ALBERT

Notes: Books reviewed in this article.Bender, Dieter et al.: Vahlens Kompendium der Wirtschaftstheorie und Wirtschaftspolitik.Betancourt, Roger R. and Clague, Christopher K.: Capital Utilization.Blankart, Charles Beat und Faber, Monika (Hrsg.): Regulierung öffentlicher Unternehmen.Brune, Heinrich-Gustav : Organisation von Verbraucherinteressen.Charatsis, E. G. (Ed.): Proceedings of the Econometric Society European Meeting 1979.Cooper, Charles : Economic Evaluation and the Environment.Courbis, Raymond (Éd.): Commerce international et modèles multinationaux.Diebold, William Jr.: Industrial Policy as an International Issue.Ekelund, Robert B. Jr. and Tollison, Robert D.: Mercantilism As a Rent-Seeking Society: Economic Regulations in Historical Perspective.Ferber, Robert and Hirsch, Werner Z.: Social Experimentation and Economic Policy.Fisher, Anthony C.: Resource and Environmental Economics.Gottwald, Dietrich: Die dynamische Theorie der Allokation erschöpfbarer Ressourcen.Griffith-Jones, Stephany: The Role of Finance in the Transition to Socialism.GrÜnÄrml, Frohmund: Multinationale Unternehmen, internationaler Handel und monetäre Stabilität.Hudson, John : Inflation.Hueting, Roefie : New Scarcity and Economic Growth.Kornai, JÁnos: Economics of Shortage.Krämer, W.: Eine Rehabilitation der gewöhnlichen Kleinst-Quadrate-Methode als Schätzverfahren in der Ökonometrie.Krohn, Claus-Dieter: Wirtschaftstheorien als politische Interessen.Llewellyn, David T.: International Financial Integration.Minx, Eckard : Von der Liberalisierungs- zur Wettbewerbspolitik.Mooslechner, Peter und Nowotny, Ewald: Gesamtwirtschaftliche Finanzierung und öffentliche Verschuldung.Moss, Scott : An Economic Theory of Business Strategy.Newbery, David M. G. and Stiglitz, Joseph E.: The Theory of Commodity Price Stabilization.Ryll, Edwin: Abschöpfungssystem, Angebotskontingentierung, produktneutrale und produktgebundene staatliche Einkommensübertragungen als agrarmarktpolitische Instrumente.Sauernheimer, Karlhans: Internationale Kapitalbewegungen, flexible Wechselkurse und gesamtwirtschaftliches Gleichgewicht.Shelp, Ronald Kent : Beyond Industrialization.Sid-Ahmed, Abdelkader : Nord-Sud: Les enjeux.Siebert, Horst:. Economics of the Environment.Slawson, W. David : The New Inflation.Stahl, Konrad und Sghulz, Norbert: Mathematische Optimierung und mikroökonomische Theorie.Thimm, Alfred L.: The False Promise of Codetermination.Witt, Ulrich: Marktprozesse.

Notes: This article critically reviews the development and present state of information theory in labor markets. Since the first generation of the new microeconomics, important progress has been made. However, a compact theory including both the various forms of information problems and the associated behavioral reactions still does not exist. Much work remains to be done in order to achieve a general and comprehensive foundation of macroeconomics. Moreover, application of such models to reality is not possible because there are no conclusive empirical tests. The strict neoclassical approach used in these models must be regarded as their principle weakness. The more reality differs from neoclassical assumptions, the more important is the — complementary — macro foundation of micro economics. This should include the analysis of collective decisions on the macro level and their effect on the individual market participant. Finally, some recent empirical and theoretical ideas are presented.

Notes: This paper is intended to highlight the role of cost increases in the inflation process. In the course of the analysis a distinction is made between three different types of cost inflation: (i) exogenous cost impulses; (ii) competing income claims, both by way of bargaining in markets and by competition in the political arena; and (iii) attempts to preserve the purchasing power of income. Each category is discussed in some detail. The paper also discusses alternative methods of fighting cost inflation, including some issues pertaining to cost-accommodating demand management and incomes policy.

Notes: According to Kondratiefflong term economic growth in industrialized countries is characterized by a 40- to 60-years-long cycle. The existence of this cycle is much debated. This article presents a spectral analytic test of the long cycle on the basis of price and volume series for Great Britain, France, Germany and the United States. In addition, long cyclical relations between prices and production and the relations between these variables internationally are analyzed by means of cross spectral analysis. The results of these analyses seem to confirm the existence of a Kondratieff-cycle in prices, but contradict the existence of a (simultaneous) long cycle in real variables.

