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  • Articles  (10,717)
  • 1985-1989  (10,717)
  • 1965-1969
  • 1989  (10,717)
  • Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering  (10,717)
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  • Articles  (10,717)
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  • 1985-1989  (10,717)
  • 1965-1969
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  • 101
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 102
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A probabilistic risk assessment study has been undertaken in the French city of Lyons. The issue was to know whether it was justified to forbid hazardous material lorries in the city center and to divert them through the suburbs. Therefore, two routes, the City Center route and the Suburban route were compared. This paper describes the analysis and shows how the results were used in the decision-making process. It also lists the difficulties that are encountered when trying to incorporate formal risk analysis into actual decision-making processes. The risk analysis showed that rerouting is an effective option with respect to all criteria. The mathematical expectation of the number of deaths is divided by three, the reduction on the annual frequency of catastrophic accidents is even more important (about one order of magnitude for accidents involving more than 50 deaths). The spatial analysis proved that the risk was more evenly distributed along the Suburban route. However, the annual expected number of death is low: 0.5 in the worst case. So traditional decision-making approaches do not indicate the necessity of rerouting. Such a situation is believed to be typical for risk management of major hazards. In Lyons, the use of a very small risk aversion factor is sufficient to justify the rerouting option on a formal decision-aiding basis. This is rather unusual, but it is thought that the recognition of the importance of risk aversion by the decision-makers themselves is a very positive outcome from this study.
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  • 103
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The main impetus to the development of information about major industrial hazards in the European Community comes from the so-called Seveso Directive, which defines an information network and requires the generation and transmission of information as the basis for accident prevention and risk management. This important policy development, which calls for the formal identification and analysis of major hazards and the communication of risk information to members of the public, presents new opportunities and challenges to risk analysis and research in Europe. This paper briefly reviews the accidents that gave rise to the Directive and shaped its content, and then summarizes its requirements. The status of its implementation in the EC Member States is discussed, with special emphasis given to the comparison of safety analysis practices, the Major Accident Reporting System (MARS), and risk communication. Some new research directions stimulated by the Directive are identified.
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  • 104
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 105
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Risk Management and Hazardous Waste By Brian Wynne Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987 459 pp., $59.50 hb. Hazard Assessment of Chemicals, Vol. 5 Edited by Jitendra Saxena Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1987 440 pp., $59.50 hb. Pesticides: Minimizing the Risks Edited by Nancy N. Ragsdale and Ronald J. Kuhr Washington, D. C.: American Chemical Society, 1987 185 pp., $34.95 hb. Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: 10th Volume Edited by William J. Adams, Gary A. Chapman, and Wayne G. Landis Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication, 1988 580 pp., $64.00 hb. Silent Spring Revisited Edited by Gino J. Marco, Robert M. Hollingworth, and William Durham Washington, D. C.: American Chemical Society, 1987 214 pp., $29.95 hb. The Dilemma of Toxic Substance Regulation: How Overregulation Causes Underregulation at OSHA By John M. Mendelhoff Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1988 321 pp., $35.00 hb. Hazardous Materials Disposal: Siting and Management Edited by Manas Chatterji Brookfield, Vermont: Gower Publishing Co., 1987 331 pp., $59.50 hb. Guide to State Environmental Programs Edited by Deborah Hitchcock Jessup Washington, D. C.: The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1988 578 pp., $40.00 pb. Environmental Biotechnology: Reducing Risks from Environmental Chemicals through Biotechnology Edited by Gilbert S. Omenn; associate eds., Rita Colwell, A. M. Chakrabarty, Morris Levin, and Perry McCarty New York: Plenum Press, 1988 505 pp., $89.50 hg. Radioactivity and Nuclear Waste Disposal By Foo-Sun Lau New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987 615 pp., $144.00 hg. Managerial Decision Analysis By Danny Samson Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1988 745 pp., $43.95 hb.
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  • 106
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 107
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Parodi et al.(1) and Zeise et al.(2) found a surprising statistical correlation (or association) between acute toxicity and carcinogenic potency. In order to shed light on the questions of whether or not it is a causal correlation, and whether or not it is a statistical or tautological artifact, we have compared the correlations for the NCI/NTP data set with those for chemicals not in this set. Carcinogenic potencies were taken from the Gold et al. database. We find a weak correlation with an average value of TD50/LD50= 0.04 for the non-NCI data set, compared with TD50/LD50= 0.15 for the NCI data set. We conclude that it is not easy to distinguish types of carcinogens on the basis of whether or not they are acutely toxic.
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  • 108
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 109
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Bayesian methods can be very useful in modeling applications used in risk assessments. For example, a Bayesian analysis can be used to provide a probabilistic comparison of different probability models relative to a set of data, as well as to provide uncertainty bounds on the predictions from the various models. For more complex models or composite models, the Bayesian methods easily adapt to include the uncertainty on the weights associated with each of the models that comprise the composite model. Industry data representing the time to recovery of loss of off-site power at nuclear power plants are used within this paper to demonstrate these aspects of Bayesian analysis.〈section xml:id="abs1-1"〉〈title type="main"〉SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSThe Bayesian based method presented in Section 3 for the calculation of posterior odds provides the analyst with a way of quantifying the adequacy of different probability models for a set of data, and thus replaces the subjectivity with an objective criterion. The methods presented in Sections 4 and 5 provide a basis for constructing uncertainty bounds for recovery/probability curves. These uncertainty bounds are useful in risk assessments. The bounds capture parametric uncertainties and uncertainties about relative frequencies of various initiators of events. The methods presented in Section 6 demonstrate how to modify a model to incorporate specific information about the site under study.
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  • 110
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Decision analysis is used to examine whether residential smoke detectors should be required by law. Statistics pertaining to fire incidence, fire death, smoke detector efficacy, and the consequences of fire are examined for accuracy and availability and combined in a decision model. A sensitivity analysis is performed on the model inputs. Included in the analysis is the idea that homes with detectors may have lower death rates due to the characteristics of those who purchase detectors rather than the detectors themselves. Results from the base case estimate show an expected cost of $65,000 per life saved when a law is enacted. This value lies well below the value implied by spending on other public safety programs.
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  • 111
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Agency representatives often believe that if they could only find ways to explain risk data more clearly, communities would accept risk that scientists see as minimal, and take seriously risks scientists see as serious. While explaining the data effectively is important, agencies and industries need to place a greater priority on understanding community concerns, involving communities in risk decisions, and developing trust and credibility.
