ALBERT

Notes: Distinct benefits have been obtained from the use of orthophotography in the initial planning of Scotland's sixth new town, to be located at Stonehouse, 29 km south east of Glasgow, due to a comprehensive approach to the mapping requirements. This paper discusses some of the details of the orthophotomapping project.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'orthophotographie s'est révélée d'un usage fort intéressant pour les études d'implantation de la sixième ville nouvelle d'Écosse (Stonehouse, 29 km au S.E. de Glasgow). On discute quelques aspects du projet d'orthophotoplan.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDeutliche Vorteile ergaben sich aus der Anwendung der Differentialent-zerrung bei der Vorplanung für Schottlands 6. neue Stadt, die in der Nähe von Stonehouse, 29 km südöstlich von Glasgow liegen soll, infolge der umfassenden Befriedigung der Anforderungen an die Kartenherstellung. Im Artikel werden einige Details des Orthophotokarten-Projektes diskutiert.

Notes: This paper describes work carried out jointly by the British Ship Research Association and the author to assess the value of photogrammetry in acquiring quality control measurements on large steel structures in the shipbuilding industry. In particular, the feasibility of using photogrammetry to resolve one of the problems of joining half ships afloat (that is the dimensional equivalence of the mating faces) is investigated.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On décrit le travail mené conjointement par la British Ship Research Association et l'auteur pour tester la valeur des méthodes photogrammétriques dans le contrôle de précision de grandes structures d'acier (industrie navale). En particulier on a cherché dans quelles mesure on pouvait utiliser la photogrammétrie pour vérifier la conformité de piéces devant entrer en jonction.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Im Artikel werden die gemeinsam vom Autor und der British Ship Research Association durchgeführten Untersuchungen zwecks Eignung der Photogrammetrie bei Gütekontrollen grosser Stahlkonstruktionen im Schiffbau beschrieben. Insbesondere wurde die Anwendungsmöglichkeit der Photogrammetrie bei der Lösung einiger der beim Verbinden schwimmender halber Schiffe auftretenden Probleme untersucht (um die Grössenordnung der Aufnahmeobjekte zu veranschaulichen).

Notes: The Photogrammetric Society was honoured to be addressed by the Congress Director of the International Society for Photogrammetry during March 1974. Professor Halonen's lecture covered several aspects of current photogrammetric research in Finland. The following account contains contributions by two of his colleagues, J. Hakkarainen and H. Salmenperä, on specific aspects of lens distortion and block adjustment.

Notes: The Ordnance Survey makes extensive use of air survey in its mapping programmes at scales of 1 : 1250, 1 : 2500 and 1 : 10 000. A short history of the development of air survey within the Ordnance Survey leads into a description of current methods including the flying, processing and aerial triangulation tasks as well as the plotting of the maps by instrumental or graphical means.

Notes: A number of proposals have been put forward for the extraction of three dimensional data from a pair of electron microscope photographs taken from different angles. The methods used have, in general, been either point by point analyses or rather inconvenient. This paper shows that an existing photogrammetric plotter of topographic accuracy can, with very simple modification, be converted to give continuous plotting facilities from certain such micrographs.

Notes: The author reminisces upon a career of almost 40 years as a practising surveyor photogrammetrist, both as a Royal Engineer officer and as a director of a commercial survey organisation. The reminiscences include service with the Survey of India, war time operations in the Middle East and South East Asia Command, and commercial surveys of all types in developing countries. Professional service with international surveying and photogrammetric organisations is also mentioned, with particular reference to the fraternal aspects of international photogrammetry.

Notes: An increasing number of applications of photogrammetry are concerned with the analysis of models, constructed to simulate proposed or existing conditions in architecture and engineering. The paper draws attention to some of these projects and reports one example in detail.

Notes: The author describes the photogrammetric equipment in use by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England), the methods used and the work that is being done in architectural recording. The difficulties and the possibilities of future architectural work in the United Kingdom are discussed and the achievements of some other countries in this field are reviewed.

Notes: The current methods for describing and comparing shapes of teeth have a number of inadequacies which lead to inaccuracy and misinterpretation. A method is described which depends on co-ordinate information. Stereoscopic microphotography of teeth crowns is used to take co-ordinates of up to 600 points on the tooth surface. Mathematical surfaces are fitted to the co-ordinates by the method of least squares and analysed by trend surface analysis. The results show that this is a useful method of describing a complex shape, although there are problems which render comparison more difficult.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLes méthodes qu'on utilise généralement pour décrire et comparer les formes des dents sont de par leur nature imprécises et peu sûres. On décrit une méthode basée sur l'utilisation de coordonnées tridimensionnelles. A partir de micro-stéréogrammes de couronnes dentaires, on relève les coordonnées de près de 600 points de la surface de la dent. Ce semis est ensuite lissé par des surfaces mathématiques et étudié par les méthodes de l'analyse des surfaces. On conclut qu'il s'agit d'une utile méthode de description d'une forme complexe, quoique les comparaisons de dent à dent restent difficiles.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie gegenwärtigen Methoden zur Beschreibung und zum Vergleich von Zahnformen weisen eine Reihe von Unzulänglichkeiten auf, die zu Ungenauig-keiten und Fehlinterpretationen führen. Es wird ein auf der Koordinatenin-formation beruhendes Verfahren beschrieben. Dabei wird die Stereomikro-photographie von Zahnkronen zur Ermittlung der Koordinaten von bis zu 600 Punkten auf der Zahnoberfläche angewendet. Die mathematische Oberfläche wird mit Hilfe der Methode der kleinsten Quadrate bestmöglich den gegebenen Koordinaten angepasst und durch Oberflächentrendanalyse überprüft. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es sich um ein brauchbares Verfahren zur Beschreibung komplexer Formen handelt, obwohl es einige Probleme gibt, die den Vergleich erschweren.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article:TERRAIN EVALUATION. By C. W. Mitchell.ENVIRONMENTAL REMOTE SENSING: APPLICATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS. By E. C. Barrett and L. F. Curtis.MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN CARTOGRAPHY. Compiled by the International Cartographic Association.THE EARTH FROM SPACE. By J. Bodechtel and H. G. Gierloff-Emden.CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN AND PRODUCTION. By J. S. Keates.

Notes: In recent years analytical aerial triangulation in the Royal Australian Survey Corps has evolved to an advanced stage. Current procedures are described and future possibilities explored.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé Ces dernières années les techniques d'aerotriangulation analytique, dans le Royal Australian Survey Corps ont beaucoup progressé. On décrit les méthodes employées et on fait quelques prospective.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammensfassung In den letzten Jahren hat die analytische Aerotriangulation beim Royal Australian Survey Corps einen bedeutenden Stand ereicht. Die gegenwärtigen Technologien werden beschrieben und künftige Möglichkeiten untersucht.

