major population of human peripheral gammadelta T cells in a T cell receptor (TCR)-dependent manner. This indicates that gammadelta T cells can respond to ligands that are different from those of alphabeta T cells. Analysis of complementarity determining region (CDR3) length distributions of gamma and delta chains indicates that they are more similar to those of immunoglobulins than to TCR alpha and beta. This further supports the idea that gammadelta and alphabeta T cells recognize antigens differently and suggests that gammadelta T cells may be more like immunoglobulins in their recognition properties. gammadelta T cells share many cell surface proteins with alphabeta T cells and are able to secrete lymphokines and express cytolytic activities in response to antigenic stimulation. These, together with the results cited above, indicate that gammadelta T cells can mediate cellular immune functions without a requirement for antigen processing. Thus, pathogens, damaged tissues, or even B and T cells can be recognized directly, and cellular immune responses can be initiated without a requirement for antigen degradation or specialized antigen-presenting cells. This would give gammadelta T cells greater flexibility than the more classical type of alphabeta T cell-mediated cellular immunity.

Notes: Abstract The transcription factor NF-kappaB has attracted widespread attention among researchers in many fields based on the following: its unusual and rapid regulation, the wide range of genes that it controls, its central role in immunological processes, the complexity of its subunits, and its apparent involvement in several diseases. A primary level of control for NF-kappaB is through interactions with an inhibitor protein called IkappaB. Recent evidence confirms the existence of multiple forms of IkappaB that appear to regulate NF-kappaB by distinct mechanisms. NF-kappaB can be activated by exposure of cells to LPS or inflammatory cytokines such as TNF or IL-1, viral infection or expression of certain viral gene products, UV irradiation, B or T cell activation, and by other physiological and nonphysiological stimuli. Activation of NF-kappaB to move into the nucleus is controlled by the targeted phosphorylation and subsequent degradation of IkappaB. Exciting new research has elaborated several important and unexpected findings that explain mechanisms involved in the activation of NF-kappaB. In the nucleus, NF-kappaB dimers bind to target DNA elements and activate transcription of genes encoding proteins involved with immune or inflammation responses and with cell growth control. Recent data provide evidence that NF-kappaB is constitutively active in several cell types, potentially playing unexpected roles in regulation of gene expression. In addition to advances in describing the mechanisms of NF-kappaB activation, excitement in NF-kappaB research has been generated by the first report of a crystal structure for one form of NF-kappaB, the first gene knockout studies for different forms of NF-kappaB and of IkappaB, and the implications for therapies of diseases thought to involve the inappropriate activation of NF-kappaB.

Notes: Abstract This review discusses pharmaceuticals as social and cultural phenomena by following their "life cycle" from production, marketing, and prescription to distribution, purchasing, consumption, and finally their efficacy. Each phase has its own particular context, actors, and transactions and is characterized by different sets of values and ideas. The anthropology of pharmaceuticals is relevant to medical anthropology and health policy. It also touches the heart of general anthropology with its long-time interest in the concepts of culture vs nature, symbolization and social transformation, and its more recent concerns with the cultural construction of the body and processes of globalization and localization. The study of transactions and meanings of pharmaceuticals in diverse social settings provides a particularly appropriate empirical base for addressing these new theoretical issues.

Notes: Abstract This chapter reviews what is presently known about the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and examines the role that infant sleeping arrangements may play in reducing SIDS risks. Alongside sleep laboratory-based experimental evidence comparing bedsharing and solitary sleeping mother-infant pairs, an evolutionary and cross-cultural framework is used to argue that infant-parent cosleeping is biologically, psychologically, and socially the most appropriate context for the development of healthy infant sleep physiology. It is also the context within which potentially more optimal breastfeeding activities for both the mother and infant are most likely to emerge. A survey of cross-cultural data and laboratory findings suggest that where infant-parent cosleeping and breastfeeding are practiced in tandem in nonsmoking households, and are practiced by parents specifically to promote infant health, the chances of an infant dying from SIDS should be reduced.

