ALBERT

Notes: Summary Three uses of critical thought experiments outlined in the paper are related to general questions of evaluation. A proposal offered by Karl Popper concerning the so-called “apologetic” use ofGedankenexperimente is critically assessed. Specifically, his methodological principle that one should not use a second theory in order to defend a first theory against a critical thought experiment is discussed with reference to the photon-boxGedankenexperiment (Einstein-Bohr debates) and the Maxwell-demon paradox. It is argued that the rescuing of one theory from conceptual anomaly by appealing to another need not constitute a misuse of a critical thought experiment.

Notes: Summary Norwegian philosophy of science right after the war was empiricistic, scientistic, rather undogmatic and heavily dominated by Arne Næss. The positivistic conception of science has been severely criticized in the last two decades, and the attempts to find viable alternatives have led to a broadening of the perspective, philosophically as well as scientifically. This survey tries to map the main lines of that development. After an account of the rise and fall of Næss' programme for a behaviouristic theory of science, we outline first the development of the internal philosophical critique and then the parallel story on the social science scene.

Notes: Summary The meta-scientific investigation of the various kinds of influence which determine both the establishment of the cultural institution of science and criteria governing its internal operations, including criteria of the concepts of cognition has been termed by Professor Jürgen Habermas as the critical theory of science. The five-fold thesis of his theory treats of what he considers to be the extrascientific interests which determine and accompany our traditional concepts of knowledge as characterized by science. The development of the theses is preceded by his analysis of the faults of “positivist methodology” in which, he argues, distinctions such as that between facts and values are based upon fundamental confusions concerning inerradicable and pervasive practical concerns in terms of which the concepts of cognition are ultimately founded. He identifies the three all-embracing knowledge-guiding interests or concerns as the cognitive interest which determines logical and empirical categories, the practical interest which determines the character of human understanding within the cultural sciences, and the emancipatory interest which determines our concept for freedom and autonomy. The arguments for the critical theory are here analyzed and criticized in terms of their logical shortcomings, while the claims made in favor of the critical theory are found to be based upon inerradicable and pervaisive confusions concerning logical consistency in argumentation. The final section summarizes, moralizes, and speculates upon the criticalness of the critical theory.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es soll die Aufgabe dieses Beitrages sein, die Verflechtungen, welche diese Regeln mit bestimmten Entscheidungen des Denkens haben, an Hand von Descartes' System aufzudecken und dabei so etwas wie eine philosophische Begründung dieses Denkstils in seiner noch aktuellen Funktion vorzuführen. Es soll damit zugleich die Situation erhellt werden, in der wir uns durch die wissenschaftliche Technik befinden, und schließlich soll angedeutet werden, welche Aufgaben für das Verhalten aus solehen Entscheidungen unserem Bewußtsein erwachsen sind.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In den apriorischen Formen und Begriffen des Verstandes wird das aufzudecken gesucht, was außer dem Erlebnisgegebenen in die Erkenntnis noch hinzutritt. Es sind in Wahrheit die Konstruktionen. Die Erfahrung, besser das Erlebnisgegebene, bildet die Grundlage für ihre Aufstellung und für die Begründung ihrer Giltigkeit. Es ist der Empirismus, nicht der Sensualismus, aber ein konstruktiver Empirismus, der die Erkenntnis der Wirklichkeit ergibt.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Deontisch logische Systeme im engeren Sinne sind nicht axiologisch. Um aber auch axiologisch relevante Rahmen-Normen aufstellen und angeben zu können, kommt es wesentlich auf die Art der verwendeten Formalismen an. Wie ein Beispiel zeigt, geht dies bis in die Voraussetzungen des zugrundegelegten Logikkalküls.