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  • 112
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 113
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 114
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The use of random elements in accident analyses is practical in that it avoids the need to enumerate all possible failure paths and allows the application of probability analyses to some elements of a complex system. Sometimes, however, the concept of randomness is used only as a residual category to label unexplained features of accident analysis. When common cause failures or system interactions are involved, such an approach can be misleading. Analyses focusing upon nonrandom elements can thus be important in understanding failures of both technical and organizational systems, and some of the problems of such an approach are explored. A detailed analysis of a fatal fire in a railway sleeping car at Taunton, England, in 1978, demonstrates how initial errors can interact with an existing sociotechnical structure to produce new orderly patterns as an accident develops. A simple model to understand this nonrandom error propagation requires a description of the initial system structure in social and technical terms, specifying features such as the task and the sentient boundaries of subsystems. When an error or a set of errors is introduced into this system, the consequent system interventions are structured by the constraints of the preexisting system which they do not destroy. Rather than offering randomness as an account of such phenomena, the analysis encourages a search for regularities in the apparently unstructured events surrounding large-scale accidents or system failures.
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  • 115
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Nuclear power production in France, as the domain of one national utility and one reactor builder, has a standardized profile of technical installations, safety procedures, and personnel qualifications. Despite this relative homogeneity, discrepancies are observed from one production unit to another, notably in the area of worker-safety performance. There is a strong implication for risk analysis: varying performance cannot be attributed solely to the technical dimensions of equipment, procedures, and human skills. The authors retain as a working hypothesis that safety performance is an outcome of interactions between technical and organizational factors. Traditional risk analysis appears to be underequipped to represent such interactions. The notion of decentralized risk analysis (DRA) is introduced as a means of achieving this goal. A program of applied research carried out in a NPP facility is presented. It aims at increasing, across plant work structure, knowledge and control of these interactions specific to the given context. Systematic measurements and feedback of social representations are performed, using a three-dimensional factor space of individual and organizational values. Direct involvement of the total plant population, transfer of analytic tools, methodological continuity, interactive elaboration of data, coordination of different levels of findings with operations, follow-up and feedback of measured change, are the main features of this DRA process. In the case cited, improvement observed in safety performance parallels changes in measured social representations. The value of DRA for articulating technical and organizational dimensions of risk, and for integrating information into decision-making, is argued.
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  • 116
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Risk analyses in The Netherlands have been optimized so that they now express risks in a numerical form suitable for comparison to national safety standards. This factor is more important to national government than to local authorities; other factors relevant for local authorities are given less emphasis or even completely omitted from the results of the analysis. From a comparison of 16 risk analyses carried out during the last decade, it became clear that in the last 5 years the methods of risk analyses related to external safety have become unified. Results are now presented in terms of individual risk contours and in terms of F-N curves (accident frequency vs. exceeded number of fatalities). This unification seems to be a result of government policy. First, the implementation of the post-Seveso-directive (501/82/EC) in The Netherlands obliges a number of industries to provide the authorities with a quantitative risk assessment. Second, the government has set standards for the maximum permissible risk in residential areas. A unified type of risk analysis is a tool to achieve both these policies. From interviews with local government authorities, however, it has become clear that they need and use some quantitative risk information that is not provided by the unified analysis. They feel they need figures that provide insight into the effects of incidents and into the way effects may change as a result of safety measures. Ultimately, government policy may mean that local officials receive less information than before.
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  • 117
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Workplace exposures to airborne chemicals are regulated in the U.S. by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) via the promulgation of permissible exposure limits (PELs). These limits, usually defined as eight-hour time-weighted average values, are enforced as concentrations never to be exceeded. In the case of chronic or delayed toxicants, the PEL is determined from epidemiological evidence and/or quantitative risk assessments based on long-term mean exposures or, equivalently, cumulative lifetime exposures. A statistical model was used to investigate the relation between the compliance strategy, the PEL as a limit never to be exceeded, and the health risk as measured by the probability that an individual's long-term mean exposure concentration is above the PEL. The model incorporates within-worker and between-worker variability in exposure, and assumes the relevant distributions to be log-normal. When data are inadequate to estimate the parameters of the full model, as it is in compliance inspections, it is argued that the probability of a random measurement being above the PEL must be regarded as a lower bound on the probability that a randomly selected worker's long-term mean exposure concentration will exceed the PEL. It is concluded that OSHA's compliance strategy is a reasonable, as well as a practical, means of limiting health risk for chronic or delayed toxicants.
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  • 118
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 119
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 120
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: So, we can argue that the lay public are not fools in their attitudes about risk. That nonexperts should show more concern over hazardous waste facilities in their neighborhoods than radon levels in their homes is not a sign of irrationality (because aggregate and individual risks are greater from the radon), but simply a sign that nonexperts are working from a different set of criteria. These criteria are incorporated in what I call the democratic model. The democratic model evaluates risk based on its social and political consequences, such as possible disruption in the social fabric or a loss of communality. Lay criteria for assessing the impact of risk decisions are not explicit, like the those of the risk analyst, but are embedded in cultural values. Similarly, lay evaluations of risk incorporate substantive and procedural democratic values, such as the acceptability of processes for making decisions, the ethics of the distribution of risk, and the capacity to control a source of risk in the community's interests. Finally, the democratic model relates judgments about risks to the competence (Can we trust them?) and the legitimacy (Should we trust them?) of the social institutions that impose and control those risks. The public's judgments about risk are not inferior, but different, and arguably richer than those of the experts.
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  • 121
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Historically, mice have served a routine and useful purpose in the research, development, and testing of biologicals, chemicals, and drugs for efficacy, toxicity, and carcinogenic risk. The literature is replete with examples using mice to study organic compounds both in short-term tests involving tumor initiation and promotion and in long-term experiments dealing with fertility, reproduction, and teratology. During the past two decades, a virtual explosion of advances has occurred in modern biology that includes the discoveries of retroviruses, oncogenes, DNA restriction enzymes, nucleotide sequence analyses, and microinjection techniques. Fusion of these milestones in genetic, molecular, and cell biology with recent developments in mouse embryology has opened novel avenues and methods of experimentation as significant additions to the risk assessment armamentarium that currently uses both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Some promising directions afforded by transgenic mice as powerful future tools in risk assessment will be summarized below.