Notes: This paper is an empirical investigation of the hypothesis that there exists a positive relationship between the inflation rate and its variability. The hypothesis is tested for a sample of eighteen industrial countries for the period 1949-1970. In contrast to most previous studies, policy makers are allowed to revise their desired inflation rate by calculating a six-year moving average. The homogeniety assumption across countries is relaxed and the relationship between the average inflation rate and its variability over time is examined within each country. In addition, the argument that government financial policy is responsible for the variability of the inflation rate is reexamined in the context of a fixed-exchange-rate open economy; an alternative source of inflation variability is proposed-international inflation. A procedure that separates out the influence of the world inflation rate is developed and the relationship between the average inflation rate and its measure of variability attributable to domestic government financial policy is examined. The findings of this study provide less pervasive support than previous studies of the existence of a positive relationships between the inflation rate and its variability. Moreover, the positive causality uncovered might be due more to international inflation than to the actions of domestic financial authorities.

Notes: The life cycle hypothesis of consumption and rational (in the sense of Muth) expectations implies under certain additional, but not very restrictive, assumptions that real consumption follows an univariate first order autoregressive process. This implication was tested in the framework of bivariate autoregressive models with Swiss quarterly macroeconomic data. A slightly modified variant of the stepwise modelling approach suggested by Hsiao was applied. The hypothesis was rejected with respect to a ‘Neo-Ricardian’ definition of disposable income and real stock prices. By contrast, the test with the conventional definition of disposable income brought not significant results. These findings rise some doubts about the usual specification of macroeconometric consumption functions and their policy implications.

Notes: Auernheimer, Leonardo and Ekelund, Robert B. Jr.: The Essentials of Money and Banking.Batchelor, R. A.; Major, R. L. and Morgan, A. D.: Industrialisation and the Basis for Trade.Boettcher, Erik: Die Genossenschaft in der Marktwirtschaft.Brems, Hans: Dynamische Makrotheorie - Inflation, Zins und Wachstum.von Brentano, Dorothee: Grundsätzliche Aspekte der Entstehung von Genossenschaften.BÜrgenmeier, Beat: Théorie et pratique des investissements suisses à l’étranger.Cassen, Robert et al.: The World Development Report 1981.Cline, William R. and Associates: World Inflation and the Developing Countries.Craven, John: The Distribution of the Product.Deaton, Angus (Ed.): Essays in the theory and measurement of consumer behaviour.Dell, Sidney and Lawrence, Roger:The Balance of Payments Adjustment Process in Developing Countries.Fallick, J. L. and Elliot, R. F. (Eds.): Incomes Policies, Inflation and Relative Pay.Fellner, William(Ed.): Contemporary Economic Problems 1980.Frohn, Joachim und StÄglin, Reiner(Hrsg.): Empirische Wirtschqftsforschung.Gutzler, Helmut(Hrsg.): Umweltpolitik und Wettbewerb.Hamm, Walter und Schmidt, Reimer(Hrsg.): Wettbewerb und Fortschritt.Hey, John D.: Economics in Disequilibrium.Hibbs, Douglas A., Jr. and Fassbender, Heinowith the assistance of Rivers, R. Douglas(Eds.): Contemporary Political Economy.Howard, M. C.: Modern Theories of Income Distribution.Kellenbenz, Hermann: Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte.Kocher, Gerhard und Rentchnick, Pierre:Teure Medizin.Kraft, M. und Braun, K.: Statisttsche Methoden für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften.Maxwell, Robert J.: Health and Wealth.Mishan, Ezra J.: Introduction to Normative Economics.Sen, Amartya: Poverty and Famines.StÖhr, Walter B. and Fraser Taylor, D. R. (Eds.): Development from Above or Below? The Dialectics of Regional Planning in Developing Countries.Usher, Dan: The Economic Prerequisite to Democracy.Wagenhals, Gerhard: Wohlfahrtstheoretische Implikationen von Disparitätsmassen.