Notes: Summary Puzzle-solving, like several other everyday activities, appears in a more sophisticated and ramified form in the realm of natural science. Improving on Thomas Kuhn's rudimentary account of puzzles in science, this paper formulates logical and functional criteria for the occurrence of scientific puzzles, and examines the two-fold nature of their solutions. Then, with the aid of erotetic logic, puzzle-posing questions are identified, their presuppositional relations to scientific theory and explanations are explored, and a new tool for history of science research (sub-puzzle analysis) is developed.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Das Thema dieser Abhandlung ist die Begründung der Giltigkeit von Aussagen, 1. von Erkenntnis, 2. von Normen, 3. von Werturteilen. Giltigkeit bedeutet anerkannt-werden-sollen. Dazu muß das Verhältnis von Sollen und Sein in einer neuen Weise bestimmt werden. 1. Die Begründung der Giltigkeit von Aussagen einer Erkenntnis rein gedanklicher Sachverhalte erfolgt durch die Logik bei Festsetzung von Axiomen. Die Aussagen von Wirklichkeitserkenntnis sind teils solche von subjektiven Erlebnissen, teils solche über eine objektive Wirklichkeit. Die Giltigkeitsbegründung erfolgt dadurch, daß die übereinstimmung des ausgesagten Sachverhaltes mit der Wirklichkeit bei den ersteren unmittelbar, bei den letzteren mittelbar festgestellt wird. Für die Begründung von Aussagen über objektive Wirklichkeit sind außerdem noch zwei Voraussetzungen erforderlich: die einer unbeschränkten Gesetzmäßigkeit und die einer Wirklichkeit außer den Erlebnissen. Die Giltigkeit dieser Voraussetzungen, die über die erlebten Erfahrungen grundsätzlich hinausgehen, beruht auf ihrer Unentbehrlichkeit für eine Theorie, nach der sich die Erlebnisse aus gesetzmäßigen Bedingungen ableiten lassen. 2. Die Giltigkeit von Normen beruht teils auf Festsetzung und ist dann nur eine beschränkt allgemeine, teils auf Bedingungen für die Erreichung von Absichten und kann dann unbeschränkt allgemein sein, wenn die Absichten allgemein sind, wie hinsichtlich der Ordnung, der Grundlage der Logik, und bei der Moral. 3. Die Giltigkeit von Werturteilen, sofern sie unpersönliche sind, wird durch ihre logische Ableitung aus Wertungsgrundsätzen und Tatsachenaussagen begründet. Die Wertungsgrundsätze werden entweder durch Festsetzung aufgestellt, dann haben sie nur eine beschränkte Allgemeingiltigkeit, oder sie werden durch die Konstituenten der Kultur gegeben, dann sind sie unbeschränkt allgemeingiltig.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Bleibt der pankritische Rationalismus ohne logisch-methodisches Grundkonzept, so besteht entweder die Gefahr der Positionslosigkeit oder die des Neoirrationalismus. Andererseits könnte er durch ein solches Grundkonzept zu einem neuen Dogmatismus werden, der dort seine Grenzen hat, wo die Dialektik beginnt. Man glaubt nämlich irrtümlicherweise mit Popper, daß sich auseinem Widerspruch Beliebiges ableiten lasse. Will man dem Dilemma entkommen, darf der Begriff der rationalen Kritik nicht mit dem der rationalen Widerlegung identisch bleiben, diese umfaßt vielmehr nur einen Teil der rationalen Kritik, allerdings den bei weitem umfangreichsten und überdies den, für den sich eine Logik konstituieren läßt. Die Kernlogik umfaßt diejenigen logischen Elemente, auf denenjede Widerlegung basiert. Dies sind die Sätze der Identität, des auszuschließenden Widerspruchs und des auszuschließenden Dritten, die (klassische) Negation, die Konjunktion, die (klassische) Subjunktion, sowie der Satz der Reflexivität und der modus tollendo tollens.