Notes: Abstract Recent perspectives in anthropological research define a disaster as a process/event involving the combination of a potentially destructive agent(s) from the natural and/or technological environment and a population in a socially and technologically produced condition of vulnerability. From this basic understanding three general topical areas have developed: (a) a behavioral and organizational response approach, (b) a social change approach, and (c) a political economic/environmental approach, focusing on the historical-structural dimensions of vulnerability to hazards, particularly in the developing world. Applied anthropological contributions to disaster management are discussed as well as research on perception and assessment of hazard risk. The article closes with a discussion of potentials in hazard and disaster research for theory building in anthropology, particularly in issues of human-environment relations and sociocultural change.

Notes: In this professional memoir I trace my career and the changes that occurred after World War II in the biological anthropology studies of human populations. I describe my academic training at the University of New Mexico and Harvard University and my research training at the US Climatic Research Laboratory. During my academic career at The Pennsylvania State University, I directed two multidisciplinary research efforts as part of the International Biological Programme and Man in the Biosphere Program. These were the high-altitude studies in Nunoa, Peru, and the migration and modernization studies of Samoan communities. I describe my participation in the development of these international science programs as well as the effects on the discipline of biological anthropology. In conclusion, I reflect on the growth and development of biological anthropology, particularly in human population biology.

Notes: Abstract The 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act requires universities, museums, and federal agencies to inventory their archeological collections to prepare for the repatriation of skeletons to their Native American descendants. The loss of these collections will be a detriment to the study of North American osteology, but the inventory and repatriation process has increased the number of skeletons studied from about 30% to nearly 100%. The availability of funds stimulated by this law produced osteological data collection and systematization unprecedented in the history of osteology. The possibility of forming partnerships between Native Americans and osteologists has the potential of producing a vibrant future for North American osteology and the new bioarcheology.

Notes: Abstract This review discusses changes in Amazonian indigenous anthropology since the synthesis presented in the Handbook of South American Indians. The past few years have seen the emergence of an image of Amazonia characterized by a growing emphasis on the complexity of indigenous social formations and the ecological diversity of the region. This new image of society and nature is taking shape in a theoretical context characterized by the synergistic interaction between structural and historical approaches, by an attempt to go beyond monocausal explanatory models (whether naturalistic or culturalistic) in favor of a dialectical view of the relations between society and nature, and by hopes of a "new synthesis" that could integrate the knowledge accumulated in the fields of human ecology, social anthropology, archeology, and history.

Notes: Abstract Over the past decade anthropologists and epidemiologists have begun to move beyond the "benign neglect" that characterized their prior relationship. Some of the most important collaborations between these disciplines concern themes of culture change and stress, social stratification, and the unpacking of other social and cultural variables. Anthropologists have criticized and expanded epidemiological notions of risk and vulnerability. Multidisciplinary teams of anthropologists and epidemiologists have constructed new measures and used multiple methods to increase the validity of their results. Disputes about classification have also linked the two disciplines. Collaborative projects between anthropologists and epidemiologists are leading to more nuanced and accurate descriptions of human behavior and more appropriate and effective interventions. Epidemiological techniques and ideas are also being used for anthropological ends, because disease often spreads along the framework of social structure. These many forms of collaboration create the foundations of a cultural epidemiology.

Notes: Abstract This review describes some recent, unexpected findings concerning variation in spatial language across cultures, and places them in the context of the general anthropology of space on the one hand, and theories of spatial cognition in the cognitive sciences on the other. There has been much concern with the symbolism of space in anthropological writings, but little on concepts of space in practical activities. This neglect of everyday spatial notions may be due to unwitting ethnocentrism, the assumption in Western thinking generally that notions of space are universally of a single kind. Recent work shows that systems of spatial reckoning and description can in fact be quite divergent across cultures, linguistic differences correlating with distinct cognitive tendencies. This unexpected cultural variation raises interesting questions concerning the relation between cultural and linguistic concepts and the biological foundations of cognition. It argues for more sophisticated models relating culture and cognition than we currently have available.