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  • 122
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A recent comprehensive review of the literature identified a number of facts and principles governing risk communication. This paper evaluates several of these propositions using recent evidence from a field experiment in communicating the risks from radon in homes. At this point in the research, data relates primarily to the response of risk perceptions to different information treatments and different personal characteristics. The effect of various causal factors is sensitive to the particular test of risk perception applied. No information treatment was clearly superior for all tasks. An important implication of these findings is that risk communicators must determine what specific task or tasks the information program should enable people to do.
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  • 123
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 124
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: In this article quantitative analyses of CANDU nuclear generating stations are evaluated using an explicit set of criteria derived from a decision-analytic framework. A systematic search was made for relevant analyses, including both risk assessments and economic analyses. Only a small number of scientifically sound quantitative analyses that are being used to make decisions about specific safety measures or projects were located. The availability of scientifically sound quantitative data for making major energy policy decisions is even more limited, and what is available has major shortcomings. The province of Ontario is now heavily dependent on nuclear energy. Given the uncertainties surrounding the health, environmental, economic, and social consequences of nuclear energy, there is a need to assemble the information that is available within a comprehensive decision-making framework, and to decide future energy policies for the province in a public forum from a societal perspective.
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  • 125
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper discusses the following key issues concerning human exposure to dioxins and furans emitted from typical, modern MSW incinerators: (1) Are MSW incinerators the major source of PCDD/PCDF input into the environment? (2) Are environmental concentrations around MSW incinerators substantially elevated relative to background levels? And (3) are MSW incinerators the major source of human exposure to PCDDs and PCDFs? Current scientific evidence indicates that (1) combustion sources in general (including steel mills, copper smelting plants, motor vehicles, pulp and paper mills, and MSW incinerators) are major sources of PCDD/PCDF input in the environment; (2) environmental concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs around operating MSW incinerators are not substantially elevated; and (3) 99% of human exposure to PCDDs and PCDFs is from background contamination, even for individuals living near a modern MSW incinerator.
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  • 126
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Eight major factors of risk comparisons are presented, and the conventional reduction of the risk concept to a unidimensional format is challenged. The similarities between risk issues and other issues of the social decision process are stressed. It is concluded that risk decisions are part of the general political process, and cannot be isolated from this. Expert assessments should be presented in a way that reflects the complexity of the subject matter, instead of repressing it.
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  • 127
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: ABC, CBS, and NBC's carefully crafted and expensively produced evening news broadcasts devoted 1.7% of their air time to 564 stories about man-made environmental risks during the period from January 1984 to February 1986. Little relationship was found between amount of coverage and public health risk. Instead, the networks appeared to be using traditional journalistic determinants of news (timeliness, proximity, prominence, consequence, and human interest) plus the broadcast criterion of visual impact to determine the degree of coverage of risk issues. Government, industry, and citizens accounted for two-thirds of the sources cited by the networks. Experts and spokespersons for environmental advocacy groups were sparsely used as sources. Given the media's need for news pegs, acute and chronic risk stories were covered differently. Acute risk stories were reported in a clearly defined cycle, peaking on the second day with on-the-scene reports and film-clips of devastation. In keeping with a decrease in visual drama, later reports were shorter and emphasized legal and political considerations. Chronic risk coverage followed the release of new scientific, legal, or political information.
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  • 128
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  • 129
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  • 130
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  • 131
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Mathematical expressions are derived, under different dosing patterns, for the number and size of premalignant clones within the framework of a two-mutation model for carcinogenesis, which has previously been shown to be consistent with a large body of epidemiologic and experimental data.
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  • 132
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The authors present results of a February 1987 survey on judged frequency of mortality causes and risk perception of technologies in a representative sample of the French population. Although the French context is very different, and the impact of public controversies have been very limited on technological choices such as the nuclear energy program, strong similarities in risk perception of technologies are observed with results from U.S. surveys. Results, which could be worthwhile for other countries, suggest that risk perception is influenced by two different types of components. The first influence is the global feeling of “security” that society procures to its members. Such feeling depends on the individual's socioeconomic status, subjective state of health, and personal discomfort in daily life, and explains individual aversion to risk independently of the mortality causes or technologies involved. The second influence is the degree of perceived social legitimization of the activities involving risks. Risks of medical and transportation activities are strongly opposed to illegitimate risky behaviors (smoking, drugs, alcohol); technologies which have been an object of public debate (nuclear plants, the chemical industry, lead in gasoline) have an intermediate position reflecting the remaining uncertainties of public opinion about their risk–benefit balancing. Tentative conclusions for risk communication are proposed.
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  • 133
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  • 134
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Books Reviewed in this Article: How to Manage Workplace Derived Hazards and Avoid Liability Charleston C.K. Wang Science for Public Policy Edited by Harvey Brooks and Chester L. Cooper How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates: The Lauriston S. Taylor Lecture Series in Radiation Protection and Measurements, Lecture No. 11 Seymour Jablon Where There's Smoke: Problems and Policies Concerning Smoking in the Workplace Bureau of National Affairs Special Report Rockville, MD: Bureau of National Affairs Indoor Air Pollution: The Complete Resource Guide Bureau of National Affairs Special Report Rockville, MD: Bureau of National Affairs Combining Facts and Values in Environmental Impact Assessment: Theories and Techniques Eric L. Hyman and Bruce Stiften (with contributions by David H. Moreau and Robert C. Nichols)
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    Notes: Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) is now regarded as an essential component in the analysis of risks arising from installations classified as major hazards. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the value of the results in decision-making in practical situations. The use made of QRA in three contrasting cases which came to extensive public attention in the U.K. is examined. The first concerned an extension of domestic development near a chemical factory; the second an extension to a large petrochemical complex; and the third to a proposal to build a pressurized water reactor. The two public inquiries concerned with the chemical industry accepted standards of individual risk which were comparable to the risks from everyday accidents; the evidence of societal risk that could arise from major accidents at the petrochemical complex was compared with that of a local natural hazard — flooding. Higher standards of individual safety were set in the inquiry into the PWR proposal, and the definition of societal risk was debated at length. The QRA results were analyzed to show that risks arising from accidents were lower than those from normal operations, but they were used explicitly as a check on the overall safety of the design and of the operational and licensing organization. Such qualitative examination will always be required in addition to QRA. All these inquiries were faced with considerable technical argument. There is a need for the full details of risk calculations to be clear. The usefulness of QRA as an input to decision-making would be much enhanced if the technical points at issue could be clarified outside a formal public inquiry. In addition, there are some technical questions which apply to many installations. There should be better mechanisms of technical debate to achieve a measure of agreement on the optimum methods of calculation in these cases, and some possibilities are explored.
