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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 127 (1972), S. 9-33 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Nervous system ; Speophyes (Coleoptera) ; Antennae ; Function ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé Nos recherches au microscope électronique portent sur une structure nerveuse en lamelles découverte pour la première fois dans l'antenne duSpeophyes, qu'on étudie comparativement chez les Coléoptères hypogés et épigés. Nous constatons qu'elle existe à l'extrémité de l'antenne chez toutes les espèces cavernicoles de l'échantillon examiné ainsi que chez plusieurs espèces épigées. Nous n'avons pas rencontré cet organe à l'extrémité de l'antenne de trois espèces épigées; nous ne pouvons cependant pas affirmer qu'il n'existe pas, les articles inférieurs de l'antenne n'ayant pas été examinés. Son plus grand développement chez les espèces cavernicoles laisse supposer une fonction plus spécifiquement adaptée à ce milieu. La structure fine de ces lamelles présentant une étroite similitude avec celle des photorécepteurs, nous avons émis l'hypothèse d'une sensibilité à des rayonnements présents dans la grotte, par exemple au rayonnement infrarouge. Il faut souligner que la nature ciliaire de ces structures est en désaccord avec l'appartenance de l'Insecte à la lignée rhabdomérique.
    Notes: Summary The lamellated nervous system discovered in the antennae of the beetleSpeophyes, has been comparatively investigated in various hypogeous and epigeous species. It was found in almost all of the species studied in the tip of the antennae. It was, however, not detected in a few of the epigeous forms. Its extensive development in the cave develling species suggests a specific function in this particular environment. The fine structure of the lamellae is closely comparable to that of photosensory cells. Therefore it is assumed that they serve a similar function, i. e. the perception of infrared radiation in the caves. Its ciliary nature does not correspond to the rhabdomeric structure of insect eyes.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 134 (1972), S. 351-366 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Sensory cell ; Proboscis ; Glycera convoluta ; Papilla ; Electronmicroscopy ; Histochemistry
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé Chaque papille de la trompe chez Glycera convoluta contient un groupe central de deux à quatre cellules sensorielles primaires. Chaque cellule possède un noyau allongé situé à mi-hauteur de la papille. Le processus péripherique ou dendritique porte cinq à six cils qui traversent la cuticule et sont entourés chacun par un cercle de microvillosités; les cils se prolongent dans le cytoplasme par de fines racines ciliaires qui se réunissent pour former une seule énorme racine montrant une striation périodique. Le processus central ou axonal se prolonge dans le plexus nerveux sous-épithélial. Le rôle physiologique de ces cellules est discuté.
    Notes: Summary Each papilla in the proboscis of Glycera convoluta contains a central group of two to four primary sensory cells. Each one shows an elongated nucleus situated at half-height of the papilla. The peripheric or dendritic process bears five to six cilia traversing the cuticle; each of them is circled by a ring of microvilli. The cilia are prolonged in the cytoplasm by fine ciliary rootlets which gather themselves in a very big single root showing a periodic striation. The central or axonal process runs in the subepithelial nervous plexus. The physiological role of the cells is discussed.
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  • 3
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    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 131 (1972), S. 399-416 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Spermatozoon ; Pleurodeles ; Tail ; Morphogenesis ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Résume La morphogenèse des éléments caudaux: filament de soutien, membrane ondulante, flagelle et filament marginal, est décrite durant les différents stades de la spermiogenèse. L'absence de cytochrome cytochimiquement décelable, prouve que l'acidophilie marquée du filament de soutien provient de protéines basiques cytoplasmiques ne dérivant pas des mitochondries. Leur origine nucléaire éventuelle est discutée. Le filament de soutien est homologué à la fibre dense externe no 3 du spermatozoïde des mammifères. Le filament marginal à structure périodique pourrait correspondre à la colonne dense longitudinale no 8 de la gaine fibreuse. A la fin de la spermiogenèse, le spermatozoïde présente une symétrie bilatérale. Une face ventrale et une face dorsale peuvent être définies par comparaison avec le spermatozoïde de mammifère.
    Notes: Summary The morphogenesis of the tail components: supporting filament, axial rod, undulating membrane, and marginal filament, are described through the differents spermiogenesis steps. The cytochemical cytochrome fate, demonstrated that the pronounced acidophilic properties of the supporting filament are related to the presence of the other cytoplasmic basic proteins. Their eventual nuclear origine is discussed. The supporting filament is homologous to the mammalian sperm outer dense fiber no 3. The marginal filament which shows a periodic structure, may correspond to the longitudinal column no 8 of the fibrous sheath. At the end of spermiogenesis, the spermatozoon shows a bilaterally symmetrical structure. A ventral face and a dorsal face may be defined by comparison with the insect and mammalian spermatozoon.