Notes: Abstract Recent advances in computational physics allow numerical simulation of three-dimensional complex flows through arbitrarily complex geometries. Moreover, new technology for noninvasive imaging provides detailed three-dimensional tomographic reconstructions of porous rocks with a resolution approaching one micron. These two innovations are leading to new understanding of how the microscopic complexity of natural porous media influences fluid transport at a larger, macroscopic scale. This review describes new insights concerning single-phase and multiphase porous flow derived from numerical simulation. In particular, results concerning scaling relations between macroscopic parameters, the scale dependence of transport properties, and viscous coupling in multicomponent flow are emphasized.

Notes: Abstract A quantitative model, based on hadronic physics and Monte Carlo cascading, is described and applied to heavy ion collisions at BNL-AGS energies (~ 14 GeV/u). The model was found to be in excellent agreement with particle spectra where data previously existed, for Si beams, and was able to successfully predict the spectra where data were initially absent, for Au beams. For Si + Au collisions, baryon densities of three or four times the normal nuclear matter density (rho0) are seen in the theory, whereas for Au + Au collisions, matter at densities up to 10 rho0 is anticipated. The possibility that unusual states of matter may be created by the Au beams and potential signatures for its observation are considered.

Notes: Abstract The demand for instrumentation capable of detecting and triggering on ionizing radiation in high-rate particle physics experiments at colliding-beam and fixed-target accelerator facilities and for spacecraft-borne instrumentation in astrophysics has led to the development of new tracking technologies. One of these, scintillating fiber tracking, combines the speed and efficiency of a scintillation detector with the flexibility and hermeticity afforded by fiber technology. A paradigm for a fiber-tracking detector that utilizes organic plastic fibers read out with visible-light photon counters is presented and critiqued. Alternate strategies are considered, and an overview of recent experimental applications is provided.

Notes: Abstract Recent data from the Tevatron collider have revealed that the production rate of prompt charmonium at large transverse momentum is orders of magnitude larger than the best theories of a few years ago had predicted. These surprising results can be understood by taking into account two recent developments that have dramatically revised the theoretical description of heavy-quarkonium production. The first is the realization that fragmentation must dominate at large transverse momentum, which implies that most charmonium in this kinematic region is produced by the hadronization of individual high-pT partons. The second is the development of a factorization formalism for quarkonium production based on nonrelativistic QCD that allows the formation of charmonium from color-octet pairs to be treated systematically. This review summarizes these theoretical developments and their implications for quarkonium production in high-energy colliders.

Notes: Abstract We review recent experimental results on lifetimes and on hadronic decays of hadrons that contain c and b quarks. The theoretical implications of these results are also considered. An understanding of hadronic decays of heavy quarks is required to interpret the charge-parity-violating asymmetries in B decays that will be observed in experiments planned for the near future.

Notes: Abstract This review discusses the experimental and theoretical status of various parton-model sum rules. The basis of the sum rules in perturbative quantum chromodynamics is discussed. Their use in extracting the value of the strong coupling constant is evaluated, and the failure of the naive version of some of these sum rules is assessed.

Notes: Abstract This review discusses the organization and regulation of the glycolytic pathway in plants and compares and contrasts plant and nonplant glycolysis. Plant glycolysis exists both in the cytosol and plastid, and the parallel reactions are catalyzed by distinct nuclear-encoded isozymes. Cytosolic glycolysis is a complex network containing alternative enzymatic reactions. Two alternate cytosolic reactions enhance the pathway's ATP yield through the use of pyrophosphate in place of ATP. The cytosolic glycolytic network may provide an essential metabolic flexibility that facilitates plant development and acclimation to environmental stress. The regulation of plant glycolytic flux is assessed, with a focus on the fine control of enzymes involved in the metabolism of fructose-6-phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate. Plant and nonplant glycolysis are regulated from the "bottom up" and "top down," respectively. Research on tissue- and developmental-specific isozymes of plant glycolytic enzymes is summarized. Potential pitfalls associated with studies of glycolytic enzymes are considered. Some glycolytic enzymes may be multifunctional proteins involved in processes other than carbohydrate metabolism.