Notes: This paper summarizes recent developments in the stabilization policy debate. The emphasis is on the controversy between two main classes of models, the equilibrium and the disequilibrium approach, which are both aiming at a consistent explanation of macroeconomic price and quantity behavior. The various models that have been proposed are placed into a coherent framework, and the source of their contradicting policy implications is explored. Empirical evidence cannot be expected to bring about a clearcut decision in favor of either paradigm. A more likely prospect is the development of a synthetic approach emerging from current research in the micro foundations of macroeconomics. (An english version of this article is available as Discussion Paper Nr. 61, Institut f¨r angewandte Wirtschaftsforschung, University of Basel.)

Notes: Inflation occurs because individuals have an incentive to raise prices. The key issue of anti-inflation policy is to choose the appropriate incentive to stop inflation. Monetary policy works through the hunger incentive and it is no longer effective because society no longer allows the hunger incentive to work. This paper argues that the appropriate incentives to stop inflation are market incentives. These market incentives can be built into society through the introduction of an incentive anti-inflation plan such as the authors’ MAP proposal or its TIP counterparts.

Notes: Considerable controversy surrounds the COASE theorem despite the fact that it is generally accepted as valid both in the theory of externalities and the economic analysis of law. A major source of the controversy is the fact that there are a number of versions of the COASE theorem and definitions of transactions costs. It is argued that a proper understanding both of the competitive market model and transaction costs reveals that the COASE theorem is invalid and not part of standard market theory. It is further argued that transaction costs and information costs arising from market uncertainty provide a key to resolving many of the controversies that the theorem has given rise to and following from this that the primary economic function of law in bargaining situations is to increase transaction costs in order to reduce market uncertainty and strategic behaviour.

Notes: In this paper, three aspects of the potential gains form trade in an imperfect competition framework are considered in the light of recent research: the presumption that free trade reduces the monopolistic distorsions of imperfect domestic markets; the role of international openness as a way of making room for more efficient-size sellers in the domestic market; its effect upon the appearance of new products and increase in the total number of products. Theoretical and empirical research suggest that trade is indeed likely to improve allocative as well as technical efficiency and often to promote more product varieties.

Notes: Many governments allocate resources to the repression of the political freedom of their citizens. The dominant economic theory of this activity, associated most prominently with the work of HAYEK, is that political repression is a bi-product of the erosion of economic freedom. This theory predicts that civil liberty will be positively correlated with the degree of economic freedom. An alternative view, derived from models of industrial behavior, is that monopolistic governments will use political repression to protect their property rights, so that concentrated party systems will tend to engage in more repression than competitive systems. Using a cross-sectional sample of 184 states in 1979, an empirical test of the two hypotheses is presented and the evidence is shown to be more consistent with the second hypothesis. In addition, the correlation between civil liberty and a variety of economic variables is examined: the degree of civil liberty is found to positively related to the level of real per capita income and to the ratio of wage and salary payments to total income. The Gastil index of civil liberty provides the empirical foundation for the study.

Notes: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the process of social change as understood by Karl Marx and modern property rights theorists. Differences between Karl Marxand modern property rights theorists are quite substantial. Yet, Karl Marxand modern property rights theorists have one thing in common: the perception about the importance of property rights structures on the character of economic life. Same as modern property rights theorists, Marxrecognized that the solution of the social problems is not merely the task of reason but that the process of social change is caused by forces and movements that work from within the existing social system. Marx viewed economics as the study of property rights over scarce resources. As man learned to apply human work to the production and use of tools, it became essential to specify the relations among men with respect to the right to use those intermediate goods. And that meant the development and specification of property rights. Thus, Marxdeduced the historical necessity of property rights from the initial subordination of man to nature and his survival instincts. The most important difference between Marxand property rights scholars lies in the method of analysis. Modern property rights scholars are methodological individualists. They view the capitalist community as a voluntary association of utility seeking individuals. Instead of exogenously-imposed ‘common good’, emphasis in the capitalist community is on the right of ownership and contractual freedom which allow each individual the freedom of choice and the obligation to bear the costs of pursuing his own preferences, Marx viewed the process of social change as occurring in a series of historically predetermined discontinuous sequences. Thus, he viewed the development of property rights as both endogenous to the prevailing stage of economic development and pre-ordained by the laws of history.