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die analytische Jurisprudenz ist abhängig von der Normenlogik, die bisher keine voll befriedigenden Ergebnisse erzielt hat. Der Autor diskutiert die verschiedenen Wege der Normenlogik und deren Schwierigkeiten, insbesondere weist er nach, daß die normenlogische Deduktion nicht auf der Idee der deontisch perfekten Welten aufgebaut werden kann. Trotz der Grundlagenschwierigkeiten der Normenlogik muß diese als Basis der juristischen Analysen angesehen werden. Neben den inneren Schwierigkeiten der Normenlogik steht die analytische Jurisprudenz vor dem Problem, inwieweit das juristische Denken auf rein logischen und inwieweit es auf rhetorischen Argumentationen fußt. Es wird auch ein Katalog der aktuellen Probleme der analytischen Jurisprudenz vorgelegt.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Kern der Logik, wie er sich in den Sätzen der Identität, des ausgeschlossenen Widerspruches und des ausgeschlossenen Dritten ausgedrückt findet, ist nicht revidierbar, auch nicht mit Hilfe von mehrwertigen Logiken. Überdies kommt der Logik, will man die uneingeschränkte Möglichkeit von Widersprüchen eliminieren, gegenüber der Dialektik der methodologische Primat zu. Der unaufhebbare Primat der Logik ist jedoch ein Primat und keine absolute Herrschaft, d.h. es ist möglich, die Grenze der Anwendbarkeit der Logik zu ermitteln. Diese Grenze ist dann erreicht, wenn ein kontextvariantes Objekt nicht zu einem kontextinvarianten Objekt umgeformt werden kann. Das ist z.B. der Fall beim Ganzen im Sinne der Totalität. Dies Ergebnis hat Folgen für die Gültigkeit des Popperschen Falsifikationsprinzips: Läßt sich zeigen, daß die Widersprüche einer These nur von kontextvarianten Objekten, die sich nicht in kontextinvariante Objekte verwandeln lassen, herrühren, so ist die betreffende These aufgrund dieser Widersprüche allein noch nicht korrekturbedürftig, geschweige denn widerlegt.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die dialektische Erkenntnistheorie postuliert gewöhnlich eine Unvereinbarkeit zwischen der transzendentalen Analyse der Bedingungen möglicher Erkenntnis und dem Realismus. Die Annahme der Korrespondenztheorie der Wahrheit wird mit einem naiven Realismus identifiziert und dieser in der Kontroverse mit dem kritischen Rationalimus der gegnerischen Position unterschoben. Jenem werden die Vorzüge dialektischer Betrachtungen als transzendentale Analyse gegenübergestellt. Dieser Argumentation soll hier eine unzulässige Vermengung semantischer Fragen mit erkenntnistheoretischen Fragen nach der Möglichkeit eines Zugangs zu den Tatsachen nachgewiesen werden. Während bei Kant durchaus eine Verbindung von Transzendentalphilosophie und Realismus vorzufinden ist, wird der Charakter transzendentaler Analyse im deutschen Idealismus und in der dieser Tradition folgenden kritischen Theorie seines eigentlichen Sinnes beraubt. Der Versuch, den Realismus instrumentalistisch umzudeuten, muß infolge der Verschränkung semantischer und erkenntnistheoretischer Fragestellungen fehlschlagen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In der vorliegenden Studie berichten die Verfasser über die Lage der Wissenschaftstheorie in Ungarn. Nach einem kurzen historischen Überblick sichten sie die heutigen Forschungsrichtungen der ungarischen Wissenschaftstheorie. In diesem Zusammenhang befassen sie sich mit wissenschaftsphilosophischen Forschungen überhaupt, des weiteren mit den Studien zur Analyse von bürgerlichen wissenschaftstheoretischen Richtungen und mit den wissenschaftstheoretischen Fragen neuer Disziplinen und Forschungszweige. Mit besonderer Aufmerksamkeit verfolgen die Autoren die Aktivitäten zur Untersuchung der aufkommenden wissenschaftlich-technischen Revolution und der einschlägigen Forschungen. Ausführlich sind auch die Forschungsarbeiten in den Einzelbereichen der Wissenschaftslehre: Wissenschaftslogik,— Methodologie,— Soziologie usw. dargestellt. Des weiteren erörtert die Abhandlung auch die Zusammenhänge, die sich zwischen den wissenschaftlichen Forschungen und anderen gesellschaftlichen Aktivitäten — Politik, Technik, Künste, Informationswesen, Pädagogik usw. — ergeben. Abschließend informiert die Studie über die Forschungsstellen, die sich in Ungarn mit wissenschaftstheoretischen Arbeiten befassen.