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  • 4
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Pancreas (frog) ; Intrinsic innervation ; Monoamines and AChE distribution ; Ligth, fluorescense ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary The autonomic nervous system in the pancreas of Rana temporaria, R. ridi, bunda, R. esculenta and Hyla arborea was studied with histochemical methods of light: fluorescence, and electron microscopy. These species displayed the following common features: (1) a developed innervation whose topographic distribution was similar to that observed in the mammalian pancreas, (2) a richer nervous supply to the islets of Langerhans than to exocrine tissue, (3) a prevalence of cholinergic over adrenergic innervation in islets and exocrine parenchyma, (4) sporadic Cajal interstitial cell-like cells of a cholinergic nature, (5) in islets, the B-cells were mainly supplied by adrenergic, and the A2-cells by cholinergic nerve endings, (6) the occurrence of biogenic monoamines in B-cells and of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in B- and A2-cells. These aspects together with observations on the fine structure, nature, and the intimate morpho-functional relationship of nerve terminals with blood vessels, acinar and endocrine cells, are discussed in connection with the findings of other authors.
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  • 5
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    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 135 (1972), S. 361-382 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Placenta (human) ; Syncytiotrophoblast ; Differentiation ; Function ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Entwicklung des Zottentrophoblasten der menschlichen Placenta von der 9. Woche bis zur Geburt wurde elektronenmikroskopisch untersucht. Dabei zeigt sich, daß die Differenzierung nicht kontinuierlich sondern in Schüben abläuft. Hiernach wurde eine Stadieneinteilung durchgeführt: Im undifferenzierten Tertiärzottenstadium (bis zur 14. Woche) ist das Zottensyncytium weitgehend einheitlich strukturiert. Nach dem unterschiedlichen Dilatationsgrad des rauhen endoplasmatischen Retikulums sowie Häufigkeit und Struktur apikaler Vakuolen ist eine noch weitergehende Unterteilung möglich. Durch zentrifugale Kapillarwanderungen bedingte Kernverschiebungen im Syncytium führen um die 15. Woche zur Ausbildung von Epithelplatten, Syncytialknoten, Proliferationsknoten und syncytialen Brücken. Hiermit wird der Übergang zum differenzierten Tertiärzottenstadium vollzogen. Um die 22. Woche treten Areale mit glattem endoplasmatischen Retikulum und Syncytiumlamellen über Langhanszellen hinzu. Eine weitere Untergliederung des kernlosen und des kernhaltigen Syncytiums führt ab der 28. Woche zum typischen Bild der reifen Placentazotte mit mosaikartig angeordneten, morphologisch und funktionell differenzierten Syncytiumarealen. Vergleiche mit biochemischen Aktivitätskurven der Placenta und mit tierischen Placenten bestätigen diese Stadieneinteilung und erlauben teilweise gleichzeitig eine funktionelle Deutung der Stadien und ihrer morphologischen Erscheinungsbilder.
    Notes: Summary The structural development of the human trophoblastic epithelium from the 9th week of gestation up to term has been investigated by means of electron microscopy. Up to the 14th week the syncytium of the tertiary villi shows an entirely homogenous ultrastructural pattern, although regional variants in both the amount of large apical vacuoles and the appearance of rough membranes exist. From approximately the 15th week on the capillaries grow eccentrically and approach very closely to the trophoblastic epithelium. The outbulging terminal vessels cause various differentiations of the overlying syncytium (syncytial knots or sprouts, syncytial bridges, epithelial plates). Accumulation of smooth membranes can be observed in the syncytial layer from the 22nd week onwards. The mature syncytium is characterized by subdivision of the formerly homogenous syncytial layer into morphologically and functionally different areas, which form a mosaic-like pattern due to irregular distribution of the nuclei and different ultrastructural organization of the cytoplasmic constituents. An attempt has been made to correlate the different stages of ultrastructural development with various biochemical and endocrinological data.