Notes: The article discusses a general classification system applicable to digital ground models (D.G.M.) as used in highway design. Examples of the various categories are given, together with details of some advantages and disadvantages. The place of the D.G.M. in the highway design system is described in conjunction with traditional methods. The relationship between accuracy, density and economy of D.G.M. systems is examined. Finally an experiment is described which investigates the accuracy of various D.G.M. systems; it is being conducted by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES IN LENS DESIGN. By T. H. Jamieson.ADJUSTMENT BY LEAST SQUARES IN GEODESY AND PHOTOGRAM-METRY. By R. A. Hirvonen.AERIAL PHOTO-ECOLOGY. By J. A. Howard.PROCEEDINGS OF THE ISP COMMISSION IV SYMPOSIUM 1970. Editor J. Kure.

Notes: The use of aerial photography for hydrographic requirements is discussed, with particular reference to current circulation in an all water area. The paper examines the criteria and limitations imposed by an environment which is alien to normal topographic photogrammetry.

Notes: The central concern of this paper is with the treatment of human resources in dynamic applications of capital and growth accounting. Despite many advances, national accounting conventions still give biased profiles of the economy, but the time is ripe for experimentation with measures that can correct those biases and provide a more adequate base for assessment of long-term economic performance and prospects.In the first section, the logic and feasibility of forward and backward measures of formation of human capital in the simplest case (of full-time schooling) is examined in parallel with physical capital. In a dynamic economy, which is rarely if ever in equilibrium, these approaches complement each other; they are poor substitutes. In section two a number of conceptual and measurement issues are considered with particular reference to human-capital investment periods and the treatment of appreciation, depreciation and obsolescence of human versus physical capital. Here special attention is given to the extended periods of investments in human resources, which overlap with realization of returns, and to the processes and agencies through which postschool investments are made. The last section presents a brief statement concerning asymmetries in disequilibrium biases with respect to the formation of human relative to physical capital. Drawing upon section 1 with regard to forward and backward measures and section 2 with regard to the critical importance of postschool learning, new possibilities in contributions of national accounting to a dynamic analysis of economic development are suggested.

Notes: After giving a brief discussion of the biases that exist in the conventional estimation procedures followed in the construction of national accounts, this paper argues for restructuring of national accounts so as to treat human capital formation as investment rather than consumption and suggests that a beginning should be made in respect of schooling. The argument is based on the notion that “investment” or “capital” is that which yields future income streams and also on the rather obvious point that treating as consumption large outlays that really constitute investment distorts analyses of resource allocation, growth and income distribution, and obscures intersectoral relations. It is pointed out that the proposed restructuring of national accounts is more relevant and important for developing countries, many of which are embarked on investment planning. Another major point emphasized is that the input of students’time should be properly measured and included in the estimates of capital formation by schooling.To illustrate what these proposals imply, revision has been attempted of the estimates of (a) educational outlay (or activity in the education sector), (b) gross capital formation, and (c) gross national product, pertaining to the national accounts of a major developing country, namely India, for the years 1960–61 through 1965–66. The modified estimates, though first approximations and covering only a part of the human capital formation and having a systematically downward bias, nevertheless indicate an upward revision of the estimate of activity in the education sector by about 200 to 300 percent, of gross capital formation by about 50 percent and of the gross national product by 4 to 7 percent. These magnitudes show the substantial order of distortion involved in the conventional procedures.

Notes: This paper considers the properties of the Divisia, or chain-link, index, as they relate to the argument that this is the most appropriate index for use in studying the sources of economic growth. The great advantage of the Divisia index is alleged to be its “accuracy”, that is, its capacity to combine time series of prices and quantities to give a true reflection of the height of a utility or production function over time. The paper shows that there are circumstances where the confidence in the accuracy of the Divisia index is justified, but that the conditions required are very restrictive and typically do not obtain in the contexts where the Divisia index is used. Misplaced confidence in the Divisia index has led to errors of interpretation that might otherwise have been avoided, and has given rise to a distorted view of the process of economic growth.

Notes: This essay focuses on the problems of estimating the share of America's personal wealth in the hands of affluent individuals by a technique known as the estate multiplier method. Rather than exploring these problems in an empirical vacuum, we first present some results from the most recent estimates of the distribution of U.S. personal wealth.1 The estimates—for the year 1969—are then used as a basis for gauging the sensitivity of estate multiplier estimates to variations in approach.Section I presents new empirical findings dealing with the asset holdings of top wealth-holders and the super rich, and with the shares of specific assets owned by them. Also presented is information about the sex and marital status of the super rich.Section II discusses various technical aspects of the estate multiplier as applied to federal estate tax returns. The main concern is with the weighting process, but attention is paid to the fact that estate tax returns filed in a given year are not for decedents who died in that year or any single year, and to the problems of adjusting the face value of life insurance to cash surrender value.

Notes: The only periodic data available in Canada on the asset holdings and net worth of the household sector are data collected through a series of household surveys originally initiated in 1954. Some limited data on the holdings of financial claims by the personal and unincorporated business sector are available from flow of funds work. Data are unavailable for estimation from estate tax returns.The scope of the surveys has been expanded substantially so that the most recent survey obtained a very comprehensive list of asset holdings. The experience with Canadian surveys has been similar to that of other countries; surveys appear to underestimate asset holdings although the estimates are more reliable for widely held assets than for assets with a very skewed distribution. Nevertheless, the surveys appear to trace the accumulated distribution of personal savings over time to a considerable degree and provide useful cross-sectional trend data.Canadian data show that wealth is more unequally distributed among family units than is income although wealth appears to be more equally distributed between income groups than is income. Wealth is also very unequally distributed within the same income group. Over time, there appears to have been some movement towards a more equal distribution of asset holdings between income groups.

Notes: 〈blockFixed type="quotation"〉Man may work from sun to sun, But woman's work is never done. Anon.It has become almost a cliché that measured growth in the U.S. is being overstated. The classic on the subject is by Mishan [5], who argues persuasively that the (uncounted) externalities from production in industrialized economies are overtaking the production which these economies are counting. But externalities are not the only problems in measuring economic activity and economic growth. Two other problems of equal importance, but more amenable to measurement, are the distinction between final and intermediate production, and the quantification of nonmarket productive behavior. In this paper, we concentrate on one aspect of the measurement of nonmarket behavior—the value of production at home by housewives./〉Specifically, we will present estimates of the value of home based nonmarket production by housewives. These estimates will then be used to supplement various national product aggregates in order to calculate more accurate growth rates for the U.S. economy. We find that the value of nonmarket production by married women during the 1960's has averaged approximately thirty percent of the GNP and close to 40 percent of the national income. The inclusion of the nonmarket work of housewives in GNP would reduce the measured rate of growth of real GNP per potential worker by about ten percent, the exact amount depending on how the value of nonmarket work is estimated. Our estimates indicate a reduction in the absolute rate of growth of almost 0.25 percent.

Notes: This paper proposes that salary structures and the development of salaries over time be considered within the framework of the distribution of income over time. In particular, it examines certain salary scales in the U.S. and the progressions of typical individuals’ salaries during the period 1948–1969, in comparison with the percentile distributions of household income in the same period, as reflected by the Current Population Survey of the Bureau of the Census.