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    Notes: Government actions to reduce risks to health have varied greatly in their cost per death prevented, frequently by 10-fold or even 100-fold. This research asks whether disparities of this magnitude are justified by citizens’preferences abut the relative value of reducing deaths from different hazards. Four samples were asked to rank the relative priority of preventing deaths through 8 realistic programs, each addressed to a different hazard, and then to rate how large the differences in spending should be. Subjects were not asked to give absolute values on preventing deaths and were asked only for their relative valuation of the benefits of preventing a death, not to weigh the benefits and costs or to determine an optimal spending level. We found that in all samples the median respondent valued his top-rated program 5 to 6 times more than his bottom-rated program. However, because individuals disagreed upon the relative priority for different programs, the aggregated rankings barely showed more than a 2-fold difference in the amounts that should be spent. Thus, for the important programs considered by these samples, a large variation in spending does not appear to be justified on the basis of differentials in the values placed on preventing different types of deaths. A more deliberative methodology like the one used here appears fruitful for providing insights to policymakers about preferences in this sensitive area.
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    Notes: The research described here is part of a larger risk assessment project to aid the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its review of the primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard for lead. The methodology can be applied to many situations in which a policy decision about a toxic substance is required in the face of incomplete data. Numerical results are presented for three potentially adverse lead-induced effects of interest to EPA: elevated erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP), hemoglobin (Hb) decrement, and intelligence quotient (IQ) decrement.
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    Notes: In the partitioned multiobjective risk method (PMRM) the probability axis is typically partitioned into three regimes: high-exceedance low-consequence, intermediate-exceedance intermediate-consequence, and low-exceedance high-consequence (LE/HC). For each regime, the PMRM generates a conditional expected risk-function given that the damage lies within the regime. The theme of this paper is the conditional expected-risk function for the LE/HC regime. This function, denoted by f4(.), captures the behavior of the “extreme events” of an underlying decision-making problem. The PMRM offers two advantages: (a) it isolates LE/HC events, allowing the decision-maker(s) to focus on the impacts of catastrophies; and (b) it generates more valuable information than that obtained from the common unconditional expected-risk function. Theoretical problems may arise from uncertainty about the behavior of the tail of the risk curve describing the underlying frequency of damages. When the number of physical observations in small (e.g., in flood frequency analysis), the analyst is forced to make assumptions about the density of damages. Each succeeding distributional assumption will generate a different value of f4(.). An added dimension of difficulty is also created by the sensitivity of f4(.) to the choice of the boundary of the LE/HC regime. This paper has two overall objectives: (a) to present distribution-free results concerning the magnitude of f4(.); and (b) to use those results to obtain a distribution-free estimate of the sensitivity of f4(.) to the choice of the boundary of the LE/HC regime. The above objectives are realized by extending, and further developing, existing inequalities for continuously distributed random variables.
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    Notes: Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process Sheldon Krimsky and Alonzo Plough Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Co.
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    Notes: The present value of the costs of injuries and deaths associated with each unit of a product is a useful number in conducting cost-benefit analysis at the CPSC. Before a remedy is known, this value indicates the approximate amount that it is worth spending on a fix; similarly, if a fix is proposed, this number indicates whether it is cost-justified. The method of analysis is applied to all-terrain vehicles. Injury costs per vehicle are estimated. Determinants of accidents are estimated using a logit regression model applied to surveys of users and of accident victims; this indicates factors associated with accidents, and is used to estimate marginal probabilities. Costs of various vehicle components are estimated using a hedonic price index. This information (injury costs, accident probabilities, and component cost) is combined in a benefit–cost analysis of proposed remedies.
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    Notes: Ingestion of contaminated fish can be an important human exposure pathway for dioxins and furans emitted from waste incineration plants. A new method for calculating fish contamination resulting from dioxin and furan emissions has been developed to overcome some of the problems of those currently used. The method is based on evidence that the major determinant of fish dioxin and furan uptake is sediment concentrations. Only two steps are necessary to calculate fish tissue levels. Step 1: Calculation of the concentration of dioxins and furans in particulate matter entering the lake or pond, and hence, the resulting sediment concentration. Step 2: Calculation of fish concentrations utilizing fish-to-sediment ratios for the various dioxin and furan isomers.
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    Notes: A study of the prevalence of skin cancer among 40,421 persons consuming arsenic-contaminated drinking water in Taiwan was used for a cancer dose-response assessment of ingested arsenic. The numbers of persons at risk over three dose intervals and four exposure durations were estimated from the data in order to apply the method of maximum likelihood to a multistage-Weibull time/ dose–response model. A constant exposure level since birth for each of the exposure categories was assumed. It was found that the cumulative hazard increases as a power of three in age, and is linear or quadratic (with a linear coefficient) in dose. Observations from a smaller epidemiologic survey in Mexico were similar to what would be predicted from the model of the Taiwan data. Assuming that the skin cancer risk from ingested arsenic in the American population would also be similar to the Taiwan population, an American male would have a lifetime risk of developing skin cancer of 1.3 × 10−3 (3.0 × 10−3) if exposed to 1 μg/kg/day for a 76-year lifespan (median lifespan in the U.S.).
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    Notes: A framework is presented within which to organize consideration of appropriate measures of delivered dose and selection of an appropriate procedure for interspecies conversion of kinetically equivalent doses. Systematic species dependencies of simple kinetic relationships between administered and delivered dose are developed. Interspecies scaling of kinetic parameters, including firstorder rate constants and maximum rates of capacity-limited processes, is discussed, and the effects of conventional scaling procedures on initial and steady-state concentrations and on areas under the blood concentration curve are shown. Particular attention is given to production of reactive metabolites. It is shown that interspecies dose or dose rate conversion on the basis of the 3/4 power of body weight is consistently either realistic or conservative when the conversion is carried out from smaller to larger species, except when first-order elimination and capacity-limited production of an active metabolite coexist. In this case, the 3/4 power of body weight conversion procedure may be either overpredictive or underpredictive, depending on the relative dependence of the efficiency of metabolite production and elimination on species body weight. Interspecies dose conversion on a direct mg/kg body weight basis is consistently much less conservative than the 3/4 power of body weight procedure, resulting when scaling from smaller to larger species in underestimation of delivered dose or of steady-state concentration of both parent and metabolite for all of the kinetic relationships considered. Applicability and limitations of these procedures are also discussed.