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  • 6
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    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 125 (1972), S. 121-131 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Hairless skin ; Mole ; Innervation of the dermis ; Simple encapsulated corpuscles ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Einfache eingekapselte Endigungen im Corium der unbehaarten Nasenhaut des Maulwurfs werden beschrieben. Diese Körperchen liegen im Nervenplexus unter den epidermalen Eimerschen Papillen. Sie sind oval, 30–40 µ lang und 15–20 µ dick und ihre Längsachse läuft parallel zur Oberfläche der Epidermis. Die Körperchen bestehen aus einer versorgenden Nervenfaser, einem Innenkolben, einem Subkapsularraum und einer Kapsel. Die Nervenfaser hat drei strukturell verschiedene Abschnitte: einen eintretenden myelinisierten Teil, einen im mittleren Abschnitt des Innenkolbens verlaufenden nicht myelinisierten Teil und eine terminale Verdickung, die fingerförmige Ausläufer zwischen die Lamellen des Innenkolbens streckt. Der Innenkolben besteht aus Lamellen, die von modifizierten Schwannschen Zellen gebildet werden. Die peripheren Lamellen sind dicker als die Lamellen, die das Axon umhüllen. Alle Lamellen zeigen eine starke pinozytotische Aktivität. Zwischen der äußersten Lamelle, die von einer Basalmembran umhüllt wird, und der Innenfläche der platten Kapselzellen liegt der Subkapsularraum. Er enthält Kollagenfasern und Fibroblasten. Die Kapsel wird von 1–2 Schichten sehr flacher Zellen gebildet, die die gleiche Struktur wie die Perineuralzellen der Nervenfaser besitzen. Der Unterschied zwischen dem Aufbau dieses Körperchens und dem Bau ähnlicher Endigungen im Corium anderer Säugetiere wird diskutiert.
    Notes: Summary In the corium of the hairless skin of the mole's nose simple encapsulated corpuscles are found and described. These corpuscles are embedded in the nerve plexus below the epidermal papillae of Eimer. They are oval, 30 to 40 µ in length and 15 to 20 µ in diameter, their longitudinal axis running parallel to the surface of the epidermis. The corpuscles consist of an afferent (dendritic) nerve fibre, an inner core, a subcapsular space and a capsule. The nerve fibre is composed of three sections: a myelinated portion, entering the corpuscle, a non-myelinated section running through the center of the inner core, and a terminal thickening sending finger-like branches between the lamellae of the inner core. The inner core consists of lamellae formed by modified Schwann's cells. The peripheral lamellae are thicker than those covering the axon. All lamellae show a great pinocytotic activity. The subcapsular space is located between the outermost lamella, covered by a basement membrane, and the inner surface of the flat cells belonging to the capsule. It contains collagen fibres and fibroblasts. The capsule is formed by 1 to 2 layers of very flat cells structurally resembling the perineural sheath cells of the nerve fibre. Differences in the arrangement of these corpuscles and that of similar endings in the corium of other mammals are discussed.
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  • 7
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    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 125 (1972), S. 191-199 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Smooth muscle cells ; Intercellular relationships ; Tunica muscularis externa ilei ; Small intestine ; Guinea pig ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary Different intercellular relationships between smooth muscle cells are observed in the tunica muscularis externa of the ileum of guinea-pig. a) simple adjoining of the two muscle cells; b) nexus; c) desmosome-like attachment with dense aggregations on both membranes; d) projection from one muscle cell protruding into another muscle cell. All four types are found in the circular muscle layer. On the contrary, in the longitudinal layer clear-cut nexuses are not observed. Simple adjoining of muscle cells, nexuses, and desmosome-like attachments are observed between muscle cells of the circular layer and the longitudinallayer.