Notes: Book reviewed in this ArticleBain, Andrew D.: The Economics of the Financial SystemBarnett, William A.: Consumer Demand and Labor SupplyBensoussan, Alain; Kleindorfer, Paul and Tapiero, Charles S. (Eds.): Applied Stochastic Control in Econometrics and Management ScienceBurmeister, Edwin: Capital Theory and DynamicsChandler, Alfred D., Jr. and Daems, Herman(Eds.): Managerial HierarchiesChipman, John S. and Kindleberger, Charles P. (Eds.): Flexible Exchange Rates and the Balance of PaymentsCline, William R. and Weintraub, Sidney (Eds.): Economic Stabilization in Developing CountriesGeipel, Ute: Makroökonomische KonjunkturanalyseHerder-Dorneigh, Philipp; Sieben, GÜnter und Thiemeyer, Theo (Hrsg.): Wege zur GesundheitsökonomieHWWA-Institut: Analyse der strukturellen Entwicklung der deutschen WirtschaftJames, Simon:A Dictionary of Economic QuotationsKampkÖtter, Horst: Einzelwirtschaftliche Ansätze der ProduktionstheorieKaufer, Erich: Theorie der Öffentlichen RegulierungKmenta, J. and Ramsey, J. B. (Eds.): Large-Scale Macro-Econometric ModelsLampert, Heinz: SozialpolitikMÁndi, PÉter: Education and Economic Growth in the Developing CountriesNygÅrd, Fredrik and Sandström, Arne: Measuring Income InequalityOdagiri, Hiroyuki: The Theory of Growth in a Corporate EconomyOhr, Renate: Internationale Interdependenz nationaler Geld- und Güter-märkte bei flexiblen WechselkursenOtruba, Heinrich: Wirtschaftliches Verhalten bei UngleichgewichtPasinetti, Luigi L.: Structural Change and Economic GrowthRosensghon, Astrid: Verschwendung in Staat und MarktRoskamp, Karl W. and Forte, Francesco (Eds.): Reforms of Tax Systems — Réformes des systèmes fiscauxSimon, JulianL.: The Ultimate ResourceTennstedt, Florian: Sozialgeschichte der Sozialpolitik in DeutschlandTobin, James: Vermögensakkumulation und wirtschaftliche AktivitätWeizsÄcker, C. C. v.: Barriers to Entry

Notes: This research empirically examines the extent to which progress toward meeting the new international economic order (NIEO) goal of reducing global and societal inequalities has been made in the period since 1972-74. Data on global income distribution from 1946-76 are presented and analyzed. Additionally, the developed West, East, the underdeveloped South, and OPEC nations are examined separately. Basic human needs distributions are also examined utilizing data from the third edition of the World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators. Distributional calculations in these analyses are based upon the well known GINI coefficient. The major finding which emerges is that the NIEO goal of reducing the amount of global and societal inequalities is not being met. In fact, on the whole, a global trend toward greater inequality seems evident. Increasing inequality also is particularly prominent in non-OPEC developing Third World nations. Reductions in aggregate inequality have been made, but this progress is limited by and large to developed Northern and OPEC nations.

Notes: Argy, Victor: The Postwar International Money Crisis.Biehler, Hermann und Brandes, Wolfgang: Arbeitsmarktsegmen-tation in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.BienaymÉ, Alain: Strategies de l’ entreprise compétitive.Borchardt, Knut und Holzheu, Franz (Hrsg.): Theorie und Politik der internationalen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen.Bryant, Ralph C.: Money and Monetary Policy in Interdependent Nations.BuhnÉ, Rainer: Die Internationale Wettbewerbswirksamkeit nationaler Umweltschutzmassnahmen.Chitnis, Suma : A Long Way to Go.Clayre, Alasdair (Ed.): The Political Economy of Cooperation and Participation.Coats, Warren L., Jr. and KHATKHATE, DEENA R. (Eds.): Money and Monetary Policy in Less Developed Countries.Culyer, A. J.: The Political Economy of Social Policy.Donges, JÜrgen B.: Aussenwirtschafts- und Entwicklungspolitik.Dornbusch, Rudiger: Open Economy Macroeconomics.Fels, Gerhard und Schmidt, Klaus-Dieter: Die deutsche Wirtschaft im Strukturwandel.Frerichs, Walter und KÜbler, Knut: Gesamtwirtschaftliche Pro-gnoseverfahren.Friedman, Milton und Rose: Chancen, die ich meine.Gerken, Egbert: Arbeitsmärkte in Entwicklungsländern.Hagemann, Harald; Kurz, Heinz D. und SchÄfer, Wolf (Hrsg.): Die New Makroökonomik.Hawke, Gary: Economics for Historians.Kenen, Peter B.: Essays in International Economics.Kleiter, Gernot, D.: Bayes-Statistik.Lacoue-Labarthe, Dominique: Analyse monétaire.Lavigne, Marie (Ed.): Travail et monnaie en systéme socialiste.Lipp, Ernst-Moritz : Finanzpolitik und Lohnpolitik — Akteure zwischen Konflikt und Kooperation.Menck, Karl Wolfgang; Naini, Ahmad und Nottelmann, Angela: Elemente einer internationalen Strategie für die dritte Entwicklungs-dekade.Posner, Richard A.: The Economics of Justice.Tiegel, Dieter: Wirtschaftspolitik durch Investitionslenkung.Tresch, Richard W.: Public Finance — A Normative Theory.VÄth, Werner: Raumplanung.Wold, Herman (Ed.): The Fix-Point Approach to Interdependent Systems.