Notes: This paper assesses the role of inventive and innovational activity in the growth process of Canada, a country which relies overwhelmingly, some 90 per cent, on the importation of technological advances and operational know-how from abroad. Canada has prospered under this arrangement but at a price. With technology came foreign capital, foreign management and substantial foreign control. To lessen Canada's dependence on foreign know-how, this country has embarked on an expanded R & D programme. But the pay-off from these efforts has been less than expected. To throw a light on the subject, the results of two new surveys are presented: one a sample survey of patents granted, the other an interview survey of large corporations. Questions examined include sources of know-how and technological advances, utilization of inventions and abandonment of innovations, R & D and innovations, domestic and foreign innovations, and the profitability of innovations. Aggregative assessment is supplemented by disaggregative analysis using cross-section and industry data.

Notes: The paper presents forecasting models for (1) the share of competitive imports in the total demand for a commodity group and (2) the level of demand for competitive imports of a commodity group. The two forecasting models are used, respectively, with (1) input-output models which incorporate market share parameters as one vector of coefficients and (2) input-output models which assume imports have been determined autonomously. It is shown that these two types of input-output models can be made workable by prefixing one or other of the import forecasting models to the input-output model. Tests are made of the forecasting ability of the combined models.

Notes: This article is an extension of an earlier article dealing with gains and losses from changes in the terms of trade. The object of the present article is to show how gains and losses in foreign trade are distributed among the branches of domestic industry. To this end, price changes for gross domestic product at factor cost in each of 25 branches of industry over the period 1949–1965, computed where possible by the double deflation method, are compared with the change over the same period in final demand—i.e., consumption plus gross investment.

Notes: This paper develops a method for estimating long-run trends in income growth from the data available on a country's currency stock. The method is applied to nineteenth-centry Brazil. The results indicate that contrary to earlier beliefs, the country as a whole probably experienced only moderate growth in per-capita income during the nineteenth century. The approach may also be useful for other countries where data shortages preclude estimates of national income by conventional methods.

Notes: This paper discusses the relevance of the conventional national accounts systems to the traditional African economy and concludes that they contribute little because they omit certain economic activities and fail to recognise the reciprocity between social and economic activities. Social accounting is thus more relevant. Lack of statistical data may make it necessary to conduct special surveys and in some cases a tribe or village or economic region may be a more useful accounting unit than a nation. A modified system of accounts is suggested, based on the frame work of the four consolidated accounts of the SNA. It provides linkages to many more nonmonetised activities. Other linkages would be provided through supporting tables emphasising social activities and transfers. A system of transactor accounts in matrix form is also suggested. In the case of communities smaller than the nation several external transactor sectors could be included. It is recognised that the problem of evaluation of social activities and a number of economic activities remains to be solved and it is concluded that “time spent” may be the only common unit or value to equate such activities.The final section deals with investment in human resources and proposes a balance sheet approach to indicative planning. This exercise would be related to demographic projections in several variants. Other factors to be analysed dynamically would be education and health status, public finance and, ultimately, distribution of income and wealth since it is noted that the process of monetisation is having an impact which may have important welfare implications.

Notes: In this paper the author adds some further empirical tests of his theory of income distribution. This theory (cf. this Review, Series 16, Number 3, September 1970, p. 221 ff) sees income distribution as the distribution of prices of production factors, especially labour, of different quality and prices as the effect of demand and supply factors. The quality of labour is represented only by the number of years of schooling. Its supply is described by the actual numbers of people having each of the possible years of schooling; this frequency distribution can be characterized by its average and by some measure of its dispersion or by one of its deciles (in particular the highest) expressed in terms of its median. The demand for the various qualities of labour can be supposed to be reflected by (i) total demand for commodities, but (ii) more accurately by the percentage of third-level educated people used in and weighted by the size of the four main sectors of production: agriculture, manufacturing, trade and transport, and other services. Extensive material collected and reworked by Professors B. R. Chiswick for the U.S.A. and Canada and T. P. Schultz and L. S. Burns with H. E. Frech III for the Netherlands is used in cross-section tests to explain variations in income distribution in the states of the U.S.A. and the provinces of Canada and the Netherlands. The results can be found in the tables. While further increase and smaller dispersion in years of schooling, according to some of the findings presented, would only moderately reduce the degree of inequality in the U.S.A. and Canada, more result seems to be possible according to other findings, including those for the Netherlands. In the latter category the second demand index mentioned above has been used. This paper is one of several devoted in various ways to the testing of the same theory.

Notes: Statistics for developing countries often are misunderstood and misinterpreted because the published data do not distinguish between the economically modern and the traditional sectors. The purpose of economic development is to move a nation from the traditional, or largely non-monetary, subsistence agriculture type of life, to the modern or money oriented and technologically developed type. Statistics of national accounts, the economically active (the working force), and other topics often fail to be useful for economic development purposes because they are presented for the totality of the country and do not show the modern-traditional sectors separately.In addition, data are often misinterpreted and used incorrectly because the development economists do not understand the nature of the data—how they were collected and what they really signify. This point is illustrated with the economically active statistics. Finally, a plea is made for more statistics and information about families.

Notes: This paper deals with some results of an extended investigation which was carried out by the German Institute of Economic Research, Berlin, and the Ifo-Institute, Munich, and financed by the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk. For 29 sectors of manufacturing Cobb-Douglas production functions have been calculated, based on quarterly figures 1958–1968 of value added, input of hours worked, input of utilized capital stock (net of scrappage), and of potential value added, potential labor input and total capital stock. The income distribution is used as production elasticities. For each of the 29 sectors 12 time series of quarterly indices of total factor input and technical change have been computed, using utilized data (variation 1-6) and capacity data (variation 7-12). Two different time series of α are used, taking quarterly interpolated data (variation 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) and the geometric mean 1958–1968 (variation 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12). Moreover three different parameters of homogeneity are introduced, taking r= 1 (variation 1, 2, 7, 8), r= 1.1 (variation 3, 4, 9, 10) and r= 1.25 (variation 5, 6, 11, 12). Seven of the 29 sectors show a very high sensitivity of the rate of technical change due to the assumed r, six sectors a rather high sensitivity. Ten of the 29 sectors show a rather small sensitivity of technical change due to the assumed r, six sectors a very small or even negative sensitivity, i.e. an increasing r creates an increasing technical change. These results can be explained by taking account of the fact that total factor input in many branches increased very slowly or even decreased (labor input alone decreased in nearly all branches). A hierarchy of technical change has been calculated; this hierarchy is difficult to explain, because fast growing industries as well as industries with a small or a negative growth rate of output rank in both the leading and the last group of technical change. Very high rates of output result in high rates of technical change (chemicals, mineral oil refining, plastics manufactures), but some industries with a rather small growth of output (shipbuilding, fine ceramics, steel drawing, and cold rolling mills) show a high rate of technical change too.