Notes: Summary Science uses its firmest conclusions to arrive at new ones which may well completely destroy these, previously firmest, conclusions. The perceptive may notice that when the previously firmest conclusions are demolished we may remain in the dark with conclusion worth replacing it with. But only when we replace it with a firmer conclusion can we speak of a bootstrap operation rather than of a refutations. Often, to conclude, thead hoc nature of a fact-like statement is rooted in the theoretical background against which it is couched; given a different theoretical background and it fully falls into place, as the expression goes. If an observation report is at once a corollary of our scientific theory, then it is unproblematic. If it conflicts with our scientific theory, either we reject the theory or try to find an excuse for not rejecting it. When, however, a small theory which well integrates in our theoretical background is attacked by a well corroborated fact-like theory and all its defences are refuted, then a revolution may be under way. Such events may be rare, but they are the more interesting ones. At times we alter our whole theoretical outlook around a rather fact-like theory which then gets refuted.We then look silly from any viewpoint except that which takes the process to be a bootstrap operation!

Notes: Summary In the following pages, and hopefully as a contribution to the philosophy ofperson, I shall try to: (1) explore the notions of object and subject, and show briefly how these have been presupposed by, and have been articulated through, certain theories ofperson; (2) suggest an argument for the overlap of object and subject as the ground for a discussion of feeling and experiencing; (3) offer a neologism,coject, and its derivatives,cojective andcojectivity, as a new and fertile ground for the reconstruction of the present social sciences as human sciences. These steps are taken in the main attempt to lay a further basis for the exploration, investigation, description, and analysis ofperson through the methods of the human sciences.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Frage, ob die Gültigkeit alternativer begrifflicher Strukturen empirisch entscheidbar oder eine Sache der willkürlichen Festsetzung ist, wird, eingeschränkt auf den Fall der physikalischen Geometrie, diskutiert. Die erkenntnistheoretischen Komponenten der empirischen Bestimmung von metrischen und topologischen Eigenschaften des physikalischen Raumes werden in der neueren Wissenschaftstheorie verfolgt. In Anschluß an die Auseinandersetzung zwischen A. Grünbaum und H. Putnam wird eine Interpretation des semantischen Status des Kongruenzprädikates vorgeschlagen, die Schwierigkeiten im Verhältnis von Intension und Extension dieses Terms beseitigen soll. Bei der Konfrontation von Folgerungen aus der Konventionalitätsthese mit der dynamischen Raumtheorie, wie sie im Anschluß an Clifford von J. A. Wheeler entwickelt wurde, treten Unvereinbarkeiten auf, die in der Gegensätzlichkeit von absoluter und relationaler Raumauffassung gründen.

Notes: Summary The developmental trend in many fields of contemporary science is toward integrated general theories. These trends are viewed as essential components of the nature of science rather than expressions of arbitrary preferences of scientists. The law-like factors which lead science toward reliance on general theories include empirical as well as rational components. A model is proposed which exhibits the balance of the relevant factors as calling for increasing use of theories the primitive terms of which are progressively more abstract and general, though no less precise and empirically adequate.

Notes: Summary Science is considered as an open system that constitutes a sub-entity of the total system “society” and whose functions include the production, systematization, communication and application of knowledge. Since this system is made up of individuals and groups, its functions are dependent on psychological factors. This fact serves as a starting point for a psychology of science, which can contribute to optimizing scientific practice by treating the heuristic, organizational, technological, and normative aspects of scientific activity.

Notes: Summary Modern Philosophy of Science has not yet recognized the significance of physical invariance principles for science and daily life. In this paper we investigate as a simple example, how time independence or time translational invariance of natural laws determines the time scale. We start with informal definitions of the invariance of concepts and laws. We then ask if time independence is an essential feature of natural laws or if time dependent laws are plausible without loss of predictive relevance. In section 3 we investigate the question wether time independence of natural laws is a matter of convention. In sections 5–7 the determination of the time scale by time translational invariance is studied. In section 8 we study the conditions under which this determination is unique.

Notes: Abstract The principles and purposes of modular instruction (MI), its advantages for both students and instructors, and a comparison between the conventional and modular approach are presented. Separate sections deal with implementation and management of MI and include a discussion of evaluation and cost. Several examples of modular formats in use at North American universities are described. Present evidence suggests that MI meets the needs of today's students more adequately than traditional instruction both with respect to the quality of learning and the content. However, certain problems may arise in implementing MI. These are presented from the perspective of the student, instructor, and administrator. Given its emphasis on individualized learning and its adaptability to large numbers of students, MI has emerged as one of the most promising alternatives in higher education today.

Notes: Abstract Two undergraduate statistics course designs were compared for their effects on attitudes involving perceived competency with respect to course content, the concept of psychology as a science, the social atmosphere within a course and the interest and value in the area of statistics and research design. One design involved the traditional format of lecture-laboratory-discussion while the other was modeled after Keller's personalized program involving the application of principles of behavioral analysis. The Keller design produced more positive attitudes with respect to perceived competency and the notion of psychology as a science. The attitudes toward the social atmosphere and the interest and value in the course were higher at the beginning of the personalized design and did not change as a result of the students' experiences in the courses. The outcomes seem to be a result of both the specific course design and the context or learning system in which the student functions.