Notes: Abstract Since plant phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) was last reviewed in the Annual Review of Plant Physiology over a decade ago (O'Leary 1982), significant advances have been made in our knowledge of this oligomeric, cytosolic enzyme. This review highlights this exciting progress in plant PEPC research by focusing on the three major areas of recent investigation: the enzymology of the protein; its posttranslational regulation by reversible protein phosphorylation and opposing metabolite effectors; and the structure, expression, and molecular evolution of the nuclear PEPC genes. It is hoped that the next ten years will be equally enlightening, especially with respect to the three-dimensional structure of the plant enzyme, the molecular analysis of its highly regulated protein-Ser/Thr kinase, and the elucidation of its associated signal-transduction pathways in various plant cell types.

Notes: Abstract The generation and analysis of plant chimeras and other genetic mosaics have been used to deduce patterns of cell division and cell fate during plant development and to demonstrate the existence of clonally distinct cell lineages in the shoot meristems of higher plants. Cells derived from these lineages do not have fixed developmental fates but rely on positional information to determine their patterns of division and differentiation. Chimeras with cells that differ genetically for specific developmental processes have been experimentally generated by a variety of methods. This review focuses on studies of intercellular interactions during plant development as well as of the coordination of cells during meristem function and organogenesis. Recent experiments combining mosaic analysis with molecular analysis of developmental mutants have begun to shed light on the nature of the signals involved in these processes and the mechanisms by which they are transmitted and received among cells.

Notes: Abstract The cytochrome b6f complex functions in oxygenic photosynthetic membranes as the redox link between the photosynthetic reaction center complexes II and I and also functions in proton translocation. It is an ideal integral membrane protein complex in which to study structure and function because of the existence of a large amount of primary sequence data, purified complex, the emergence of structures, and the ability of flash kinetic spectroscopy to assay function in a readily accessible ms-100 mus time domain. The redox active polypeptides are cytochromes f and b6 (organelle encoded) and the Rieske iron-sulfur protein (nuclear encoded) in a mol wt = 210,000 dimeric complex that is believed to contain 22-24 transmembrane helices. The high resolution structure of the lumen-side domain of cytochrome f shows it to be an elongate (75 A long) mostly beta-strand, two-domain protein, with the N-terminal alpha-amino group as orthogonal heme ligand and an internal linear 11-A bound water chain. An unusual electron transfer event, the oxidant-induced reduction of a significant fraction of the p (lumen)-side cytochrome b heme by plastosemiquinone indicates that the electron transfer pathway in the b6f complex can be described by a version of the Q-cycle mechanism, originally proposed to describe similar processes in the mitochondrial and bacterial bc1 complexes.

Notes: Abstract Lipid-transfer proteins (LTP) are basic, 9-kDa proteins present in high amounts (as much as 4% of the total soluble proteinss) in higher plants. LTPs can enhance the in vitro transfer of phospholipids between membranes and can bind acyl chains. On the basis of these properties, LTPs were thought to participate in membrane biogenesis and regulation of the intracellular fatty acid pools. However, the isolation of several cDNAs and genes revealed the presence of a signal peptide indicating that LTPs could enter the secretory pathway. They were found to be secreted and located in the cell wall. Thus, novel roles were suggested for plant LTPs: participation in cutin formation, embryogenesis, defense reactions against phytopathogens, symbiosis, and the adaptation of plants to various environmental conditions. The validity of these suggestions needs to be determined, in the hope that they will elucidate the role of this puzzling family of plant proteins.

Notes: FH Bormann, based on personal experience, recalls 55 years of association with the field of ecology, including the forces that led him into the field, research, development of the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study, and clashes between ecology, policy, and politics. He concludes with thoughts on humankind's search for the quality of life and sustainability.