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    Notes: In this paper, I take risk to mean a composite of the probability of an adverse event and the severity of the consequences of the event. I explore two issues in the economic valuation of changes in individual risks brought about by public policies. These are: (1) the relationship between the values of risk prevention (i.e., the lowering of the probabilities of adverse events) and risk reduction (i.e., the reduction of the severity of the consequences of adverse events); and (2) the relationship between ex ante and ex post measures of the value of changes in risk.
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    Notes: The probability of tumor and hazard function are calculated in a stochastic two-stage model for carcinogenesis when the parameters of the model are time-dependent. The method used is called the method of characteristics.
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    Notes: The methodology presented here identifies an approach to accurately and economically analyze the effects on risk of various containment performance issues. Although this method facilitates the evaluation of potential containment improvements, it does so while utilizing the significant amount of information accumulated by the U.S. NRC Reactor Risk Reference Program. The use of hindsight and the acceptance of point estimate quantifications of risks allows the proposed methodology to be scrutable and understandable to the community as well as relatively simple and inexpensive to apply. A study of containment venting strategies was used to demonstrate the capabilities of the simplified containment event tree methodology. However, the methodology is flexible enough for a wide range of risk evaluations.
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    Notes: Multistage modeling incorporating a time-dependent exposure pattern is applied to lung cancer mortality data obtained from a cohort of 2802 arsenic-exposed copper-smelter workers who worked 1 or more years during the period 1940–1964 at a copper smelter at Tacoma, Washington. The workers were followed for death through 1976. There were 100 deaths due to lung cancer during the follow-up period. Exposures to air arsenic levels measured in μ/m3 were estimated from departmental air arsenic and workers urinary arsenic measurements. Relationships of different temporal variables with excess death rates are examined to judge qualitatively the implications of the multistage cancer process. Analysis to date indicates a late stage effect of arsenic although an additional early stage effect cannot be ruled out.
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    Notes: This study attempted to verify and extend previous research on people's perceptions of the risks and benefits of technology and their judgments concerning the acceptability of technology safety regulations. The study addressed several limitations of prior work, in that: (1) it was the first “expressed-preference” study to collect data from large, representative samples of Americans; (2) the research design made “person,” rather than “technology,” the unit of statistical analysis; and (3) the study employed an expanded set of independent variables, including three qualitative benefit characteristics. The results confirmed several major conclusions of prior expressed-preference research, the most important being that members of the public tend to define “risks,”“benefits,” and “acceptability” in a complex, multidimensional manner; and that their definitions differ significantly from those used by professional risk-managers and other technical experts in quantitative assessments of risk and acceptability. The results also indicated that people's stances toward technology regulation tend to cut across traditional sociodemographic lines.
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    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
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    Notes: This study examines the effects of timber preservative spillages on the ecology of the River Lossie whilst the river's quality was recovering following the removal of an unsatisfactory discharge of sewage effluent. The effects of spillages on a minor tributary of the River Lossie are also presented.
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    Notes: This paper examines the use of agrochemicals in modern agriculture and horticulture. It begins by reflecting on the uncertainties of agricultural and horticultural production prior to the use of synthetic chemicals, then discusses the improved quantity and quality of output which is possible using agrochemicals. The social, environmental and agricultural hazards attendant upon chemical use are also considered. Provided that proper safeguards are observed, the use of agrochemicals is a sine qua non for the majority of farmers and growers in the UK.
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    Notes: This paper describes how the Clyde River Purification Board (the regulatory authority) and Bee-cham Pharmaceuticals (the identified discharger) agreed and adopted a novel means of controlling a pharmaceutical plant effluent which is discharged to Irvine Bay, Scotland. Control was achieved by means of a consent (licence) condition requiring compliance with a laboratory test of acute toxicity, which was added to the more orthodox conditions already imposed upon the discharge. The new condition was derived using the concept, explicit in the environmental quality objective/environmental quality standard approach to pollution control, of an allowable mixing zone around the outfall. The derivation and validation of the condition necessitated laboratory and field bioassay, current measurements and dye releases, and the use of a plume development model.
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    Notes: For about eighty years the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) has remained one of the major indicators of organic pollution in the water industry.Whilst many adaptations and refinements have been made over the last 2–3 decades, one of the most significant was to suppress nitrification by the addition of allylthiourea (ATU) at 0.5 mg/1, thus ensuring that only carbonaceous oxidation was measured. Evidence has accrued to show that, for some situations, this concentration is insufficient to fully suppress nitrification.Poor stability is a problem with biochemical oxygen demand when samples have to be stored prior to analysis, and a method of storage is proposed which minimizes instability. As an empirical bioassay procedure, the accuracy of BOD can be poor compared with alternative methods such as chemical oxygen demand; and problems with incubator and refrigerator temperatures, the preparation of standards, and replacement batteries for dissolved-oxygen probes are discussed.The aim of this paper is to show that these problems with biochemical oxygen demand can be eliminated, thereby retaining confidence in its use.
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    Notes: In recent years, the Norfolk Broads have been enriched with sewage effluent and runoff from heavily fertilized land. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from these sources can cause ecological problems by stimulating increase in algal biomass in the water, so part of Anglian Water's programme of research in Broadland has been to remove phosphate from major sewage effluents discharged to the Rivers Ant and Bure. This is achieved by dosing ferric sulphate to secondary effluent and settling the resultant insoluble complex.At three sites on the River Bure, the performance of timeclock- and redox-based dose control systems was evaluated. Redox control, by restricting dosing when phosphate load was low, increased the efficiency of phosphate removal and produced up to 19 per cent savings in chemical costs. Modifications are described which made the system self-regulating and ensured that savings were not eroded by maintenance costs. The system now operates efficiently and routinely at major sites on the Rivers Ant and Bure.
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    Notes: This paper discusses Government policy to August 1989 on the use of protection zones to protect UK water sources from pollution by nitrate. It outlines the use of the powers in the Water Act 1989 to declare Nitrate Sensitive Areas, and the procedures that would be followed in declaring such zones. The circumstances are outlined in which compensation would be paid in Nitrate Sensitive Areas and the reasons for departing from the ‘polluter pays’ principle. UK policy is related to the proposed European Community Directive on the control of nitrate, and the similarities between the two approaches are illustrated.