Notes: Abstract The paper discusses the problems of measuring the rate of return to women's education, and evidence is presented for nine countries which shows that the returns to secondary and higher education are on average two percentage points lower for women than for men, but in some countries they are actually higher. Education increases the earning capacity of women, and also increases their propensity to remain in the labour market. But some allowance must be made for the value of women's non-market work, for indirect benefits of education, and for psychic income. Various methods are suggested for measuring the non-monetary benefits of education, such as the intergeneration effect of a mother's education on the future achievement of her children, or the non-pecuniary benefits of employment for women in the labour force. The effects of discrimination on women's earnings and job prospects are discussed, and it is shown that a large part of the observed differential between male and female earnings is due to the concentration of women in low-income occupations. The paper concludes that the difference between the returns to education for men and women is less than is often suggested, particularly if some attempt is made to measure nonmonetary benefits. But the returns to women's education would be increased if there were a change in traditional attitudes leading to a more equal occupational distribution and better utilisation of women in the labour force.

Notes: Abstract As part of a wider study of organisation in a large College of Education, fifty-seven established staff members were interviewed and completed an Osgood-type instrument. The data from this instrument was subjected to Principal Components Analysis, and cluster analysis was used on the distance matrix calculated from the resulting component specifications. It is concluded that the clusters of staff members thus empirically identified are meaningful and consistent with interview responses and observational data. If internal staff groupings can be satisfactorily identified in relation to major issues in the enterprise by the use of such techniques, a useful tool for organisational analysis has been achieved, which holds out the hope that the internal politics of enterprises may be brought within the bounds of empirical research.

Notes: Abstract British universities differ considerably in the strength of their research orientation. Those of higher prestige tend to have a stronger orientation towards research, while those of lower prestige have a weaker research orientation, A university that is strongly research oriented in one group of subjects is likely to be so in the others it teaches too. It is the conventional wisdom that a good researcher is likely to be a good teacher at undergraduate level, and the negative relationship between the degree of research orientation and undergraduate wastage rates provides some slight support for this. The relationship between research and teaching seems to be more an indirect one (that anyone with the ability to do good research is likely to have the ability to teach well at university level) than a direct one (research makes a university teacher a better teacher).

Notes: Abstract The problem of measuring instructional effectiveness was examined, and a rationale was offered for employing “student progress on relevant objectives” for this purpose. To assess such progress, it was suggested that instructor ratings of the importance of objectives be combined with student ratings of progress on these objectives. On the basis of this suggestion, data were collected from 708 undergraduate classes at Kansas State University. An analysis of these data resulted in the following conclusions: 1. Faculty members appeared to make reliable judgments of the relative importance of these objectives. 2. Student progress ratings were made with acceptable reliability when there were 20–25 raters. Reliability of the overall progress measure was satisfactory when only 10 raters were used. 3. Students used some discrimination in rating progress on various objectives, but their ratings were also noticeably subject to the halo effect. 4. An indirect test of the validity of class progress ratings yielded positive results. The proposed method of evaluating instruction appears generally feasible and useful. Its application would provide a practical approach to judging teaching success. Such an approach is essential before investigations can be undertaken of how teaching might be improved.

Notes: Abstract Institutional characteristics for the total population of more than 2,300 American colleges and universities are related to the proportionate foreign student enrollment in each institution through stepwise multiple-regression analysis. Large proportionate numbers of foreign students are enrolled in American private colleges, in colleges located in the West, and in institutions of high quality (as determined by institutional revenue and average achievement test scores of enrolled students). It is proposed that American institutions of higher education, particularly those which are found to enroll proportionately few foreign students, undertake efforts to increase their ratio of foreign to domestic students. A broad discussion is also presented with respect to the educational experience of foreign nationals in the United States and the institutional and national policies which affect foreign students. Given the greater balance in the supply-demand situation of highly trained American manpower in the 1970s, and the availability of many unfilled student positions in American institutions, the implementation of such policies and programs may allow a greater inflow of foreign students to domestic colleges.

Notes: Abstract The objective of this study is to empirically explore the extent to which public two-year colleges in this country are characterized by open admissions policies and by comprehensive curricula, as well as the extent and nature of programs for the disadvantaged within these institutions. Utilizing a stratified sampling design developed by the research staff of the American Council on Education, a precoded original questionnaire was mailed in the spring of 1971 to the chief administrative officer for each institution in the sample. It was found that only a little over half of the colleges have the curricula offerings and admissions policies of exemplary community colleges, but that all reported special courses, programs, or services for the academically disadvantaged minority group. However, only 40% of our sample indicated that they have developed special programs (as opposed to courses or services). Too, community colleges with programs require (1) more resources in preparing faculty for dealing effectively with the disadvantaged, (2) additional emphasis on recruitment of the disadvantaged, and (3) more attention to developing courses in ethnic studies.