Notes: An analysis of the forces that have shaped energy and energy-related environmental policies is presented through the eyes of an active participant in their evolution over the past 53 years. The problem of self-interest in taking energy and environmental policy positions is addressed candidly. The "energy crisis" is cited as an example. Its credibility depended on excessive demand projections, coupled with erroneous assessments of US and global hydrocarbon resources and of prospects for making these resources economically recoverable through technology advances. Many energy crisis proponents benefited from the misguided government response and from the large investments in uneconomic synthetic fuel technologies. Today, proponents of catastrophic anthropogenic climate change, again claiming scientific consensus, threaten to create even greater energy market distortions at large social and economic costs. The author traces his conversion to energy contrarian to the general failure of consensus and to his own misjudgments in these critical policy areas.

Notes: Abstract The term industrial ecology was conceived to suggest that industrial activity can be thought of and approached in much the same way as a biological ecosystem and that in its ideal form it would strive toward integration of activities and cyclization of resources, as do natural ecosystems. Beyond this attractive but fuzzy notion, little has been done to explore the usefulness of the analogy. This paper examines the structural framework of biological ecology and the tools used for its study, and it demonstrates that many aspects of biological organisms and ecosystems (for example, food webs, engineering activities, community development) do have parallels in industrial organisms and ecosystems. Some of the tools of biological ecology appear to be applicable to industrial ecology, and vice versa. In a world in which no biological ecosystem is free of human influence and no industrial ecosystem is free of biological influence, it is appropriate to abandon the artificial division between the two frameworks and develop a new synthesis-Earth system ecology-as the logical construct for all of Earth's ecosystems.

Notes: Abstract This review explores the potential energy, soil, and water constraints on highly productive agricultural systems. It focuses on the process of agricultural intensification during the past 50 years, and it shows that multiple constraints-as opposed to a single constraint, such as energy-are needed to assess the future sustainability of intensive agricultural production. Recent studies documenting changes in total factor productivity based on long-term experimental trials and field surveys are discussed in detail. The results of these studies are worrisome; they indicate that degradation in soil quality and in the overall natural resource base may threaten the long-run viability of several of the world's most intensive agricultural systems. Other studies are reviewed that support a more optimistic view of resource availability and the ability of improved technology and management to overcome these physical constraints. However, the combined evidence suggests that the increase in agricultural prices required to induce the necessary changes in technology could be devastating to low-income households. Most of the world's poor consume more agricultural output than they produce, and they spend up to 80% of their incomes on food.

Notes: Abstract Although the loss of good health is inherently unpredictable, human behavior at the individual and societal levels profoundly influences the incidence and evolution of disease. In this review, we define the human epidemiological environment and describe key biophysical, economic, sociocultural, and political factors that shape it. The potential impact upon the epidemiological environment of biophysical aspects of global change-changes in the size, mobility, and geographic distribution of the human population; land conversion; agricultural intensification; and climate change-is then examined. Human vulnerability to disease is strongly and deleteriously influenced by many of these ongoing, intensifying alterations. We then examine threats to human defenses against disease, including immune suppression, loss of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge, and the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Effective responses will require greatly enhanced attention by and collaboration among experts in diverse academic disciplines, in the private sector, and in government worldwide.

Notes: Abstract The field of restoration ecology represents an emerging synthesis of ecological theory and concern about human impact on the natural world. Restoration ecology can be viewed as the study of how to repair anthropogenic damage to the integrity of ecological systems. However, attempts to repair ecological damage should not diminish protection of existing healthy ecosystems. Restoration ecology allows for the testing of ecological theories; however, restoration ecology is not limited to, nor is it a subdiscipline of, the field of ecology. Restoration ecology requires approaches that integrate ecology and environmental sciences, economics, sociology, and politics. This review illustrates these points by providing a conceptual map of the origin, present practices, and future directions of the field.