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  • 8
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    Springer
    Cell & tissue research 123 (1972), S. 544-565 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Glial cover of cortex (cat) ; Phases of development ; Whirled piles of membranes ; Astrocytic lamellae ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung An zahlreichen Altersstufen wird die Entwicklung der Gliadeckschicht des Cortex cerebri der Katze untersucht. Das neugeborene Kätzchen hat eine fast epitheliale Decklage, deren Zellen tanycytenartige Fortsätze (TF) in die Tiefe senden. Seine weitere Entwicklung läßt sich in 4 Phasen gliedern. 1. Auflockerungsphase (1.–15. Lebenstag): Die Perikarya der Deckzellen treten auseinander, so daß das Neuropil bis nahe an die Oberfläche vordringen kann. Aus den dunklen Zellen wird eine durchgehende oberflächliche Fortsatzlage (OF) gebildet. 2. Umbauphase (16.–30. Lebenstag): In ihr degenerieren die hellen Zellen, die ursprünglich etwa 50% der Oberfläche abdeckten. Aus den dunklen Zellen werden die ersten runden Fortsätze (RF) mit dichten Gliafilamenten und Glialamellen (LF) ohne Filamente gebildet. Am Ende der Phase sind zwischen allen OF Schlußleisten vorhanden. 3. Proliferationsphase (31.–45. Lebenstag): In dieser Zeit werden LF und RF in großen Mengen gebildet. Die ursprünglich cytoplasmareichen Gliazellen, die einen großen Golgiapparat besitzen, verwandeln sich in die cytoplasmaarmen Astrocyten der Deckschicht. 4. Reifephase (46.–60. Lebenstag): Zwischen allen Fortsatzarten wird eine große Zahl von Zellkontakten (specific junctions und Desmosomen) ausgebildet. Am Ende der Reifephase beginnt in Schicht I die Entwicklung der markhaltigen Nervenfasern. Die Bildung der LF, die aus den Membranwirbeln (MW) entstehen, wurde genauer untersucht. Die MW entwickeln sich im Perikaryon und sammeln anschließend in der Auflockerungsphase Material in Form von membranbegrenzten Granula. Während der Umbauphase werden sie in blasenartige Vorstülpungen des Perikaryon geschoben und bilden dort komplizierte Formen. Dabei müssen große Membranflächen enstehen, während zugleich die Granula verschwinden. Aus den verzweigten MW werden in der Proliferationsphase große Mengen von LF abgeschoben. Bei diesem Prozeß müssen intracelluläre Membranen in Plasmalemm verwandelt werden und intracelluläre Cisternen Anschluß an den extracellulären Raum gewinnen. Die Bedeutung dieses Vorganges wird diskutiert.
    Notes: Summary The development of the glial cover of the cat's cortex cerebri examined on many stages of age after birth comprises four phases. The newborn kitten possesses a nearly epithelial cover of cortex. Each of the covering cells extends a process (TF) into the depth similar to that of a tanycyte. 1. Phase of loosening (first to 15th day of life): The perikarya of the covering cells disperse in such a way that the neuropil is pushing up nearly as far as to the border of the surface. The dark cells are forming a closed layer of flat superficial processes (OF). 2. Phase of transformation (16th to 30th day of life): Cells having a light contrast degenerate. They originally covered about 50% of the surface. The dark cells develop the round or oval processes (RF) with closely packed filaments of glia and the astrocytic lamellae (LF) without filaments. The terminal bars are built up at the end of this phase between all OF. 3. Phase of proliferation (31st to 45th day of life): Very many LF and RF are developed. The glia cells which originally have had a big cytoplasm with a large Golgi complex are transformed into astrocytes of the cover with a small border of cytoplasm. 4. Phase of maturation (46th to 60th day of life): The areas of cell attachment (specific junctions and desmosomes) are formed in large quantities between all kinds of processes. The myelinisation in layer I is beginning after the phase of maturation. The special development of the LF is determined. They are formed from concentric whirled piles of membranes (MW). The MW arise in the perikaryon and are gathering material in granules which are membrane bounded during the phase of loosening. The MW are shifted into bubblelike bulges of the perikaryon during the phase of transformation and afterwards form very complicated figures. At the same time very many planes of membranes must be developed in the MW while the granules disappear. Then the ramified MW deliver a great amount of LF. The intracellular membranes must be transformed into the plasmalemma during this delivery and the intracellular cisternae are opened towards the extracellular space. The significance of this process is discussed.
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  • 9
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    Cell & tissue research 128 (1972), S. 406-425 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Parafollicular Cells ; Rat ; Normalcalcemia ; Vitamin D2 ; Electronmicroscopy ; Histochemical fluorescence method
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary Thyroid parafollicular cells of normocalcemic and vitamin D2-treated rats were investigated by electron microscopy and with the histochemical fluorescence technique of Hillarp and Falck. Administration of high doses of vitamin D2 caused hypercalcemia and an extensive degranulation of the parafollicular cells. The formation and storage of monoamines in granulated and degranulated parafollicular cells was investigated by fluorescence microscopy after injection of monoamine precursors (DOPA, 5-HTP), alone or in combination with Ro 4-4602, nialamide or reserpine. No fluorescence was observed in parafollicular cells of untreated rats. l-DOPA and l-5-HTP (but not the corresponding D-amino acids) were taken up by a process closely linked to the decarboxylation of the amino acids to the corresponding amines (dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine). Treatment with vitamin D2 did not seem to affect the formation of amines in the parafollicular cells or the formation and storage of amines in other cell systems investigated. The amine itself (dopamine) was not taken up by the parafollicular cells. In normocalcemic rats, the amine formed was retained in the cytoplasm of the parafollicular cells by a partially reserpine-resistant mechanism. The storage of amines is concluded to occur in association with the calcitonin-containing granules. In parafollicular cells of vitamin D2-treated rats, a certain amount of amine was bound in the cytoplasm in the absence of typical granules. As a considerable amount of calcitonin is known to remain in the thyroid of vitamin D2-treated rats, the present observations may indicate an association between the amine and the polypeptide hormone calcitonin, whether the latter is confined to typical granules or not.