Notes: Some writers have emphasised the adverse environmental and social effects of economic growth, while others have claimed that countries with higher levels of social well-being also tend to enjoy higher levels of per capita output. The aim of this study is to see what statistical light can be thrown on these issues by collating and comparing seventeen different social indicators for twenty countries in two bench-mark years, 1951 and 1969.Two methods of analysing data are employed. First, all the countries are ranked for each indicator in turn for a particular year. Each country is then given a score ranging from 1 to 20 for each indicator, and the scores aggregated over the indicators to obtain an overall ranking score for every country. Secondly, the data are subjected to a principal components analysis to examine the correlation between the indicators. The first principal component is a potential candidate for use as a social index number. Changes in these social variables are then related to the rate of economic growth, and no evidence is found of a negative correlation between economic growth and social development. On the contrary, the results suggest a positive correlation between the two, although the strength of this relationship may be diminishing. It is not claimed that the results are in any sense the most preferred test of the form of the relationship between economic growth and social welfare, which must be a matter for subjective evaluation; rather they are seen as a contribution to the body of empirical evidence on this subject.

Notes: The paper analyzes annual revisions of figures for G.N.P. and 8 of its components in 40 countries. It arrives at the conclusion that first estimates are very often significantly biased downwards, especially Private Consumption, Fixed Investment, G.D.P. and G.N.P. Also successive revisions are sometimes correlated (negatively in most cases). The distribution of revisions differ as between developed and developing countries.

Notes: This paper presents the results of applying the mortality multiplier approach to estate duty statistics in order to estimate the size distribution of personal wealth in the Republic of Ireland. It commences with an examination of the limitations of the estate duty statistics, a discussion of the problems involved in collecting the data, and a short consideration of the mortality multipliers used.Estimates are presented for the size distribution of personal wealth, and the distribution of wealth between age groups. Some comparisons are given with wealth in Northern Ireland, Great Britain and the U.S.A. Estimates of the components of personal capital were not found possible.Finally, preliminary estimates are made for the distribution of wealth among married and single persons, in order to provide the basis for an analysis of wealth possessed by wealth-owning units (defined as single males, single females and married couples). By making extreme assumptions, upper and lower limits are placed on the actual pattern of the size distribution of wealth by wealth-owning units.

Notes: The basic theme of Mr. Webster's practical and uncontentious paper is that unreliability undermines credibility. In the following comment specific issues he mentions will be considered in more detail to illustrate some of the principal general points made in his paper.

Notes: The author addresses himself first to the problem that summary measures of wage income inequality, computed for Kinshasa, the main urban area in Zaire, tend to overstate the degree of total labor income inequality among sharing units of comparable size. It is argued that this is true for two main reasons: (1) earnings from female commercial activity are not recorded in the available statistics; and (2) the 1960 UN definition of household upon which the measures of inequality are based understates the size of the actual sharing unit. Data taken from the 1967 Socio-Demographic Survey of Kinshasa and the 1970 household budget study are used to test these hypotheses regarding short-run income inequality.The policy observation is made that, while modernization of the commodity distribution system may provide a disincentive for sharing and a reduction in opportunities for female employment, investment in non-service sectors may equalize the secular income distribution for a given migration cohort. Evidence of unskilled migrants moving from service to non-service sector employment in response to increased labor demand is presented. This is accomplished by supplementing sample survey data with time series on aggregate employment by sector for Kinshasa.

Notes: The reliability of the quarterly national income and product (NIP) accounts of the United States is examined from several standpoints. First, possible sources of error in the quarterly NIP accounts are explored, the most important being the lack of appropriate data, seasonal adjustment errors, sampling errors and biases, and the nature of the U.S. statistical system. Next, four ways of assessing the reliability of the accounts are considered. The most weight is given to measures of revisions in early estimates of the quarterly NIP aggregates. Results of previous studies of revisions are reviewed, and a summary of a major study of revisions for the period 1947–71 is given. The other ways of assessing reliability which are examined are the effect of errors on economic policy making, analysis of the statistical discrepancy, and expert judgment on sources and methodology.The degree of accuracy is judged to be generally sufficient for the policy decisions for which the NIP estimates are used. The early estimates of a quarter's change in GNP almost always distinguish whether the ultimate estimate will be large or small and will usually distinguish whether the ultimate estimate will be larger or smaller than the preceding quarter. While the accuracy of the estimates has generally been sufficient, the accuracy for 1965 was judged insufficient by policymakers. There is some evidence that errors have been reduced over time.

Notes: Most developing countries have compiled national accounts on a regular basis only for the last few years. It has not yet been possible for them to collect many of the statistics necessary to obtain good coverage of their economic activities by methods which would generally be accepted as reliable. Consequently the checks on reliability imposed by the framework of the national accounts are often absent, and the accounts prepared contain many estimates of doubtful quality. These doubts can usually only be removed as statistics collected by better methods become available. This is proving to be a slow process, partly because of the shortage of trained statistical staff and the competing demands of social and demographic statistics and partly because of the inherent difficulties in collecting good statistics from small businesses and traditional households. The need to define traditional households as producers as well as consumers leads to our demanding extra information from this difficult sector. In addition it is often difficult for the national accounts statistician, and even more so for the user, to find out in the time available exactly how some of the statistics with which he is presented were obtained. When this cannot be done it is impossible to assess their reliability. Thus assessing the overall reliability of national accounts in developing countries for even a limited range of uses is at present largely a matter of personal judgment. The information necessary to make more objective assessments rarely exists and hence the problems which developed countries face in using such information are not yet within the experience of most developing countries.

Notes: This paper examines the wealth position of blacks relative to whites, on the basis of data in the Survey of Economic Opportunity. The analysis indicates that at the same levels of both income and wealth blacks consistently invest more in consumer durables, especially housing, than do whites. The paper then explores possible explanations for this finding, suggesting that these investment differences are not solely due to the income and wealth position of blacks, but may be due to a smaller set of investment opportunities institutionally fostered by discriminatory forces.

Notes: An underlying theme in this paper is that the differences in approach in this area arise partly from the complexity of the phenomena in the real world being studied, the implications of this interrelated complexity for unbiassed and efficient estimates of the structural relations, and the problems of getting an adequate number of observations of the required form.Two distinct approaches have been used in the study of marginal and total factor productivity. One approach is to use the factor shares in national income as weights to combine the individual factor inputs to make an index of total factor input, and to use a factor's relative share to measure its marginal contribution. The second approach is to estimate the production relation from the data being used, and derive the marginal contribution of the productive factors to output from the estimated relation. The longest parts of the paper review the procedures followed to cope with the main problems in the real world, and the strengths and limitations in the two approaches. The discussion emphasizes the issues for the economy as a whole, and touches only briefly on the issues in disaggregation.Three major themes are emphasized in the conclusions to the paper. One is that many of the problems, the differences in view, and the controversies grow out of the range of interrelated issues in practical applications. A second major theme is that most of the attempts to solve particular issues by those using the factor shares approach are rather similar to those followed by researchers estimating the production relations directly. A third theme is to encourage more studies that will look at the interconnections between production relations and income distribution, from the points of view of both economic theory (and its predictions about the relevance to concrete applications) and statistical estimation.