Notes: Abstract Increases in greenhouse gas emissions and concerns about potential global climate change are stimulating worldwide interest in the feasibility of capture, disposal, and utilization of CO2 from large energy systems. Technology to capture CO2 from power plant flue gas, while energy intensive and expensive, is commercially available. Capture from advanced combustion systems offers a further opportunity to significantly reduce cost and energy requirements of CO2 capture compared to that from today's pulverized coal power plants. No viable disposal options exist today for large quantities of captured CO2. Ocean disposal of CO2 and geological storage, especially in depleted oil and gas wells, are leading candidates. Although some niche utilization may occur, utilization seems unlikely to become a major sequestration option. Since CO2 capture and sequestration is a relatively expensive mitigation option, it can be regarded as an insurance policy. However, since CO2 mitigation options are few in number, continued research to reduce the costs of CO2 capture and to develop feasible sequestration options is important.

Notes: Abstract This paper reviews and analyzes the major recent North American studies that have compared on an environmental basis the major options used to manage the materials that comprise municipal solid waste (MSW). The reviewed studies provide quantitative comparative information on one or more of the following environmental parameters: solid waste output, energy use, and releases of pollutants to the air and water. The review finds that all of the studies support the following conclusions: Systems based on recycled production plus recycling offer substantial system-wide or "life-cycle" environmental advantages over systems based on virgin production plus either incineration or landfilling, across all four parameters examined. Only when the material recovery or waste management activities are analyzed in isolation-which does not account for the system-wide consequences of choosing one system option over another-do the virgin material-based systems appear to offer advantages over recycled production plus recycling.

Notes: Abstract Growing urban transport congestion is a major cause of environmental problems, as well as delays. One may argue that this is a classic problem of externalities and can be readily corrected by means of the price mechanism. However, although interest is increasing in pricing as an element in any solution, the answer is not so easy. Despite the falling cost of microelectronics, urban road pricing remains complex, expensive to administer, and politically controversial. Nevertheless, modeling exercises and limited practical experience suggest that most, if not all, of these problems can now be overcome and that road pricing may now be successfully implemented. But the continued opposition to road pricing makes consideration of the alternatives necessary. Indeed, both for political and economic reasons, road pricing appears much more likely to be successfully implemented as part of a package of measures than in isolation.

Notes: Abstract Global mobilization and dispersal of sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N) have been significantly increased by human activities. They are projected to increase even more in the future owing to growth in population and per-capita consumption of food and energy in the developing world, primarily Asia. Increased mobilization and distribution result in changes in precipitation acidity, ecosystem alkalinity and nutrient status, tropospheric and stratospheric ozone concentrations, and energy balance of the troposphere. Although increases in S and N mobilization cause increased environmental impacts, a leveling or decrease in mobilization does not result in a lessening of environmental impacts because of the accumulation of reactive S and N in environmental reservoirs. As S and N accumulate, ecosystems become saturated and S and N dispersal increases. Environmental impacts will only begin to lessen if mobilization rates decrease and as accumulated reactive S and N are converted to nonreactive forms or stored in long-term reservoirs.

Notes: Abstract The CO2 concentration of the atmosphere has increased by almost 30% since 1800. This increase is due largely to two factors: the combustion of fossil fuel and deforestation to create croplands and pastures. Deforestation results in a net flux of carbon to the atmosphere because forests contain 20-50 times more carbon per unit area than agricultural lands. In recent decades, the tropics have been the primary region of deforestation. The annual rate of CO2 released due to tropical deforestation during the early 1990s has been estimated at between 1.2 and 2.3 gigatons C. The range represents uncertainties about both the rates of deforestation and the amounts of carbon stored in different types of tropical forests at the time of cutting. An evaluation of the role of tropical regions in the global carbon budget must include both the carbon flux to the atmosphere due to deforestation and carbon accumulation, if any, in intact forests. In the early 1990s, the release of CO2 from tropical deforestation appears to have been mostly offset by CO2 uptake occurring elsewhere in the tropics, according to an analysis of recent trends in the atmospheric concentrations of O2 and N2. Interannual variations in climate and/or CO2 fertilization may have been responsible for the CO2 uptake in intact forests. These mechanisms are consistent with site-specific measurements of net carbon fluxes between tropical forests and the atmosphere, and with regional and global simulations using process-based biogeochemistry models.