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  • 10
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    Cell & tissue research 133 (1972), S. 1-12 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Golgi complex ; Ovary ; Bat ; Cytodifferentiation ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary Dense lamellar bodies (DLB) were noted in immature cells in the developing ovary of the free-tailed bat. The DLB appear to be formed in the nucleus. They pass through the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. There they give rise to parallel stacks of flattened cisternae which are representative of typical dictyosomes. During the first meiotic prophase the dictyosomes aggregate to form the Golgi complex.
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  • 11
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    Cell & tissue research 133 (1972), S. 519-527 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Myofibroblasts ; Testis (human) ; Connective tissue ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung In der Lamina propria menschlicher Hodenkanälchen wurden spezialisierte Fibroblasten beobachtet. Die Zellen sind durch Bündel parallel geordneter Plasmafilamente gekennzeichnet, deren Durchmesser rund 80 Å beträgt. Die Filamentbündel verlaufen parallel zur Oberfläche der lamellär ausgebreiteten Zellen und inserieren in elektronendichtem, granulärem Material, das der Innenseite der Zellmembran anliegt. Es wird angenommen, daß dieses Fibrillensystem kontraktil ist; die dichtere oder lockerere Vernetzung der Filamente innerhalb der Bündel würde dem kontrahierten oder erschlafften Zustand der Zellen entsprechen. Die beschriebenen spezialisierten Fibroblasten sollten der Gruppe der Myofibroblasten zugeordnet werden (Gabbiani, Ryan und Majno, 1971).
    Notes: Summary A special type of fibroblast is observed in the connective tissue of seminiferous tubules in human testes. These cells are characterized by a fibrillar system consisting of parallel arranged cytoplasmic filaments. The filaments have a mean diameter of 80 Å. Bundles of filaments run parallel to the surface of the flattened cells. The filaments insert in a dense, granular material which is connected with the cell membrane. This fibrillar system is thought to be contractile; the dense or more loose texture of the filaments within the bundles may correspond to the contracted or relaxed state of the cell. The specialized fibroblasts described are supposed to belong to the group of myofibroblasts (Gabbiani, Ryan and Majno, 1971).
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  • 12
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    Cell & tissue research 109 (1970), S. 64-82 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Median eminence ; Avian neurohypophysis ; Neurosecretion ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé L'étude ultra-structurale de l'éminence médiane (E.M.) du Canard, réalisée à l'aide d'une fixation par perfusion intracarotidienne fait apparaître plusieurs traits saillants particulièrement remarquables: a) Dans la couche sous-épendymaire, l'existence de neurones infundibulaires dispersés, de fibres parfois dilatées renfermant des granulations à cœur dense, et de vaisseaux structuralement aptes à drainer des sécrétions. b) Dans la couche fibreuse, la présence d'axones appartenant au faisceau hypothalamopost-hypophysaire, dont les granulations semblent se différencier comme dans la Pars Nervosa. c) Dans la couche palissadique l'existence de trois types de fibres neurosécrétoires au moins: Type 1: Granulations comprises entre 1100 et 1600 Å (avec une subdivision possible: 1100–1300 et 1300–1600 Å), associées éventuellement à des vésicules de 400–600 Å. Type 2: Granulations ≦1000 Å (pouvant être également subdivisées en deux catégories: 800 Å et 1000 Å), avec généralement de nombreuses vésicules de 400 à 600 Å. Type 3: Vésicules de 400 à 600 Å, sans granulations. La différence entre les régions rostrale et caudale de l'E.M. est due essentiellement à une variation dans les proportions relatives de ces différentes catégories axonales, le type 1 étant plus abondant dans la région antérieure, et le type 2 dans la postérieure.