Notes: Abstract— Hysteresis loops of a low carbon steel measured at various temperatures and plastic strain amplitudes are analysed using the statistical theory of the hysteresis loop. It is shown that the parameters of the statistical theory characterizing the saturated hysteresis loop, i.e. the probability density function and effective saturated stress, can be obtained from experiments. The probability density function is influenced mainly by strain amplitude; the effective saturated stress mainly by temperature.

Notes: Abstract— Room temperature fatigue crack propagation in a sintered tungsten alloy was studied. The fatigue crack growth rates were found to be identical for the material in the sintered and forged and as sintered conditions. The propagation rates are slower when compared with other metals due to the relatively high Young's modulus of tungsten. The value of the exponent m in Paris' power law equation was found to be 12 which is higher than for most metals. This was ascribed to the activity of a cleavage mechanism through some of the tungsten grains along with the ductile decohesion fatigue mechanism.

Notes: Abstract— The present work emphasizes the need to understand the processes involved in fatigue–creep interactions before reliable life predictions may be sensibly made. In particular, the simultaneous interaction involving a strain controlled cycle with a dwell period at maximum tensile strain is analysed and the accumulation of fatigue–creep damage computed in terms of strain range, extent of dwell and microstructure. Dominant failure modes are thus identified and the findings are used to explain the apparently different failure mechanisms previously reported for a 1Cr–Mo–V alloy steel and a Type 316 stainless steel. Due to lack of data overall mapping of regimes of dominance is not possible, but in cases where a single mechanism prevails throughout the duration of dwell accurate lifetime prediction may be achieved.

Notes: Abstract— Crack shape evolution has been studied in high strength, rolled thread, bolts. It has been found that, using the Crack Microgauge, it is possible to detect and size fatigue cracks, located at the thread root, from depths of less than 0.1 mm up to fracture. This work required a special probe system to be developed and also a theoretical solution for the a.c. field distribution in a thread. Some of the work and results are briefly described in this technical note.

Notes: Abstract— The paper shows the practical significance of theoretical studies of fatigue crack propagation in real structures, and a comparison of the results of fracture mechanics theory with the actual failure mode of structures. It follows from these conclusions that neither the influence of the magnitude and complexity of structure, nor that of the random character of loading can be overlooked. Therefore, when applying laboratory test data the character of the structure under consideration and the loading conditions should be thoroughly appreciated.

Notes: Abstract— The problem associated with short crack growth, defined as situations in which the intensity of the crack tip field is underestimated by linear elastic fracture mechanics analyses, is briefly reviewed.Two cases are identified, cracks growing in plastically strained materials, such as occurs in high strain fatigue studies and at notch roots, and small cracks growing in single grains as occurs close to the fatigue limit in plain specimens.Important mechanical and metallurgical features of short cracks are discussed with particular reference to the upper and lower bound definition of a short crack.

Notes: Abstract— Stress and strain distributions and crack opening displacement characteristics of short cracks have been studied in single edge notch bend and centre cracked panel specimens using elastic–plastic finite element analyses incorporating both a non strain hardening and a power law hardening behaviour. J contour integral solutions to describe stress strain conditions at crack tips for short cracks differ from those for long cracks. The analyses show that (i) short cracks can propagate at stress levels lower than those required for long cracks and (ii) a two-parameter description of crack tip fields is necessary for crack propagation.