Notes: Abstract Academic careers of the 123 students admitted to a doctoral program in psychology between 1963–1967 were reviewed. The attrition rate was 35%, while 29% completed a Ph.D. within four years. While there was no evidence that women were discriminated against in acceptance, attrition was significantly higher among them than among men. Fifteen traditional predictors including GRE scores, undergraduate GPA, letters of recommendation, and prior graduate work were correlated with 13 criteria such as first and later years' graduate GPA, first-year faculty evaluation, withdrawal from program, and completion of Ph.D. Correlations of predictors with the four most important criteria of graduate success revealed that undergraduate GPA, letters of recommendation, major, and quality of undergraduate department were correlated positively with first-year performance but not with eventual success. The best predictors of the ultimate criterion, the Ph.D., were having a master's degree at entrance, age and marital status (the latter two highly correlated with the first), and first-year faculty evaluation. Inasmuch as the last was the best single predictor of the long-term criteria of years of successful study and obtaining the Ph.D., it is suggested that more attention be given by departments to the systematic development and use of early faculty evaluations of the performance of selected students rather than continuing to be concerned with perfecting selection.

Notes: Conclusions It seems that considerable potential economies of scale exist if the University of Bradford is representative. If enrolment is doubled with present accommodation surpluses and course structures, then average costs per student may fall by between 11 and 38 percent, depending upon the course involved and the assumptions made. Further substantial cost reductions would arise with a course structure which handled two intakes a year. However, we became increasingly aware during our research of the absence of any built-in incentive to use resources efficiently. This was most obvious in the case of buildings which were designed in a manner which fits academic requirements more like a sack than a glove, and which, once constructed, were regarded as free goods. It was also the case in respect of current items of expenditure, for under the present system of British university financing and planning, universities know in advance, subject to certain specific exceptions, their income for a five-year period and the approximate number and type of students they will enrol. Thus cost per student over the quinquennium has been determined before the students enter. Once the quinquennium has begun there are few real ways to effect economies since revenue and therefore expenditure have already been determined, nor is there any incentive for universities to cut costs per graduate. The critical time to achieve economies is therefore before quinquennial recurrent grants are fixed, and the power to do this lies with the University Grants Committee and the Department of Education and Science, not with the individual universities. Thereafter universities would need to react to such economies by implementing them as painlessly as possible.

Notes: Summary The assumption that universities are the only natural home for basic research is questioned. The article examines the balance between teaching and research, considers the disadvantages of universities as places of research and suggests what is wanted in an institution devoted to research. The author proposes the creation of a new type of independent research institution which would have a special relationship with universities.

Notes: Abstract This is the concluding part of a three-part series on “Planning, Program, Budgeting Systems” (PPBS) in higher education planning and management. After the experiences of the University of California with PPBS, which we reviewed in Part II, and the subsequent lack of success of PPBS in non-defense applications, we believe a more carefully focused policy analysis approach to be more fruitful. In this paper we describe the nature, foci, and analytical base for policy analysis and present a case study of policy analysis applied to the decision of year-round operations for the University of California. Finally, we give some concluding comments and observations.

Notes: Abstract A simple method of diagnosing areas for course improvement in university science and engineering laboratory courses is described. A first year physics laboratory course is examined in terms of a set of aims. A questionnaire was used for staff and students to rate the importance of these aims in the cases (i) of each group's conception of what an ideal course in the subject should be, and (ii) each group's rating of the “traditional” and “non-traditional” components of the particular course under investigation. One means of identifying specific areas of improvement is out-lined. The potentialities of the technique are discussed.

Notes: Abstract Abstract from the report of the International Conference on Education (33rd Session) of the International Bureau of Education. It deals with (i) the role of higher education institutions in national development, (ii) improving and sustaining the competence of educators and (iii) managing the system of education.

Notes: Abstract An adaptation of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory was administered to all Garnett College students during the first week of the 1968–1969 session. It was administered again towards the end of the course, just before the Teacher's Certificate Examination. Scores were available for 243 students, who had taken the inventory on both occasions. There was an overall increase in mean score of 13.18 points between the two administrations of the Inventory, the difference being highly significant. This represents a change of attitude from autocratic or authoritarian to democratic or liberal. There was a marked differentiation of attitude according to subject specialism, students of arts subjects obtaining less authoritarian scores than students of technical subjects. The overall correlation of the attitude inventory with marks in the written examination was positive and significant (r = 0.21). While the overall correlation with assessments of practical teaching was near zero and non-significant, it was significant in some of the specialist groups, being positive for some groups and negative for others. In January 1972, the attitude inventory was sent to the same sample of students, who had now had over two years' experience of full-time teaching in institutions of further education. Somewhat less than half returned completed inventories. The mean scores of this sample of 105 students had fallen to a value not significantly different from that obtained in the first administration. The same general trend was shown by both men and women.