    Notes: Summary Ultra-structural studies, performed after fixation by intracarotidal perfusion, have revealed some peculiar features in the duck median eminence (M.E.): a) Within the subependymal layer, there were scattered neurons belonging to the nucleus infundibularis, axons and varicosities with dense core granules, and capillaries with structural characteristics similar to those in the superficial layer; b) Within the fiber layer, were seen the axons of the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial tract, with granules showing the same differentiation as found within the pars nervosa; c) Within the palisade layer, there was evidence for at least three main types of neurosecretory axons: Type 1 axons, containing granules ranging from 1,100 to 1,600 Å (with a possible subdivision into 1,100–1,300 Å and 1,300–1,600 Å), possibly associated with 400–600 Å vesicles. Type 2 axons, including granules ≦1,000 Å (with a possible subdivision into 800 and 1,000 Å), associated with numerous 400–600 Å vesicles. Type 3 axons, containing 400–600 Å vesicles, but without dense granules. At the ultrastructural level, the main difference between the rostral and caudal M.E. essentially lies in the relative percentage of these 3 axon types. Type 1 axons were found to be more numerous within the anterior M.E., whereas Type 2 axons were more abundant in the caudal region.
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  • 13
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    Cell & tissue research 123 (1972), S. 496-507 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Rat incisor ; Tooth eruption ; Ectopic enamel organ ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Durch regelmäßig wiederholtes mechanisches Kürzen des rechten unteren Rattenschneidezahnes wurde eine beschleunigte Eruption hervorgerufen. Nach 15–17 Tagen trat eine Störung der Schmelzentwicklung in Form einer Produktion von kreideweißem statt normal pigmentiertem Schmelz und ein rotbräunliches Häutchen im Bereich des gingivalen Epithelverschlusses in Erscheinung. Dieses Häutchen wurde nach intravitaler Fixierung mit Glutaraldehyd abpräpariert und licht- und elektronenmikroskopisch untersucht. Das Häutchen besteht aus mehreren übereinander gelagerten Zellschichten: aus Ameloblasten, einem typischen Papillarorgan, einer Bindegewebsschicht und aus flachen Deckzellen. Die Ameloblasten im Bereich des Epithelverschlusses befinden sich im Stadium der frühen, die Ameloblasten des aus dem Epithelverschluß hervorwachsenden Häutchens dagegen im Stadium der späten Maturation. Die Ultrastruktur des gesamten Papillarorgans läßt auf eine intensive metabolische Funktion und auf Ionentransport schließen. Pigmentgranula, die bei normaler Eruption im Maturationsstadium sowohl im Papillarorgan als auch in den Ameloblasten vorkommen, wurden nur im Bereiche des Epithelverschlusses in vaskulären Elementen und in perivaskulären Bindegewebszellen gefunden. Die Oberfläche des Häutchens wird von einer schmalen Schicht flacher, organellenarmer Zellen gebildet. Das bei beschleunigter Eruption aus dem Epithelansatz hervorwachsende Häutchen ist ein ektopisches Schmelzorgan, dessen rotbräunliche Färbung von der reichen Gefäßversorgung herrührt.
    Notes: Summary An accelerated eruption of the right mandibular rat incisor was induced by its repeated, mechanical shortening. Fifteen to seventeen days after beginning of the experiment a disturbance of enamel development occured, manifested by production of white, opaque enamel instead of normally pigmented enamel and by appearance of a redbrownish membrane overlying the enamel. This membrane was intravitally fixed with glutaraldehyde and after dissection processed for histologic and electronmicroscopic investigation. The membrane consists of ameloblasts, a typical papillary organ, a connective tissue layer and of flat surface cells. The ameloblasts near the epithelial attachment are in early maturation state, the ameloblasts of the outgrowing membrane show signs of reduction, typical for late maturation. The papillary organ of the entire membrane showes ultrastructural equivalents of high metabolic activity as well as of fluid transports. Pigment granules, which in normal eruption occur in the maturation state in the papillary cells and in ameloblasts, are absent in these cells of the membrane. They were only seen in perivascular elements and in connective tissue cells near the epithelial attachment. On the oral surface the membrane is covered by a thin layer of flat, degenerated cells poor in organelles. These findings support the concept, that the membrane growing out of the epithelial attachment in accelerated eruption of the rat incisor, is an ectopic enamel organ. The red-brownish colour is not due to pigment accumulation but to its rich vascularization.