Notes: Abstract This article discusses briefly the status of energy storage technologies and explores opportunities for their application in the rapidly changing US energy marketplace. Traditionally, electric utility energy storage has been used to store low-priced purchased or generated electric energy for later sale or use when energy cost would otherwise be much higher. But deregulation and restructuring in the electric industry, coupled with an expanding portfolio of storage alternatives, may lead to many new opportunities for energy storage, especially within the energy distribution infrastructure, and for maintaining or providing power quality at large customer sites. Small, modular, robust energy storage technologies could be used to solve a range of energy supply and infrastructure-related needs. This article provides quantitative evidence of utility-related energy storage status, benefits, and opportunities.

Notes: Abstract Attaining the ambient standard for tropospheric ozone has been difficult in many metropolitan areas, despite efforts to reduce anthropogenic sources of the ozone precursors, including the nitrogen oxides (NOx). Until recently, NOx emissions from biogenic sources in soils were not considered in simulations of air quality and emissions reductions scenarios, yet they may be significant, especially in agricultural regions where nitrogen fertilizers are applied. Soil NOx is produced primarily by microbial processes; production and emissions from soils are controlled by a suite of environmental variables, including inorganic nitrogen availability, water-filled pore space, and soil temperature. Agricultural management practices such as fertilization and irrigation affect these environmental variables and thus have the potential to dramatically alter soil NOx emissions. Although current models incorporate some of these variables, accurate regional estimation of soil NOx emissions requires modeling approaches that explicitly incorporate the spatial and temporal patterns of management practices, especially fertilization, as well as other environmental controlling variables such as water-filled pore space and soil temperature.

Notes: Abstract Resource polymorphism in vertebrates is generally underappreciated as a diversifying force and is probably more common than is currently recognized. Research across diverse taxa suggest they may play important roles in population divergence and speciation. They may involve various kinds of traits, including morphological and behavioral traits and those related to life history. Many of the evolutionary, ecological, and genetic mechanisms producing and maintaining resource polymorphisms are similar among phylogenetically distinct species. Although further studies are needed, the genetic basis may be simple, in some cases under the control of a single locus, with phenotypic plasticity playing a proximate role in some taxa. Divergent selection including either directional, disruptive, or frequency-dependent selection is important in their evolution. Generally, the invasion of "open" niches or underutilized resources requiring unique trophic characters and decreased interspecific competition have promoted the evolution of resource polymorphisms. Further investigations centered on their role in speciation, especially adaptive radiation, are likely to be fruitful.

Notes: Abstract Archaeologists are in the midst of restructuring their relationship with Native Americans. The legal, political, social, and intellectual ramifications of this process are reviewed to examine the fundamental changes occurring in the way archaeology is conducted in the Americas. Much of the impetus for this change resulted from the criticism of archaeology by Native Americans, which led to passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA). NAGPRA has indelibly changed how archaeologists will work in the United States. The issues raised by Native Americans about why and how archaeological research is conducted, however, go beyond NAGPRA to the paradigmatic basis of archaeology. Archaeologists will have new opportunities available to them if they work in partnership with Native Americans in studying the rich archaeological record in the Americas.

Notes: Abstract The household has emerged as a focus of archaeological inquiry over the past decade. This review summarizes issues raised by economic and feminist anthropologists about the meaning of the terms household and domestic and then considers research on household archaeology, craft specialization, and gender relevant to the study of the organization of domestic labor. It is argued that the common functional definition of the household as an adaptive mechanism reacting to environmental and social conditions underconceptualizes the household and renders its study unlikely to contribute to our understanding of economic and social processes in past societies. Studies of craft specialization and women's economic production that emphasize what members of the domestic group do and how that action is valued are more successful in demonstrating the dynamic interaction between household and society.