Notes: Abstract Economic student group sizes in universities are analysed from a consideration of student/staff ratios and departmental recurrent cost per student variations. The analysis is largely derived from a departmental total staff analytical model. It shows that there can be considerable diseconomies for small student populations and emphasises the need for “economic” populations at programmes of study and department level.

Notes: Abstract The article presents the final conclusions of a series of studies (secondary analyses of statistical data and investigations) carried out by the Centre de Sociologie Européenne between 1964 and 1967 and re-evaluated in the light of the new trends which emerged after 1968 (more open system of education offset by diversification of schemes of study with unequal returns in terms of career openings or prestige). In order to present the problem of the democratisation of higher education by reference to unambiguous data, the authors propose a simple principle for calculating the opportunities for entry to a given level of instruction, or into a given field, as a function of social origin and sex. This systematic method of measuring inequality of academic opportunity, linked to sociological variables, has (a) technical (b) methodological and (c) theoretical advantages. o li](a) From the technical point of view, this calculation which relates the number of students (of a given level) possessing certain social characteristics with the cohort of young people of the same age possessing the same social characteristics, makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguities and statistical fallacies of most analyses of the democratisation of education, which are confined to a comparison of the percentages (or the change over time of the percentages) of different social categories represented within the student population, without taking account of the numerical representation (and the change over time of the numerical representation) of these same categories in the active population. li](b) From the methodological point of view, one has thus at one's disposal an indisputable method of presenting unambiguous conclusions with regard to the chronological development of academic inequalities for a given country, or with regard to international comparisons. li](c) From the theoretical viewpoint, this method translates into statistical terms a principle of sociological theory of much more general application and one which is exemplified in the article; this principle, which might be termed structuralist, states that no value (quantitative or qualitative) should be appraised in itself and for itself, rather that it must always be evaluated in its operational or transformational context by taking into account its positional value in the whole system of relations which link it to other values. By applying this principle, it becomes clear that the sciences are not, in France, more democratic than other fields of study, as is asserted by some authors who are content to compare the percentage of working-class students in the science faculties with the percentage achieved in the other faculties, without relating this rate to the extremely low one for working-class students in the Grandes Écoles scientifiques (the École Polytechnique, etc.): in fact, making such a comparison would highlight the weak positional value of scientific subjects in universities in the total system of scientific institutions of higher education and it would reveal the function of relegation (or reduced acceptance) of children from lower-class families assumed by the science faculties in a system dominated by the Grandes Écoles. On a more general level, this principle of relational intelligibility guides the authors' interpretation of opportunity for entry to higher education in France from 1962 to 1966. During this period, the structure of academic inequalities which in 1962 ranged from one chance in 100 (for the least favoured category) to 50 chances in 100 (for the most highly favoured category) has moved upwards, since, in 1966, the range of opportunities extends roughly from 2% to more than 70%. In other words, the total increase in the rate of enrolment in higher education of 18 to 21 year olds has been distributed, grosso modo, between the different social categories in proportion to existing inequalities. Despite a slight statistical narrowing of this range, the authors' psychosociological analysis attempts to show that the general system of expectations and attitudes of different social classes vis-à-vis the University cannot have been modified by a change which amounts to an upward translation of the structure of inequalities. It is therefore concluded that the policy of increasing enrolment during this period had an almost zero effect (sociologically speaking) on the phenomenon of the democratisation of the university, defined as a process equalising the academic opportunities of different social categories. Again it is the same principle, applied to the analysis of the relative scarcity of academic qualifications, which makes it possible to demonstrate that the expansion of higher education devalues degrees (both in the job market and in the symbolic prestige market) as it “democratises” them, thus reconstructing again at a higher level, or in fields of study yielding high returns, the academic privileges of the favoured classes.

Notes: Abstract If a transition from elitist to mass higher education is to be brought about, traditional universities will not be able to do the job alone; new types of higher education will have to be developed to cope with increasing numbers and more diversified student needs. One possibility is expansion and appropriate reforms of short-cycle higher education and OECD's Education Committee has been exploring the problems involved in setting up such institutions or programmes and integrating them into the educational system and the society at large. These problems and some of the solutions envisaged are described in the following article.