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  • 14
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    Cell & tissue research 123 (1972), S. 356-368 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Ependyma ; Brain ; Rat ; Glycogen-rich cells ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary The ependyma of the lateral ventricle of the rat brain was investigated at different ages from 20 days to adulthood. A particular cell type occurs in the external wall of the ventricle, where the proliferative subependymal layer is present. These cells found at all ages studied, are characterized by a high content of glycogen, and a structure different of typical ependymal cells. A large number of nerve endings is situated in close vicinity of these cells, either free in the ventricle lumen, or sometimes ensheathed in the cells. No synapse was found between these endings an the glycogen-rich cells. These glycogen-rich cells undergo several modifications with age: their glycogen content is reduced in the adult, and they acquire a few cilia and gliofilaments. It is suggested that they represent a transitory differentiation of the ependyma, functionally linked with the proliferative subependymal layer.
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  • 15
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    Cell & tissue research 128 (1972), S. 19-30 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Microbodies ; Hepatic cell ; Influence of Allylisopropylacetamide ; Catalase ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary Multiple intraperitoneal injections of AIA in rats cause a decrease in matrix material and loss of endogenous peroxidatic activity in hepatic cell microbodies. These changes are detectable as early as 48 hours after commencing injections and are prominent by 5 days. On cessation of injections, recovery of normal microbody morphology is rapid but peroxidatic activity of microbodies returns more slowly. There is no evidence of increased destruction of microbodies during the recovery period. These observations support the concept that microbody constituents may be able to exchange independently of turnover of the entire organelle.
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  • 16
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    Cell & tissue research 128 (1972), S. 83-99 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Capillaries ; Cerebellar cortex ; Cat ; Blood-brain-barrier ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Kapillaren im Kleinhirn der Katze haben einen Durchmesser von 3,5–12 μ. Im Stratum granulosum finden sich vorwiegend engere, im Stratum moleculare und in der Purkinjezellschicht meist weitere Kapillaren. Die Endothelzellen bilden schmale Lamellen, die sich teilweise überlappen und durch „tight junctions“ miteinander verbunden sind. Vom umgebenden Kleinhirngewebe sind sie durch eine Basalmembran abgegrenzt, die sich häufig in zwei Schichten spaltet, zwischen denen Perizyten mit ihren Fortsätzen liegen. Diese sind vornehmlich im Stratum granulosum am Aufbau der Kapillarwand beteiligt. Um die Kapillaren bilden Astrozyten mit ihren Fortsätzen, zum großen Teil aber auch mit ihren Perikaryen, einen unvollständigen Mantel. An den von Astrozyten freien Anteilen der Kapillaroberfläche grenzen Oligodendrozyten, Körnerzellen und Golgizellen mit ihren Perikaryen direkt an die Basalmembran der Kapillaren. Purkinjezellen liegen dagegen nicht unmittelbar der Kapillare an, sondern sind immer durch eine Schicht von Korbzellaxonen und Gliafortsätzen von der Basalmembran getrennt. Kapillaren mit einem Durchmesser von mehr als 10 μ besitzen einen perikapillären Raum. Dieser ist sowohl gegen die Glia als auch gegen das Endothel der Kapillare durch eine Basalmembran abgegrenzt. Im perivaskulären Raum findet man Perizyten, Fibroblasten und zirkulär verlaufende kollagene Fasern.
    Notes: Summary The capillaries in the cerebellar cortex of the cat have a diameter varying from 3.5 to 12 μ. In the granular layer the capillaries have a smaller diameter than those in the molecular and the Purkinje-cell layer. The endothelium forms slender lamellae which partially overlap. These lamellae are connected with each other by tight junctions. The capillaries are separated from the pericapillary compartment by a basement membrane which often splits into two layers; in between these layers processes of pericytes are located. The pericytes make up a part of the capillary wall mainly in the granular layer. Around the capillaries the astrocytes form an incomplete glial sheath with their processes and also with their pericaryon. Those parts of the capillary basement membrane which are not covered by astrocytes or their processes, are in contact with oligodendrocytes, granule cells or Golgi cells. The Purkinje cells have no intimate contact to the capillary, they are always separated from the basement membrane by a thin layer of basket cell axons and processes of astrocytes. The capillaries with a diameter greater than 10 μ often have a perivascular space. This space is separated from the endothelium as well as from the nervous tissue by a basement membrane. In the pericapillary space pericytes, fibroblasts and circularly arranged collagenous fibers are located.