Notes: Abstract— The alloy IMI 829 is very sensitive to fretting fatigue damage at 20°C but its fretting fatigue strength increases as the temperature is raised to 600°C due to the formation of a glaze type oxide. Failure occurs by cracking of the glaze as a result of local creep. These cracks propagate into the bulk material. Local creep results from increased stresses in the fretting contact region, frictional heating, and preferential removal of alloying elements into the oxide film leading to reduced creep properties.

Notes: Abstract— The influence of steady mode III on mode I fatigue growth behavior is investigated in four materials–a plain carbon steel, a Ni–Cr–Mo–V rotor steel, and titanium alloys, TA6V and TA5E ELI. It is shown that these loading conditions give rise to two main effects: (i) a strong reduction in propagation rate and (ii) a modification in crack path, the fatigue crack adopting a characteristic “factory-roof’ aspect. In 2024 Al alloy, it is shown that the superimposition of steady mode II to cyclic mode I leads to crack bifurcation, the angle θ being a function of Ka/Ktmax. These observations are discussed in the light of a new criterion which is introduced. This criterion is based on two main assumptions: (i) Fatigue cracking is assumed to occur only under the effect of local mode I opening. (ii) It is postulated that a fatigue crack grows in a direction where the crack propagation rate is maximum. A number of limitations of this approach, associated with crack closure phenomenon, are discussed.

Notes: Two parameters describing the growth of fatigue cracks are compared. They are the cyclic J integral ΔJ and the strain intensity expressed as an equivalent stress intensity ΔKeq-. By referring to cyclic stress-strain data obtained from hysteresis loops in high strength ferritic steels at room temperature and austenitic and ferritic steels at elevated temperature it is shown that: (i) for short cracks the parameters are simply related and (ii) both parameters adequately link fatigue crack growth rates observed in the separate high strain fatigue (HSF) and linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) regimes. Correction factors for thumbnail cracks and the conditions under which the relations need further modification are discussed.

Notes: Abstract— The growth of ‘small’, half-penny shaped surface fatigue cracks in a precipitation hardened aluminum alloy is compared with the growth of ‘large’cracks in fracture mechanics type specimens. It is found that the small cracks grow much faster than LEFM equivalent large ones, and also experience growth rate perturbations. It is suggested that localized microplasticity in nominally elastic specimens is responsible for the rapid growth of small cracks and that grain size limitations on the microplastic regions cause transient decelerations and sometimes permanent arrest, in crack growth.

Notes: Abstract— Cyclic loading of mild steels in 4 N NaNO3 produces intergranular cracking similar to that associated with stress corrosion cracking at static loads, even when the cyclic loads are below the threshold for cracking under static conditions. However, under some circumstances cyclic loading promotes transgranular crack growth, the velocity of which may increase or decrease with increasing stress intensity factor. The transition from intergranular to transgranular cracking, or vice versa, is determined by the relative velocities of the two modes of failure, that observed having the higher velocity. The suppression of transgranular cracking as the stress intensity factor increases is only observed when the loading involves a compressive component and the effect is explained in terms of corrosion products interfering with the cracking process. Tension-tension loading in nitrates produces crack growth characteristics similar to those observed in oil.

Notes: Abstract— The influence of cyclic loading on diffuse light transmission of GRP laminates was investigated. Light transmission decreased due to the presence of matrix microcracks and interface debonding. The dependence of defects caused by cyclic loading on the variation of light transmission was established by methods of scattering medium optics. This dependence can be applied both in investigations of the kinetics of GRP laminate failure and in the estimation of cumulative fatigue damage.

Notes: Abstract— Near threshold fatigue crack growth under mixed-mode loading and elastic plane-strain conditions has been studied in 316 stainless steel in laboratory air at room temperature. Particular emphasis was placed on the influence of the mode II component. Crack growth from the starter crack, although initially coplanar, branches to be perpendicular to the maximum normal stress. However the threshold for the branched crack growth is controlled not only by mode I displacement, but also by the mode II component. Upper and lower bound curves are obtained for the threshold condition and discussed in terms of crack tip reversed plastic deformation, crack surface rubbing and oxide-induced closure. A theoretical method for predicting the lower bound curve is proposed and compared with the maximum normal stress and strain energy density criteria. The new theory shows the best agreement with experimental results, giving a safe prediction for design purposes.