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    Notes: The principles of design of a land treatment system are explained on the basis of determining the land area requirements of particular constituents in terms of the supply rate and assimilative capacity. Illustrative data are provided for the design and performance of slow-rate and overland flow systems.The paper includes a comprehensive report on the design and performance of pilot studies carried out on a reed-bed treatment system at Valleyfield, Fife, Scotland. This provides valuable insight into the choice of the bed substrate and the problems of reed establishment. Of the media tested, coarse pulverized fuel ash appeared to be promising in terms of its hydraulic conductivity and reduction in biochemical oxygen demand. For a domestic sewage of typical strength, a bed area of 5 m2 per population equivalent yielded an effluent having a BOD of less than 20 mg/1, but did not provide conditions which were conducive to significant nitrogen removal.
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    Notes: A collaborative project between Anglian Water and Imperial College has been undertaken to investigate alternative disinfection regimes for the control of trihalomethane (THM) formation in lowland surface water treatment. A laboratory experimental protocol has been developed to measure THM formation as a consequence of both pre- and post-disinfection stages with chlorine dioxide, ozone and potassium permanganate, evaluated as alternative pre-disinfectants in direct comparison with breakpoint and sub-breakpoint pre-chlorination. The protocol has been applied to raw water samples from eight locations within the Anglian Water region under winter and summer conditions.The results have shown that THM formation can be reduced substantially, either by the application of chlorine dioxide and ozone as substitutes to breakpoint pre-chlorination or by reducing the prechlorination dose. The application of potassium permanganate as a pre-disinfectant had little effect on diminishing the formation of THM compounds. A further substantial reduction in THM formation can be achieved by diminishing the contact period following post-chlorination between free-chlorine and the treated water (e.g. by conversion of free-chlorine to combined-chlorine through reaction with ammonium sulphate).
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    Notes: The paper describes the experiences of Grampian Regional Council's Department of Water Services in designing, testing, and installing a regional telemetry system, together with the philosophy behind some of the decisions. The paper also describes the hardware involved and some of its capabilities.
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    Notes: This paper discusses the impact on the UK water industry of EC legislation which has been adopted and proposed for the control of dangerous substances discharged to the aquatic environment. The main impact arises from the increased monitoring needs, requiring more sophisticated analytical equipment and skilled staff, together with the increased administrative burden to produce reduction programmes and to set and control consents for dangerous substances. The paper also summarizes recent initiatives which have been taken by the UK towards a more precautionary approach to pollution control, by requiring that ‘red-list’ substances should be controlled by environmental quality standards and limit values whichever are the more stringent.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The relatively frequent observation, during periods of onshore drift, of a surface line of convergence in nearshore coastal waters may have significant implications for the sampling procedure used for monitoring compliance with the EC Bathing Water Directive. A simple theory is developed for predicting the formation of the convergence line, and a possible alternative sampling method is suggested.
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    Notes: STandARDS FOR water quality at bathing beaches are intended to protect the health of swimmers. Until recently no reliable data were available on the relationship between pollution levels as measured by indicator bacteria and the actual level of risk to swimmers. The standard used in Hong Kong uses running median levels of E. coli but is relatively lax, reflecting the lack of alternatives to what are, in some cases, moderately polluted beaches. A prospective epidemiological study has been undertaken to determine what the risks are to swimmers in such circumstances and hence to determine the required level of pollution control. It has been established that there are higher rates of minor ailments among swimmers than among non-swimming control groups, and that the excess illness rates are pollution-related for most symptom categories, except eye symptoms. The best indicators were found to be E. coli, and staphylococci. The existing limit of acceptability applied in Hong Kong corresponds to a risk of 15 skin and gastrointestinal cases per thousand swimmers, a reasonably low rate but still a significant public health problem when multiplied by the very large number of swimmers using the beaches in Hong Kong every year.
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    Notes: by Peter H. Chaplin. Published by Whittet Books Limited, 18 Anley Road, London, W14 OBY.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Balancing the Needs of Water Use,by James W. Moore. In the Springer Series on Environmental Management. Series Editor, Robert S. DeSanto. Published by Springer-Verlag GmbH, Heidelberger Platz 3, D-1000, Berlin 3, 1989.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: L. pneumophila serogroup 1 was detected in 12% of water sources used for the supply of drinking water in England in a survey carried out between September 1985 and June 1987. The bacterium, the causative agent of legionnaires' disease, was found more often in underground supplies in late summer–early autumn; the time of year when indigenous community-acquired infections also increase in number. Using an immunofluorescent assay it was observed that L.pneumophila could survive conventional water treatment including disinfection with chlorine and, whilst being non-culturable, retained its ability to colonize pipe surfaces and grow in the warmer water systems of buildings. Viability of non-culturable legionella was demonstrated by heat shock. These findings confirm the importance of preserving water quality within buildings by good design, thorough maintenance, and careful operation of water systems, following the guidance issued by the Department of Health and the Health & Safety Executive.
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    Notes: Tests OF FOUR types of filter media are presented, which show that granular activated carbon performs marginally less well than anthracite/sand or anthracite/sand/garnet in the removal of algae, particulate organic carbon, iron and turbidity. The lengths of run which are achieved by the two granular activated carbon filters are also shorter than those of the other two media. A three-layer filter is better than the anthracite/sand filter for particulate organic carbon, iron and turbidity removal, and the filtrate contains lower mean concentrations of algae.
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    Notes: This paper presents a quantitative analysis of irrigation requirements in different climatic areas of England and Wales. The analysis takes account of the differing requirements of various crops and variation in soil texture. The results include an estimation of irrigation requirement in an average year, a typical dry year for irrigation planning purposes, and an exceptional year such as 1976. The analysis was conducted using a computer programme developed jointly by the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, together with the Meteorological Office, and a brief description is given of the salient features of the programme.
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    Notes: In response to the requirement of the Thames Water Authority for improved efficiency on all aspects of river management in general, and the New River in particular, commitment was given to look into reducing the overall unit cost and at the same time showing an improvement in effectiveness (levels of service).This paper shows how traditional methods of maintaining a river of this type and magnitude, with due consideration to its environments and physical constraints, can be revolutionized and brought into the 20th century by adopting the latest technology. In addition, and after executing a re-appraisal of the New River activities, quite radical changes to the existing working practices together with a change in the general attitude of the individual employees were successfully implemented.
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    Notes: Consolidation is potentially the most cost-effective of all sludge treatment processes. However, traditional design procedures have been oversimplified such that the process has not generally been fully exploited.The objective of this report is to summarize the Water Research Centre (WRc) procedure for sizing sewage sludge consolidation tanks, and explain the major design aspects which control the effective operation of the plant. The procedure provides a means of sizing tanks to consolidate any particular sewage sludge to any solids concentrations up to the maximum, and is applicable to both the batch and continuous operational modes. To obtain the predicted performance, the essential equipment such as the picket fence and control system, comprising a consolidation plant, must be suitably designed.