Notes: This paper summarizes the results of several studies on total factor productivity of twenty-five countries over the period 1950–1965. Some methodological issues which underlie the derivation and calculation of the familiar partial and total factor productivity indices are discussed. Though evidence on labor productivity for a large number of countries is presented and discussed, the main thrust of the discussion is in terms of the determinants of total factor productivity. The quantitative and qualitative contributions of labor and capital to growth of income are assessed with special attention to the contrasting patterns of these contributions among developed and developing economies. The problems of acceleration and retardation of the growth rate of some economies are considered and possible explanations are offered. Variations in the magnitude and sectoral distribution of the growth rates in several countries over this period are examined. Finally, areas for further research in comparative economic growth are suggested.

Notes: This paper discusses the estimation of the CES Production Function with Hicks-neutral technical change, and gives the results of an empirical study based on time series data (quarterly values) for sixteen industrial sectors in the Federal Republic of Germany (including West-Berlin), 1958–1968. The validity of the basic assumptions of the production model used in this investigation—neutrality of technical change and perfect competition—is tested by estimation of alternative specifications of the equations of this model. For this purpose two different methods of estimation were used.

Notes: Developing countries which typically have import surpluses and inflationary pressures because of insufficient savings are prone to use indirect taxes on imports (Tm) and subsidization of exports (Sx) in order to prevent deterioration of the balance of trade. If these substitutes for devaluation are included in the net indirect tax component of product at current market prices (Ym) the import surplus is likely to be understated, and Ym upward biased. This distortion will be avoided if imports and exports are measured at effective exchange rates (ER), that is, at official rates (OR) plus Tm and Sx respectively, and if (Tm - Sx) is deducted from the net indirect tax component of Ym. Only in this manner become imports and exports consistent with the other uses and resources at market prices and can be articulated with them. At base-year prices the volume index of product at OR diverges from that of ER to the degree that the composition of imports and exports in regard to tax and subsidy rates computed ad valorem significantly changes.Such a case is similar to that of the price indexes of imports and exports moving in diverging proportions: the trade balance at base-year prices will differ from that at current prices. The resulting discrepancies in national accounts have led to proposals of deflating, for example, exports by the price index of imports. Suchlike approaches are incompatible with the principle of national accounting that prices are supposed already to measure substitution values. Deflating exports by import prices means reintroducing substitution values, as does, for example, deflation of incomes by a consumer price index. Correspondingly, since the trade balance at ER conceptually expresses the value of imports at domestic market prices as compared to the corresponding domestic market value of exports, and if at ER the trade balance diverges from that at OR, the former balance has an important meaning (as has the trade balance at base-year prices as compared to that at current prices) and the resulting discrepancy between the two measures should not be removed merely for the sake of accounting smoothness.In contrast to the market price approach, the measurement of product at base-year factor cost is indifferent to the measurement of the trade balance at ER and at OR.It is, therefore, proposed in countries in which part of import taxation and export subsidization substitutes for devaluation, to record imports and exports in the national accounts at effective exchange rates, and to correct the net indirect tax component of product correspondingly. Imports and exports at official exchange rates should be shown within the balance of payments, and the latter separately as a memorandum item.

Notes: Changes in many output determinants contribute to growth. An analysis of the sources of growth is an allocation of changes in output among these determinants. Total factor input and output per unit of input condense all determinants into two groupings. Misinterpretation of results is common because authors presenting either detailed or summary results often provide no complete or precise description of their classification of determinants, and readers ignore even the information provided. The classification suggested in this paper is detailed enough to bring out points at which description is required but often overlooked. Some effects of alternative estimating procedures on classification are described.The relative usefulness and practicality of possible alternative classifications also need consideration and discussion. This paper is concerned with general purpose classifications, appropriate for analysis of actual series measuring a country's total output, that are suitable for present use but will also accommodate useful detail that may later become feasible. A desirable classification will so specify determinants that (1) they both unite cause with effect and correspond to the economist's method of analysis so that his set of tools can be brought to bear; (2) they do not contribute to growth if they do not change; and (3) they conform as well as possible to practical possibility of estimation. Among several points considered fundamental are that the complete contributions of advances in knowledge and of resource reallocation each appear as an entity. They should not be dispersed among inputs or other determinants. It is less clear whether economies of scale should be a separate determinant or their contribution be dispersed.

Notes: The author attributes economic growth in Hungary to three factors: structural change, increase of employment, and productivity. On the basis of this he points out that in the 1950's the first two factors were responsible for nearly half of the economic growth. From the 1960's this tendency has changed; more and more importance has been taken by the increase of productivity. As the main source of economic growth is the increase of industrial productivity, in the further part of the study the author makes an attempt to break down the development of Hungarian industry into its components and to analyse their efficiency. Starting from the present conditions of industrial development he investigates what further increase of industry the resources accumulated till now and their probable growth will allow in the future.Taking into account the role of material and human resources the author draws the following conclusions.Industrial production will increase in the future at the same rate as productivity.The increase of industrial investment will probably be lessened, which postulates the greater increase of capital productivity as well as that productivity will increase at a higher rate than the capital-labour ratio.These conclusions assume an increase in the efficiency of industrial investment and an above average increase in the high-productivity branches.A further source of increasing productivity is accumulated human capital. The higher educational level is one of the guarantees for the ever-increasing role of productivity in economic growth in the future.

Notes: This paper compares preliminary estimates (available about four months after the close of the period to which they refer) with final estimates (available three years after the close of the period) for certain national accounting aggregates and some of their major components. It concludes that preliminary estimates are consistently low for gross domestic product, exports, and public consumption, whereas imports, private consumption, and gross capital formation may be either low or high. The best early estimates, in the sense of closest to the final figures, are those for gross domestic product, imports, and exports.

Notes: Economic realities can be described in national accounting only by certain approximative means and presumptions; therefore they cannot be measured with absolute accuracy. However, because of their great importance these investigations must fulfil as far as possible the reliability required for the economic control and planning of the national economy, in accordance with predetermined concepts and methods.The reliability of national accounting is favourable in Hungary, as they are based mostly (92 percent) on the bookkeeping data of enterprises, cooperatives and institutions. The bookkeeping system is uniform in all economic organizations, in conformity with central regulations, and it takes into account the demand of computations for national accounting.Despite these favourable conditions lesser or greater contradictions can be found in the national accounts every year. The absolute measure of the differences is not significant; however, if compared to the annual increase it results in uncertainty of 15 percent. The uncertainty is reduced by the fact that the sign of differences is the same every year.The author classifies the causes of uncertainty in national accounts into four groups: 1. problems of the time shift of the connected economic processes and of their accounting; 2. effect of the enterprise interests; 3. inadequacy of methodological regulation; 4. inaccuracy of data surveys and processing. The study deals with the special factors of inaccuracy occurring in constant price accounting. Inaccuracy of the most important aggregates, for instance that of the volume index of the national income, comes to 0.5-0.7 percent which results, in the case of a yearly 5 percent “real” increase in the index, in reliability limits of 10 to 15 percent.In the concluding part of the study the author points out that in Hungary the unexplored contradictions are not shown as “statistical discrepancy” but they are included in the various aggregates on the basis of considerations discussed in the study.