Notes: Abstract— Starting from a knowledge of inhomogeneous dislocation structures observed in cyclically strained metals, a model for cyclic straining is developed. A distribution of volumes with different internal critical flow stresses is assumed characterized by a probability density function. A generalization which includes a thermally activated component of the flow stress is derived assuming that the saturated microscopic effective stress, μes, is equal in all volumes. The relations to obtain the probability density function from experimental data are derived. The theory yields the macroscopic internal stress, σe and the macroscopic effective stress, σe, along the hysteresis loop. Experimental observations on cyclically strained metals can be explained using this statistical theory.

Notes: Abstract— The effects of dry hydrogen, moist air, distilled water and hydrazine environments on the fatigue crack propagation behavior of 2021 aluminum alloy have been investigated over a wide range of growth rates spanning about six orders of magnitude. Environmental interactions in the intermediate and near-threshold crack growth regions are shown to be associated with different fracture characteristics and mechanisms. Scanning Auger and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic analysis of fracture surface corrosion deposits revealed that oxide induced crack closure phenomena, which considerably influence the near threshold corrosion fatigue behavior of low strength steels and some aluminum alloys, are not of importance for the present 2021-T6 aluminum alloy. The mechanistic aspects of environmentally influenced fatigue behavior of the alloy are discussed in the light of hydrogen embrittlement, chemical reactions and crack closure concepts.

Notes: Abstract— Accurate knowledge of defect sizes and crack shape development from initiating defects is essential for a realistic application of fracture mechanic? to the fatigue life prediction of welded joints. Defects at the toes of high quality longitudinal non-load-carrying fillet welded joints have been examined using two methods, and compared with those observed in plain unwelded plate. The defects observed at the weld toe were, on average, four times deeper than the largest observed in the unwelded plate but had similar root radii. For this particular geometry the defects could be considered continuous at the expected initiation site. A simple estimate of the stress concentrating effect of a single composite defect, coupled with experimental evidence, led to the conclusion that the proportion of total life spent in initiation is negligible for all stress levels which cause fatigue failure. Subsequent growth and crack shape development was observed to depend on the initial defect distribution and the complex stress field at the weld toe.

Notes: Abstract— Fatigue crack growth rate tests have been performed on Nimonic AP1, a powder formed Ni-base superalloy, in air and vacuum at room temperature. These show that threshold values are higher, and near-threshold (faceted) crack growth rates are lower, in vacuum than in air, although at high growth rates, in the “structure-insensitive” regime, R-ratio and a dilute environment have little effect. Changing the R-ratio from 0.1 to 0.5 in vacuum does not alter near-threshold crack growth rates very much, despite more extensive secondary cracking being noticeable at R= 0.5.In vacuum, rewelding occurs at contact points across the crack as ΔK falls. This leads to the production of extensive fracture surface damage and bulky fretting debris, and is thought to be a significant contributory factor to the observed increase in threshold values.

Notes: Abstract— Fatigue thresholds and crack growth rates were studied in the experimental alloy, Ti—5Al—4Mo, as a function of temperature, grain size and hydrogen concentration. Deformation is confined to planar slip bands along which fracture occurred at low hydrogen concentrations. Hydrogen accelerated crack growth rates at various combinations of temperature, grain size and hydrogen with a corresponding change in fracture from “cleavage’ to interface phase fracture. In addition, hydrogen was found to promote interface phase formation. It is proposed that stress-assisted hydrogen accumulation increases the interface phase hydrogen concentration which reduces the interface phase fracture stress. This process depends on the local stress and β-phase hydrogen concentrations, temperature and the time under load. At 340 K, hydrogen had a relatively small effect on crack growth due to a change in slip behavior with increased hydrogen concentration.

Notes: Abstract— This work proposes a crack growth equation for short cracks, defined for cracks which have yet to cross the first grain boundary. This crack growth law is used in conjunction with a Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics formulation to describe the complete crack growth behaviour from initiation to failure.