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    Notes: Historical flood events recorded as flood marks on bridges and houses or reported in newspapers and journals provide valuable information on the maximum size of floods which are likely to occur in the UK. For hydrological analysis peak water level must be converted to peak discharge, which is problematic even when the flood has been recorded at a flow gauging station. This paper describes some of the methods used to calculate the magnitude of extreme floods. Sixty-nine historical UK floods are plotted on a graph of discharge versus drainage area and compared with curves published in 1933 and 1960 which were used to estimate the Normal Maximum Flood required for dam spillway design before 1975. From that date the design standard became the Probable Maximum Flood. PMF is calculated for 17 sites where extreme floods have occurred. For six events the observed peak discharge exceeded PMF. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.
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    Notes: Book Reviews in This Article:Aquatic Toxicology and Water Quality Management. Edited by Jerome O. Nriagu and J. S. S. Lakshminarayana.Engineering Hydrology Techniques in Practice, by Elizabeth M. Shaw.Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste: Engineering and Environmental Issues, by J. R. Gronow, A. N. Schofleld, and R. K. Jain.
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  • 184
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    Ground water 27 (1989), S. 0 
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Solutes were determined for 26 pore-water samples extracted from Tertiary and Cretaceous core material from a 1,320-foot-deep test borehole at Freehold, New Jersey. The cored materials are sediments that form a multilayered aquifer system of seven aquifers and eight confining units in the New Jersey Coastal Plain. The sediments are of marine origin in the upper 650 feet of the core and primarily nonmarine below 650 feet. Total concentrations of silica and major anions (SO4-2 and Cl-) and cations (Ca+2, Mg+2, total Fe, Mn+2, Na+, and K+) in the pore-water samples varied with depth. Three core intervals are defined by water- chemistry variations, the environment of deposition (marine or nonmarine), and the degree of alteration (weathered or unweathered) of the units. Calcium, magnesium, sulfate, and total-ion concentrations were greater in the midcore (unweathered marine) interval than in the upper (weathered marine) and lower (fluviodeltaicsilicate) intervals of the core. Generally, pore-water chemical types in confining units were distinct from those found in aquifers–particularly in the midcore interval. In this interval, observed variations in pore-water chemistry in part reflect carbonate dissolution and cation exchange reactions common in Coastal Plain sediments. However, high concentrations of sulfate in unweathered marine sediments indicate novel processes may be important factors influencing pore-water chemistry in confining units.
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    Notes: Ground-water protection strategies have been constrained by the limited consideration of varied and new options relevant to particular problems. Consequently, management practices have tended to maintain the status quo regarding legislation and water-quality standards. To examine the responses to specific issues, we presented an analysis of the problem of nitrate contamination of ground water in the Midwest to a community of experts. Ninety-seven individuals, through a formal questionnaire, responded to a variety of questions pertaining to the issue. They showed definite preferences in dealing with certain aspects of the problem, although there was significant variability in responses due to such factors as length of ground-water-related professional experience and residential status. It was clear that respondents preferred immediate preventive or corrective action in a world of incomplete knowledge over extensive research; were willing to undertake personal action to seek nitrate-free water rather than wait for official action; and favored local and state level involvement over federal intervention. Findings based on this survey research can be used effectively in the planning of future work to establish actual preferences in communities with serious nitrate contamination problems.
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    Notes: Abstract. Statistical analysis of monitoring data is becoming a necessary part of many ground- and surface-water quality management activities. To meet this need a statistical software package for microcomputers called WQStat II has been designed and produced specifically for water quality applications. The software provides tools for data management, summarizing data characteristics, analyzing trends, comparing medians of two or more groups of data, and evaluating excursions or standards violations. To minimize problems associated with nonnormal data and nondetects, WQStat relies primarily on graphical and nonparametric approaches.
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    Notes: Areal and temporal variations in physical and chemical characteristics of ground water in the Inner Bluegrass Karst Region of central Kentucky were used to evaluate physical controls on hydrochemical variability. The karst region consists of flat-lying interbedded limestones and shales. Physical attributes of the aquifer were assessed on the basis of spring discharges, static water levels in wells, and pumping tests. Areal and temporal variations in ground- water chemistry were determined from major-ion analysis of water samples from 15 springs and 24 wells over a 17- month period.Water samples were divided into three chemical types on the basis of the relative concentrations of the dominant ions; Ca-Mg-HCO3, Na-HCO3, and Na-Cl water. Ca-Mg-HCO3 water was divided further on the basis of Ca/Mg molar ratios into Ca subtype water (Ca/Mg 〉 6) and Ca-Mg subtype water (Ca/Mg 〈 6). All springs are characterized by Ca subtype water. Pumping tests show that hydraulic conductivities in zones of Ca-Mg-HCO3 water are significantly higher than those in zones of Na-HCO3 and Na-Cl water. There is no regional trend in the distribution of these water types.Temporal fluctuations in water chemistry correlate with seasonal fluctuations in recharge. Large seasonal variations in ionic concentrations occur primarily in Ca subtype water. Hydraulic conductivities, seasonal variations in ionic concentrations, and TDS suggest that ground-water residence time is the primary control on the occurrence of the different water types. Differences in residence time are attributed to the presence of discontinuous, horizontal shales that control the rate and depth of active groundwater ciculation.
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    Notes: Ground water beneath the McVille, North Dakota Municipal Waste-Stabilization Ponds was studied to determine the chemical effects of seepage on a shallow unconfined aquifer. Relatively coarse-grained glaciofluvial sediments underlie the site and facilitate transport of partially treated waste water to the water table, altering the local ground-water chemistry.The plume resulting from infiltration contains elevated levels of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium in areas of low redox potential. The presence of nutrients in waters of low redox potential promotes the growth of anaerobic bacteria. Ground water containing high nitrate concentrations, due to leachate from an adjacent abandoned landfill, occurs upgradient of the ponds. These high nitrate waters, traveling downgradient, mix with the low redox potential ground water beneath and downgradient of the lagoon. Ammonium concentrations, downgradient of the waste-stabilization ponds, are greater than ammonium levels within the ponded waste water. The abundant microbial population appears to utilize DOC and nitrate as nutrients for growth and energy. The utilization of nutrients occurs in a redox reaction, in which nitrate is apparently reduced to ammonium and carbon is oxidized. The increase in ammonium levels and decrease in nitrate levels suggests nitrate is not assimilated into cell tissue, but instead dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium takes place. Dissimilatory reduction refers to reduction of a compound for its energy yield, without conversion of the compound to biomass (Ceazan et al, 1984).