Notes: Conventional measures of national product make no pretence of including everything that affects welfare. As increasing attention is being paid to environmental pollution, the problem of incorporating certain non-economic variables into the analysis of well-being becomes more relevant. The object of this note is to show how a difference in “needs” for, and hence expenditures on, anti-pollutants, which will show up in conventional national accounts comparisons as differences in “tastes”, should be converted into differences in real income.

Notes: The CMEA standard of statistical information provides a system of national wealth indicators. The paper deals with certain time series published in these countries and in the CMEA Statistical Yearbook as the components of that system. Special attention is paid to the USSR interbranch balance of 30 types of fixed assets cross-classified by 105 branches of economy. This balance is analogous to the input-output table technique in the western literature. On the basis of this balance the Soviet statisticians furnish coefficients of direct and total requirements in fixed assets for each branch. Such coefficients are usually called capital ratios or capital coefficients. In the USSR they are calculated together with the coefficients of direct and total requirements of labour for the same industries, and they supplement input-output tables. The scheme of the fixed assets balance and the matrix for the calculation of these coefficients are described in the paper together with some numerical illustrations of actual coefficients reached in the calculations.

Notes: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the sources of economic growth in Japan and to compare the results with those in the U.S. and Europe as studied by E. F. Denison. The method used by Denison is followed as far as possible. The character of this paper is of fact finding, and the interpretation of results or the originality of methodology is not dealt with here. The results may be summarized as follows.(1) Japan's growth rate is two times that of Europe and three times that of the United States.(2) The contributions of labor, capital, and the residual to economic growth are all higher for Japan than for the U.S. or Europe.(3) Factors which account for the higher contribution of labor to economic growth are (a) the higher rate of increase in employment, (b) less shortening of working hours, and (c) improved age and sex composition.(4) Factors which account for the higher contribution of capital to economic growth are a higher rate of increase in capital input and the high elasticity of production with respect to capital.(5) Other notable points include: (a) the contribution of education is lower for Japan; (b) the capital-labor ratio in Japan increased remarkably; (c) capital's share of national income is higher; and (d) 60% of Japan's economic growth is accounted for by the residual.

Notes: This paper analyses productivity growth in the Hungarian economy over the two decades between 1950 and 1970 with the aim of establishing what help can be provided in such analyses by the use of total factor productivity index numbers. After the introductory sections the paper deals first with the rates and factors of Hungarian productivity growth, and then with some methodological lessons of the investigation.

Notes: The paper discusses the relevance of input/output tables as a tool for economic analysis and planning in developing countries. It contends that this is so only to the extent that the input out-put tables enable consistency of production accounts to be verified while providing a suitable basis for macro projections at the same time. As a by-product, such input out put tables, the paper adds, also provide a convenient framework for estimating the needs for extensions and improvements in basic statistics.All these requirements, it is stated, can be fulfilled by a relatively aggregated format of an input/output table—which some of the developing countries are in a position to compile. However, the paper states, it is feared that the case for input/output analysis is not based on these requirements. The main force of arguments is in fact based on the uses of input/output tables for more detailed sectoral analysis and projections. The current state of basic statistics on some key sectors, it is stated, is not sufficiently sound to yield an end-product which is reliable. In the case of sectors where this is so the input/output analysis is not relevant either because of concentration of production in a relatively few establishments or because of limited amount of inter-sectoral interaction. It is further felt that if such arguments were to be accepted by developing countries the result would be a distorted disposition of statistical resources. Immediate needs of the developing countries require concentration of effort in development of more reliable and relevant series on basic statistics.

Notes: At present two systems of measurement of national product are in practice, one as defined in the UN System of National Accounts (SNA) and the other termed the Material Product System (MPS) or National Balances for the Economy. In the present paper, an expanded system of accounts integrating the national balances within the framework of a simplified SNA has been suggested. The accounts suggested are mainly the two sets of (i) Supply, Disposition and Domestic Production of goods and services and Consumption Expenditure of Budget and Mixed Organisations and the Population, and (ii) Income and Outlay and Capital Formation Accounts.The system is convenient not only for arriving at estimates by either of the two approaches, but is readily manageable. This set of accounts can, without any effort, be put in the form of a matrix leading to its ultimate integration with either the UN System of National Accounts or a modified system of national balances.The system gives not only the integrated system of SNA and national balances, but also a coded list of transactors and transactions within the economy. This coded list can be used as the first set of information for the creation of the economic data bank for the Integrated Statistical Information System.

Notes: Defining investment as outlays that increase income- and output-producing capacity, the author presents estimates of human investment in the United States 1929–69, comprising rearing costs, education, training, health, safety and mobility outlays. He develops an economic accounting framework to accommodate human investments and research and development in national and sector capital accounts, with appropriate adjustments to the current accounts to provide consistency. The associated balance sheets and wealth statements are also developed.The wealth and corresponding income estimates are used to compute rates of return on human, non-human, and total capital. In the business economy the average net rate of return on total capital was 10.6 percent in 1969, compared with 10.0 percent in 1929. The average and marginal rates of return on human capital were generally somewhat higher than on non-human capital throughout the period.

Notes: Radical changes, up and down, have taken place in the estimates of growth in total factor productivity in the U.S. made by different economists, or by the same economists at different times. If such estimates provide “some sort of measure of our ignorance,” as Abramovitz once put it, we seemed to be a lot less ignorant in 1927 (when Cobb and Douglas published their famous paper), or in 1967 (when Jorgenson and Griliches published theirs), than we were in the years between (when Schmookler, Abramovitz, Kendrick, and Denison completed their studies), or than we are today (when we have, or will soon have, revised estimates by Denison and by Kendrick, and new estimates by Christensen and Jorgenson). Viewed in this perspective, many questions may be raised about the significance of the current estimates that something like a third or more of the rate of increase in U.S. national output is “due” to increase in productivity, as well as about the concepts, data, and methods that underlie the estimates. A list of particular subjects worth considering for research is given and each is briefly discussed.

Notes: This paper examines the available evidence relative to the distribution of income in a developing country, Colombia, over a relatively long span of years, roughly from the mid-30s to the mid-60s, especially in the context of the argument that recent growth has been characterized by worsening distribution and stable or declining incomes for lower income groups. The basic conclusions are that income distribution within agriculture worsened throughout the period, while non-agricultural income probably worsened from the mid-30s to the early 50s, improved from then to the mid-60s, and then leveled off. During the period of improvement in non-agricultural income, it appears that the overall distribution also improved somewhat. Over the period as a whole, the main gainers have been the second and third deciles from the top; the top decile appears to have lost. The bottom two deciles also appear to have lost.

Notes: This paper examines two different approaches to the estimation of the size distribution of wealth. The first section describes new estimates for the distribution in Britain in 1968 using the estate method and discusses the sensitivity of the results to the main assumptions. The second section presents preliminary estimates using the investment data, a method which has not been widely used. In the final section the results obtained for the upper tail of the distribution from the two methods are compared.