Notes: Abstract Although the temperature at the top of the lower mantle is well constrained by phase equilibrium data for the transformation of transition zone minerals to the denser perovskite polymorphs, the temperature distribution in the lower mantle is poorly known. Models depend strongly on the assumptions of the amount of internal heating and the viscosity profile. New melting data on iron to pressures of the outer core (2 Mbar) and the observed strong decrease of eutectic melting depression in the Fe-FeO-FeS system with increasing pressure, however, tightly constrain the temperature at the inner-core boundary to slightly less than 5000 K. This estimate can be reconciled with all recent static melting measurements on iron and lays within the uncertainty of shock temperature measurements. The resulting temperature at the core-mantle boundary of about 4000 K then requires a large temperature gradient at the bottom of the lower mantle of about 1500 K. Recent findings of the very high melting temperatures of the major lower-mantle materials Mg-Si-perovskite and magnesiowustite indicate that this increase in temperature does not cause melting in the lower mantle.

Notes: Abstract Changes of the isotopic composition of water within the water cycle provide a recognizable signature, relating such water to the different phases of the cycle. The isotope fractionations that accompany the evaporation from the ocean and other surface waters and the reverse process of rain formation account for the most notable changes. As a result, meteoric waters are depleted in the heavy isotopic species of H and O relative to ocean waters, whereas waters in evaporative systems such as lakes, plants, and soilwaters are relatively enriched. During the passage through the aquifers, the isotope composition of water is essentially a conservative property at ambient temperatures, but at elevated temperatures, interaction with the rock matrix may perturb the isotope composition. These changes of the isotope composition in atmospheric waters, surface water, soil, and groundwaters, as well as in the biosphere, are applied in the characterization of hydrological system as well as indicators of paleo-climatological conditions in proxy materials in climatic archives, such as ice, lake sediments, or organic materials.

Notes: Abstract Seismic anisotropy beneath continents is analyzed from shear-wave splitting recorded at more than 300 continental seismic stations. Anisotropy is found to be a ubiquitous property that is due to mantle deformation from past and present orogenic activity. The observed coherence with crustal deformation implies that the mantle plays a major, if not dominant, role in orogenies. No evidence is found for a continental asthenospheric decoupling zone, suggesting that continents are coupled to general mantle circulation.

Notes: Abstract Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in understanding the rheological properties of partially molten mantle rocks. Laboratory experiments demonstrate that a few percent of melt can have an unexpectedly large effect on viscosity both in the diffusional creep regime and in the dislocation creep regime. In both cases, the enhancement in creep rate is much larger than anticipated based on deformation models because melt wets at least a fraction of the grain boundaries. For diffusion creep, the wetted interfaces provide a rapid diffusion path that is not included in analyses based on melt distribution in isotropic melt-crystal systems. For dislocation creep, two points require consideration. First, even without a melt phase present, fine-grained samples deformed in the dislocation creep field flow a factor of ~10 faster than coarse-grained rocks due to contributions from grain boundary mechanisms to the deformation process. Second, melt has only a small effect on creep rate for coarse-grained rocks but has a relatively large effect for fine-grained samples. Thus, because olivine has only a limited number of slip systems, grain boundaries contribute significantly to deformation of fine-grained rocks in the dislocation creep regime, provided that deformation occurs near the transition between diffusional creep and dislocation creep. Based on laboratory measurements, this transition is expected to occur at a grain size of about 6 mm for a differential stress of 0.1 MPa. Therefore, under mantle conditions, even a few percent melt should reduce the viscosity by as much as a factor of 10. A broad range of problems related to deformation beneath mid-ocean ridges and in the mantle wedge above subducting slabs can now be addressed using experimentally determined rheologies for partially molten mantle rocks.

Notes: Abstract Earth-based stellar occultations probe the temperature, pressure, and number-density profiles of planetary atmospheres in the microbar range with a vertical resolution of a few kilometers. Depending on the occultation data available for a given body and other information, the technique also allows determination of local density variations, extinction by aerosols and molecules, rotation period and zonal winds, atmospheric composition, and the temporal and spatial variability of an atmosphere. A brief quantitative description of the interaction of starlight with a planetary atmosphere is presented, and observational techniques are discussed. Observational results through 1995 are presented for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Titan, Neptune, Triton, Pluto, and Charon.