Notes: Abstract— This paper presents the results of an investigation of fatigue crack initiation in pure polycrystalline α-iron as a function of testing frequency (0.01–1000 Hz). Three distinct types of fatigue crack initiation mechanisms were identified:(i) At low frequencies, 〈0.5 Hz, cracks were observed to nucleate at intrusions, extrusions and grain boundaries. However over the frequency range studied the cracks at the intrusions and extrusions were not associated with the final fatigue failure. The results suggest that in pure iron frequencies 〈0.01 Hz are required for fatigue failure to be initiated at intrusions and extrusions.(ii) At frequencies ≤0.01 Hz at high strain amplitudes, cracks nucleated at the intersection of grain boundaries with the free surface as a result of the incompatable deformation of surface grains. The subsequent propagation of these cracks resulted in fatigue failure.(iii) Tests performed at low strain amplitude at 5 Hz and 1000 Hz initiated surface grain boundary cracking without any significant associated change of grain shape.The results of the present investigation indicate that fatigue failure in pure iron alloys (at frequencies 〉0.01 Hz) is initiated not at intrusions and extrusions but at grain boundaries.

Notes: Abstract— Fatigue crack retardation behavior due to an overload under different overload ratios and different crack lengths in a Ti-6A1–4V titanium alloy has been investigated. The effect of some major factors on retardation behavior is discussed as a result of an interaction between the overload and cyclic loads. It is suggested that the retardation process may be divided into five stages. From an analysis of the modes of fatigue fracture, the overload in these tests can be regarded as occurring under plane strain conditions or a mixed mode in which the plane strain condition predominates. Thus, at a given overload ratio the number of delay cycles ND caused by an overload decreases with an increase of K01 under these plane strain conditions.In this paper, the Wheeler, Willenborg, Maarse and Matsuoka models were selected for comparison with regard to engineering applications. An evaluation of their ability to predict life has been made. The Matsuoka model based on the crack closure concept was found to be in good agreement with experimental results. It is also recognized that the experimental values of the effective overload zone size are considerably greater than the calculated values suggested by the above mentioned models.

Notes: Abstract— Electrochemical potential at the tip of a fatigue crack was measured in a compact tension specimen, situated in demineralized, oxygen saturated water at 93°C.Results show that the crack tip region is active with respect to the external specimen surface. Passivation occurs on the crack surfaces by the formation of an oxide layer. The oxygen concentration inside the crack is likely to be lower than in the bulk solution.

Notes: Abstract— The use of d.c. electrical potential methods is described for the monitoring of Mode III (anti-plane shear) fatigue cracks in circumferentially-notched cylindrical specimens subjected to cyclic torsion. Calibration of potential change with crack depth and optimization of current input and potential measurement probe locations are achieved using simple finite element procedures, and are verified experimentally. The use of the method for Mode III crack growth studies is described in the light of crack face electrical shorting problems associated with torsional crack closure.

Notes: Abstract— It was found in a previous publication that stress fields around notches are quantitatively very similar, if the peak stress at the notch root (σpeak) and the notch root radius (ρ) are the same. As a consequence, small cracks (length l) should have the same stress intensity factor, if σpeak and ρ are similar. This implies that the geometry factor C in〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:8756758X:FFE77:FFE_77_mu1"/〉should primarily depend on l/ρ only, and not on other dimensions. Available data on calculated K values was analysed, which confirmed the similarity concept. An equation for C as a function of l/ρ was obtained. It was shown that K-values calculated with this equation are an accurate approximation for the stress intensity factor of small cracks at notches.

Notes: Abstract— A stress-dip technique for the determination of an effective stress in cyclic straining has been improved. The critical stress drop, ΔσC, for which zero strain relaxation rate is observed can be obtained from experiments. The significance of this quantity is discussed in terms of the statistical theory of the hysteresis loop. The measurements of the effective stress at different temperatures and along the hysteresis loop are reported. The observed asymmetry of stress in cyclic straining is ascribed to asymmetry of effective stress.

Notes: Abstract— Low cycle fatigue tests at 650°C on 20% Cr–25% Ni–Nb stainless steel have been carried out under conditions of equal tension/compression ramp rates (10−3 s−1) and slow tension–fast compression ramp rates (10−6 s−1/10−3 s−1). It was found that the latter cycle significantly reduced endurance. Detailed metallography revealed that life reduction is due to the accumulation of creep damage during the slow tensile ramp. It is proposed that at high strain ranges, failure is creep dominated and this changes to a creep-fatigue interaction failure mechanism at low strain ranges.Predictive models have been developed based on cavity growth mechanisms and ductility exhaustion. Both techniques provide an accurate life prediction and only limited data are required to use them.