Notes: An announced in the December 1971 issue of this Review, the Thirteenth General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth will be held in Hungary in August of 1973. Persons interested in submitting papers to be considered for presentation in any of the sessions are reminded that they should communicate with the session organizer as soon as possible. A list of topics and session organizers will be found in the December 1971 issue of the Review.

Notes: The author describes the results of his current research designed to measure total investment, tangible and intangible, and the derived capital stocks for the U.S., 1929–1966. With respect to total investment, the estimates show a marked increase in its ratio to GNP. All of the increase occurs in the intangible component comprising R & D, education and training, health, and mobility. The increase was concentrated in the government sector, although households increased the proportion of disposable personal income devoted to total investment.Consistent with the relative investment trends, the stock of intangible capital grew considerably faster than the tangible stock. The growth of total capital stocks was somewhat less than that of GNP, however, in both current and constant prices. Thus, the rate of return on total capital rose somewhat over the period. Average rates of return on human and nonhuman capital were closely similar.In real terms, the growth of total capital stocks accounted for two-thirds of the growth in real GNP, 1929–1966. One-third of the growth is attributed to residual forces, chiefly economies of scale, changes in inherent quality of human and natural resources, changes in values and motivations, and changes in rates of utilization of capacity.The growth of the ratio of real intangible stocks to real tangible stocks accounted for less than half of the increase in total factor productivity 1929–1966. This is significantly less than the contribution of intangibles as estimated by Denison, and the author adduces several reasons why his estimates may understate the contribution. Nevertheless, it seems that the net effect of the residual forces enumerated above must also have made a substantial contribution to the growth of tangible factor productivity and real GNP over the 37-year period.

Notes: For horizontal layering and plane horizontal impulsive wavefronts it is theoretically possible to get rid of multiple reflections by a feedback procedure which can easily be derived using raypath philosophy. To reduce the increase of noise inherent in the method the precise theoretical formulae are altered in such a manner that a practical application becomes possible. For this purpose the autocorrelation will be used.Application of the new process to a CRP section where the shot geophone distances in the field had not been long enough to attenuate multiple reflections effectively gave favourable results.

Notes: Two in situ measurements of stress wave velocity in a granodiorite massif were made. Firstly, the velocities close to the source were investigated (for elimination of the influence of cracks), and secondly, the velocities in different horizontal directions over a large area were studied from the viewpoint of their dependence on the crack system of the medium. A correlation between the mutual orientation of the cracks and the maximum or minimum values of the stress wave velocities was obtained.

Notes: The technique of linear digital filtering as developed for the direct interpretation of Schlumberger and Wenner soundings (Ghosh 1971) has been applied here for the derivation of the resistivity transform function from the field dipole measurements as the first step in directly interpreting dipole data. Filter coefficients for this transformation have been worked out for the radial-polar, perpendicular and parallel (30°) arrays of dipole sounding. The procedure combines speed with accuracy.

Notes: Dipole soundings are more sensitive to noise caused by lateral and superficial inhomogeneities than Schlumberger soundings. However, the former are preferable for deep explorations in view of the relatively short cables required. The simple solution of carrying out the field work by means of dipole spreads, and to transform the dipole resistivity diagrams into Schlumberger ones by means of proper formulae would be valid only for smooth and regular curves; but often, owing to the presence of lateral noises, the dipole data show a considerable scatter. For such cases a “continuous dipole sounding” method is proposed for which all successive dipoles are contiguous, so that all parts of the profiles are covered and interpolation is not necessary. Obviously the moving dipoles have lengths proportional to their distances, so that they appear equal in the usual bilogarithmic scale. It follows that only polar-dipole arrays may be used. The transition from a dipole to the corresponding Schlumberger apparent resistivity diagram requires an integration constant which is not unequivocally determined. Therefore, the solution is not unique, but all possible derived Schlumberger diagrams have a common part. Similarly, they have some common interpretative results, which may be referred to the original dipole diagram obtained in the field.A special measurement technique is required since the dipole-dipole voltages to be determined are noticeably smaller than the Schlumberger ones. This is true also because dipole soundings are used for great depths and for long distances between the two dipoles.

Notes: Basic requirements for a seismic reflection system using a moderate-power controlled source are discussed. General considerations and computer modelling show promise for geophysical prospecting, especially at low penetration and very high noise level. For many applications, ranging from mineral and water prospecting, to civil and military engineering, and even archeology, a relatively cheap, small and portable device of this kind might be more convenient than conventional explosive sources or sophisticated controlled sources of the vibroseis type. The use of a simple, low frequency periodic signal facilitates rapid data processing procedures and suggests that the mechanical generator will be very simple and cheap.

Notes: A method is described to transform a dipole sounding curve, obtained with any one of the common dipole arrays over a horizontally layered earth, to the form of a Schlumberger sounding curve. Starting from the general expression which relates the dipole apparent resistivity to the Schlumberger apparent resistivity and its derivative with respect to the spacing, it is possible with some approximations to derive an easy numerical computation procedure in order to perform the transformation. The applicability of the method is discussed briefly.

Notes: Approximate deconvolution by means of Wiener filters has become standard practice in seismic data-processing. It is well-known that addition of a certain percentage of noise energy to the autocorrelation of the signal wavelet leads to a filter that does not increase, or even reduces, the noise level on the seismogram. This noise addition will, in general, cause a minimum phase signal to become mixed phase. A technique is presented for the calculation of the optimum-lag shaping filter for a contaminated signal wavelet. The advantages of this method over the more conventional approach are that it needs less arithmetic operations and that it automatically gives the filter with the optimum combination of shaping performance and noise reduction.

Notes: A set of parabolae is defined to approximate the observed gravity profile for specifying the lateral density variation in a two dimensional causative body. This variation separates the “biased” as well as “unbiased” residual anomaly structure. The method may be directly incorporated into existing numerical and graphical techniques of interpretation for subsequent delineation of structural configuration. The simple relations derived by inspection of the observed gravity profile permit universal application of the technique and in particular for the determination of the size and shape of sub-shelf structures. The suitability of the method in various problems of two dimensional interpretation has been indicated through an illustration of the Godavari Basin (India).

Notes: Decomposition of IP discharge curve into a sum of exponentials yields more information than present practice does. Such a work was performed, as a beginning, by hand, plotting the ordinates on semi logarithimic paper. It gave, according to the cases, two or three exponentials, each with an amplitude Ai and the time constant τi.Three examples of ground prospection are given, the third of which shows an anomaly, unnoticed with present technique but obvious on a profile curve with A1/A2 in ordinates.A computer processing technique is described which yields directly the time constants τi by seeking a differential equation which the IP voltage satisfies; the order of the equation is set arbitrarily. On a practical prospection record with only two exponentials, the assumption that the differential equation does not depend on charge duration (everything else being equal) has been checked (the shape of the curves would depend on boundary conditions). The assumption roughly holds for charge durations from 5 seconds to 40 seconds. We hope that a larger number of exponentials will yield better results.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉SommaireLa décomposition de la courbe de décharge en une somme d'exponentielles permet d'en tirer plus d'information que la pratique actuelle. Un tel travail a été fait, pour commencer, à la main en portant les ordonnées sur papier logarithmique; il a fourni, suivant les cas, deux ou trois exponentielles avec, pour chacune d'elles, le coefficient Ai et la constante de temps τi.On donne trois exemples de prospection sur le terrain, dont le dernier comporte une anomalie, inaperçue avec la technique actuelle, mais bien mise en évidence en traçant la courbe de A1/A2 le long du profil.On donne ensuite une technique de calcul sur ordinateur des τi, en recherchant l'équation différentielle à laquelle obéit la tension ΔVPP enregistrée, l'ordre de cette équation étant fixé arbitrairement. On a cherchéà vérifier sur un enregistrement de terrain, avec. deux exponentielles seulement, l'hypothèse suivant laquelle l'équation différentielle ne dépend pas de la durée de charge (toutes choses égales d'ailleurs). L'hypothèse se trouve grossièrement vérifiée pour les durées de charge allant de 5 secondes à 40 secondes, et nous espérons qu'un plus grand nombre d'exponentielles donnera de meilleurs résultats.