Notes: Abstract Relevance is an ill-used, slogan-like word which scholars eschew but which tertiary students persist in using as a criterion for success or failure of their classes. Those who would improve college instruction can facilitate student acceptance of their recommendation only by seeking to understand what relevance means to the learner, and by tailoring reforms to meet the learner's conceptions. Defining relevance as a kind of “goodness-of-fit” in teacher-student interaction, the author elucidates its cognitive, affective, and technological dimensions in the light of psychological research and theory. Students who demand relevance are asking for “meaningful” content which is appropriate to their developmental level and which is conveyed by media to which they naturally respond. The problems faced by teachers and curriculum planners include: (1) understanding the nature of the students' classroom experience; (2) designing curricula and instructional procedures which are congruent with, rather than antagonistic toward, the aspects of that experience which facilitate learning; and (3) finding ways of implementing those procedures within a system not easily turned from its traditional path. Specific suggestions for attaining relevance are made; but the strongest recommendation is for increased understanding of the meaning of the word relevance itself - a development which would bring vigor to an important word now vitiated by misuse.

Notes: Abstract Various models of the teaching-learning process are subjected to analysis. Doubt is cast on the relative effectiveness of conventional college teaching methods which have not been based on a systematic application of what is known about the learning process. Three principles of learning are outlined, and the value of the systems approach to course design is emphasized and discussed as an example of the application of this approach. Finally, the implications for management training are examined.

Notes: Abstract The problem of student work loads has been the concern of staff and students in tertiary institutions for some time. Studies of success, failure and wastage in higher education have indicated a number of factors which may be relevant to the problem of student work loads, but until recently no comprehensive study of the problem has been attempted. A detailed plan for the investigation of student work loads has been prepared by the Higher Education Research Unit at Monash University. Two studies, of quite different type, based on this overall plan, were conducted in 1972 and further studies are proceeding in 1973. This paper includes a general description of the plan for investigating student work loads and gives details of the two studies conducted at Monash University in 1972.

Notes: Abstract The Report of the Faure Commission, Learning to Be, is critically examined and found wanting. It is argued that the Commission fails to reveal the essential problems of formal education, is vague in its recommendations for reform, and ignores the political implications of its proposals.

Notes: Abstract An outline is given of four separate proposals for the creation of international institutions in higher education: the European University Institute (EEC); the European Institute for the Promotion of Multi-media Distant Study Systems in Higher Education (Council of Europe); the European Centre for Higher Education (UNES-CO); and the United Nations International University.

Notes: Abstract The purpose of this essay is to suggest an analytical framework for estimating manpower requirements by skill categories for the purpose of educational planning. In what follows, we first summarise the classic manpower requirements approach and modify it, through the use of an inter-industry model, in order to take into account second order effects in the generation of the demand for skills. Next, the model is applied to actual data to illustrate the techniques used. Although planning applies to future actions, the model is applied within a known period in the past to permit a more realistic testing of its performance and sensitivity. Special attention is given to the question of the relative sensitivity of results to the technical coefficients of a Leontief inter-sectoral input-output matrix and the intrasectoral occupation coefficients, with the distinctive aspects of substitution and productivity change that these structures reflect.

Notes: Abstract What constitutes quality in graduate education? The most widely accepted definition has been proposed by Cartter who asked recognized scholars to rate departmental excellence in 30 disciplines. Cartter's instructions to the raters could have allowed the influence of a “halo effect” to operate. This is an error in rating which is produced when the particular characteristics being rated are contaminated by the rater's notion of the general worthiness of the object being rated. This study demonstrated that the halo effect related to size variables occurred in the Cartter study. Data were collected from public sources for each department of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology rated in the Cartter study as “extremely attractive,” “attractive,” “acceptable plus” and for a random sample of “less than acceptable plus” departments. These data consisted of the following size variables: (1) number of areas of specialization within a department; (2) number of faculty; (3) number of Ph.D. degrees awarded between 1960–64; (4) number of full-time students; (5) number of first year students; and (6) ratio of part-time to full-time students. Tests of statistical significance indicated that these variables differentiated the departmental ratings beyond chance expectation. A graphic illustration is provided for each discipline showing the relationships between the size measures and the mean departmental ratings. Implications of these findings are that measures of size ought not to be confused with measures of quality and that the development of measures of quality is a matter of urgent priority.