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    Notes: The ground-water geochemistry of glacial drift and bedrock of selected areas of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania differs considerably among the areas as a result of differences in bedrock geology. The New England study area is underlain primarily by feldspathic rock, large areas of New York are underlain primarily by carbonate and terrigenous sedimentary rock and some evaporite deposits, and glaciated areas of Pennsylvania are underlain primarily by clastic sedimentary rock with minor carbonate rocks. Mean concentrations of most solutes are greatest in the New York area and least in the New England area.In New England, the ground-water geochemistry results mainly from the reaction of CO2-charged water with feldspar and other primary silicates. Water in the New England bedrock is more highly evolved geochemically than water in the drift, presumably as a result of its longer residence time.In the New York area, the geochemistry of water in both types of aquifers results mainly from carbonate- mineral dissolution. Water in most glacial drift and bedrock is saturated with respect to calcite. In some parts of New York, the dissolution of evaporite minerals has a marked effect on the water chemistry of the bedrock.In most of the Pennsylvania area, the geochemistry of water in both types of aquifers indicates that, although carbonate minerals are the principal reactants, their influence on water chemistry is less than in New York. In parts of Pennsylvania, chemical differences between ground water from drift and ground water from bedrock are attributed to a higher proportion of reactive minerals in the drift than in the local bedrock as a result of glacial transport.
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    Notes: Abstract. Type curves, and drawdown analysis curves of other sorts, have a well-established position in the ground-water profession. Although a plethora of solutions to well hydraulics problems exists, many of these arc not available in useful type curve formats. lpurthcr, if one wants to perform parameter estimation using many of these solutions, a computer-based form of the solution is needed. Those who have programmed analytical solutions know the difficulties that will be encountered in coding even the most innocuous-looking result. In this paper, a computer-based method of type curve generation is prcscnted based on Stehfest's method of inverting the Laplace transform solution of ground-water flow problems. The latter are usually easier to obtain than a complete closed-form solution. The method is very robust for a large class of well hydraulics problems. A companion diskette with FORTRAN source and executable example program is available from the author.
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    Notes: The hydrologic response to development of three of the most heavily pumped sedimentary aquifer systems in the United States is similar in some aspects and different in others. In the semiarid West, an unconfined sand aquifer and a confined sand and clay aquifer system have been subjected to withdrawals that are far greater than predevelopment recharge rates. As a result, the aquifers have large losses of ground water from storage. In the humid East, pumpage from a carbonate aquifer system has resulted in induced recharge and diversion of natural discharge with insignificant loss from storage. However, the following responses to development are common in all three aquifer systems: (1) ground-water circulation has increased,(2) rates of recharge have increased—mostly due to recirculation of pumped ground water, or infiltration of imported surface water used for irrigation in the semiarid West,(3) locations of recharge areas have changed, and (4) natural discharge has decreased.Regional water-level declines associated with ground- water development are inevitably accompanied by some combination of elastic compaction of aquifer material, inelastic compaction of fine-grained sediments and land subsidence, dewatering of aquifer material near pumping centers, and induced formation of sinkholes. The degree to which these changes occur is dependent on: (1) rates of pumping in relation to available recharge, and (2) lithology, specifically the proportion of sand, gravel, silt, clay, and carbonate rock that comprise the aquifer system.
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    Notes: A reference repository is examined for environmental compliance utilizing minimum performance standards as established by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency. These standards stipulate the amount of time the radionuclides must be retained in the barrier, the acceptable release rates from the barrier, and the acceptable mass release that can be registered at the accessible environment over a 10,000-year time frame. The only natural, or geologic barrier standard specified is a minimum ground-water travel time of 1000 years from the engineered barrier to the accessible environment. Other natural barrier processes including geochemical retardation and mass transfer, dilution, and dispersion are not specified. In attempting to determine the role that these unspecified components must play in order to comply with the mass release standard, we find that their role is minimal to the extent that virtually any rock type that can satisfy the minimum ground-water travel time of 1000 years will satisfy the mass release requirements at the accessible environment. Full compliance with a concentration standard at the accessible environment requires that the nuclides contained within the larger inventories be fully contained with the controlled zone between the engineered barrier and the accessible environment
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    Notes: Recognition of the severity of land and stream salinity problems in Australia over the past few decades has resulted in the application of a range of mitigation strategies. In terms of stream salinity management, ground- water interception has proved the most cost-effective strategy, and a number of ground-water interception schemes have now been implemented. In all cases, the scheme design and assessment of feasibility were based on hydrogeological investigations only. This paper presents an analysis of ground-water behavior associated with the Mildura interception scheme, illustrating the development and use of mathematical models of ground-water flow in simulating a range of management options for the mitigation of river salinity. The study found that: over the period of simulation, the interception scheme had been operating below its achievable operational effectiveness, 48 compared to 72 percent; effectiveness could be further enhanced to 80 percent by judicious placement of three additional well fields; and improved irrigation practices in the area would significantly reduce the flow of salt to the river. The modeling approach applies to similar river salinity problems elsewhere.
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    Notes: In situ delineation of fracture characteristics is a difficult and often time-consuming task. Several advantages would be gained from the development of simple field techniques which provide direct evidence of such parameters as fracture connectivity, fracture orientation, or fracture aperture. In this paper, such a technique for delineation of fracture connectivity between boreholes is introduced. The technique is based on utilizing the natural variation of water temperature within the subsurface as a natural ground-water tracer. In this technique, thermal response in observation boreholes induced by local pumping or injection is related to the location of interconnected fractures. The technique provides several advantages including simple equipment and time requirements, direct evidence of fracture flow between boreholes, and the ability to test without contaminating a field site. The major limitations of the technique are related to the volume of fluid movement within an observation hole and are controlled by the geometry of the flow field in the vicinity of the pumping/ injection borehole. Two case studies are briefly outlined demonstrating application of the technique to both a fractured granite and a fractured dolomite. Part II of this paper (Robinson and Silliman, in preparation) contains a detailed discussion of the application of this technique to the second, fractured dolomite, case study.
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