Notes: The conventional seismic technique is subject to a recording time following each transmission of energy, in which it is forbidden to release any new pulse. The recording time depends on the deepest reflection of interest, and is often 10 seconds or more in actual practice. To each transmission corresponds one record, i.e. a fixed amount of data which cannot be increased in a given time.Pulse coding allows us to go beyond this limit, by transmitting several times during the normal recording time. The procedure gives as many records as there are pulses, but they overlap, each event being repeated every time there is a pulse. It is possible to process the composite record back to its usual appearance with all events in their proper place if the time breaks are accurately known and make up a code such that the unavoidable noise generated by the process be kept, on the final section, below the ambient noise. The processing is quite similar to that of records made from vibrating sources, though faster in practice.The additional information can be devoted to a saving of time and money as the same profile may be recorded in a shorter time; or to an improvement of quality of the section due to a higher order of coverage, a multiplication of the ray paths and a closer sampling of the reflectors. It is also possible to record information in several planes at the same time, and to work out a 3-dimensional restitution, without loss of production.The process applies to all kinds of sources provided they can be triggered according to the code with sufficient accuracy. Depending on the source and conditions of implementation, the method benefits from other advantages such as better resolution, increased flexibility, and better coupling.Two different names have been given to the process, Sosie and Seiscode, which apply to slightly different parameters for the sequence of pulses. Sosie is more useful at sea, while the normal scope for Seiscode is onshore. Both names are trademarks for SNPA.

Notes: The interpretation of Turam data is treated by means of a development of the conventional approach to this type of data. The development consists of a curve matching technique based upon a line current approximation to the true induced current pattern.The technique requires computation facilities which are readily available in modern programmable calculators.Practical examples of the use of the method illustrate that it can reveal information concerning the geometry of a conducting body which would not be gained by the conventional approach.

Notes: Two-layer type curves of apparent frequency effect for the Wenner configuration are presented. The formulation is based on the normal definition of frequency effect in terms of resistivities measured at different frequencies plus the definition of apparent resistivity over two horizontal layers as a function of first and second layer resistivities. The use of these type curves in the interpretation of multilayer apparent frequency-effect curves is described and some field examples are given.

Notes: In this paper properties of the discrete zero-phase time function are derived and compared with related properties of the discrete minimum-phase time function.The two-sided minimum-length signal is introduced and it is derived that, for any given amplitude spectrum, the two-sided minimum-length signal and the signal with zero-phase spectrum are identical signals. A comparison is made between the one-sided minimum-length signal (minimum-phase signal) and the two-sided minimum-length signal (zero-phase signal).A computational scheme is discussed which determines the zero-phase correspondent of a given signal.A method is proposed to compute zero-phase least-square inverse filters. The efficiency of minimum-phase and zero-phase least-square inverse filters is shown on signals with different phase properties.A criterion is derived which determines whether a symmetric time function has the zero-phase property. The close relationship with the minimum-phase criterion is discussed.Finally the relationship between signal length and resolving power is illustrated on numerical examples.

Notes: Empirical equalities derived from time domain induced polarization scale modelling with the gradient array over simple geometries, and from the potential field functions for equivalent simple charge configurations are similar. The function for the dyke like body is analogous to the magnetic case allowing both total and vertical magnetic field interpretation techniques to be applied to gradient array chargeability anomalies.

Notes: “Remote sensing” techniques have been used for many years as an exploration tool; broadly speaking, any method using sensors not directly connected to the earth's surface falls into this group.It is preferable, however, to use the term solely with reference to a number of new sensors which have recently become available to earth scientists for the detection of various radiations of the electromagnetic spectrum in the wave length range from 0.1 micron (UV) to some centimeters including the visible and infrared regions.Radiations artificially induced in the earth (active sensing) or spontaneous radiations (passive sensing) can be detected. Some of the bands investigated seem promising for application to geological surveys, especially using sensors on aircraft and satellites, which allow synoptic and large scale investigations.A brief account is given of the results already achieved and of future developments such as the ERTS and manned satellite (post Apollo) “earth observation” programmes.The potential role of Europe in the field is discussed.Details are given of some applications of thermal I.R. imagery to geological and vulcanological problems, with special emphasis on the research carried out in Italy.

Notes: A checking method of digital multiple elimination and of deconvolution processing using computers and based on optical autocorrelation is first presented. Comparison between autocorrelograms before and after a single or several processing steps allows to estimate, on one hand, the strength of the deconvolution obtained, known by the study of the central parts which is in fact the signal autocorrelation, on the other hand, the multiple elimination given by the study of side parts of the autocorrelogram.Further, an optical deconvolution procedure, is presented. For this, it is supposed that the signal is known and optically reproduced in the same way as the one of a trace. This is achieved by sphero-cylindrical optics allowing trace to trace processing. Deconvolution is carried out in the spectral domain by inserting a filter in the Fourier plane of the optical unit, the transmission law of which expresses the Fourier transform of the antisignal. This filter device introduces a holographic technique called Fourier holography, in such a way phases as well as amplitudes are preserved.Several results are presented from a synthetic section and also from field sections.

Notes: The separation of regional from local gravity anomalies by means of the application of two-dimensional linear filters is analyzed. It was found that optimization of the filter in the least squares sense leads to filters that produce strong localized concentrations of the error, which may erroneously be interpreted as anomalies. For this reason the maximum absolute value of the error is a more important criterion for the quality of the filter than the root mean square error. This maximum absolute error is minimized by the minimax filter. Intermediate filters are derived which give a transition zone which comes appreciably closer to that of the optimal filter at only a small price in terms of increase of the maximum absolute error.

Notes: Cable feathering is defined as the angle between a line connecting the cable end points and the line of the seismic profile. It is shown that an average reflection point map is more accurate than a shot point location map for geologic interpretation. Geologic resolution is degraded by feathering and this degradation is a function of the number of channels recorded. Feathering in areas of dipping reflectors produces non-standard normal move-out because the depth points are not common, and the perpendicular distances to the reflecting surfaces vary among traces in the c.d.p. gather. An example of a profile shot across a large river is discussed.