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  • 17
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    Cell & tissue research 131 (1972), S. 223-233 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Milk (rat) ; Fat globule ; Apocrine secretion ; Electronmicroscopy ; Enzyme analysis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary LDH and MDH activities were found to increase after freeze-thawing of the cream and a non-fat fraction of rat milk isolated by centrifugation. Electronmicroscopy of these fractions revealed that cellular components occurred especially in association with milk fat globules but also in combination with secretion granules. The fat globule fraction represented only 20% of the milk volume but accounted for more than 50% of the LDH and 75% of the MDH activities in milk. The results show that in the rat mammary gland an apocrine secretion type occurs. The reason why the LDH and MDH activities increase in the milk during the lactation of the rat must be that increasing amounts of cellular material is passed into milk at secretion, containing increasing activities of LDH and MDH.
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  • 18
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    Cell & tissue research 133 (1972), S. 21-33 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Smooth muscle ; Transplants ; Cell contacts ; Neuroeffector bundles ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary Segments of the taenia coli from guinea-pig were transplanted into the anterior chamber of the eye. Depending on such factors as the total volume of the transplant and the presence or absence of ganglion cells degeneration was either very extensive (90% or more of the total number of muscle cells) or localized (alternating regions of degenerating and normal structure). During days 1–2 muscle cells lost their plasma membranes so that their cytoplasmic contents were dispersed into the intercellular spaces. Many cells produced numerous small processes which were pinched off and dispersed in a similar manner. Following a period of intense mitotic activity (3–8 days) numerous cells with the characteristics of embryonic smooth muscle cells were evident. Within 10–14 days these differentiating cells produced bulbous protrusions and assumed more irregular outlines than at 3–8 days. The protrusions formed close contacts (50–100Å intercellular space) and tight junctions between adjacent muscle cells. Aggregation of muscle cells into bundles was under way between 14–28 days. At approximately 4–6 weeks these developing muscle groups were invaded by nerve fiber bundles. The pattern of the innervation and the form and size of the muscle bundles simulated the normal. These findings are discussed in relation to the possible functions of the intercellular contacts and cellular protrusions which characterise various periods of regeneration.
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  • 19
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    Cell & tissue research 132 (1972), S. 231-244 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Eye ; Pecten oculi ; Capillaries ; Enzyme histochemistry ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Im Endothel der Kapillaren des Pecten der Augen von Haustaube und Lachmöwe (Larus ridibundus) lassen sich lichtmikroskopisch alkalische und saure Phosphatase sowie Aminopeptidase nachweisen. Bernsteinsäuredehydrogenase und verschiedene Esterasen fehlen dagegen. Im Elektronenmikroskop ist das Kapillarendothel des Pecten der Lachmöwe durch dichte apikale und basale Mikrovillisäume, Mitochondrienansammlungen, zahlreiche polymorphe elektronendichte Granula, in reichem Maße vorhandene Ribosomen und multivesikuläre Körper gekennzeichnet. Zwischen Basallamina und Endothelzelle befindet sich ein weiter mit Fibrillen gefüllter Raum. Die Pigmentzellen des Pecten bilden mitochondrienhaltige Füßchen aus, die sich der Basallamina der Kapillaren anlegen. Die Oberfläche des Pecten wird von einer weiteren Basallamina gebildet; auch ihr lagern sich Füßchen der Pigmentzellen an. Die vorliegenden histochemischen und feinstrukturellen Befunde und Angaben aus der Literatur lassen vermuten, daß das Kapillarendothel im Pecten besondere Anpassungen an verstärkt ablaufende Transportvorgänge aufweist.
    Notes: Summary The endothelium of the capillaries in the pecten of the eyes of domestic pigeons and blackheaded gulls (Larus ridibundus) gives a positive reaction for alkaline and acid phosphatase, as well as for aminopeptidase. Negative results have been obtained for succinic-acid dehydrogenase and various esterases. In the electron microscope the capillary endothelium in the pecten of the blackheaded gull is characterized by densely packed apical and basal microvilli, accumulations of mitochondria and polymorphic electron-dense granules, numerous ribosomes and relatively common occurrence of multivesicular bodies. The endothelial cells are separated from their basal lamina by wide spaces which are filled by fibrils. The pigment cells of the pecten extend mitochondria-containing processes towards the basal lamina of the capillaries. The surface of the pecten is bound by a further basal lamina, which is underlain by other projections of the pigment cells. The present histochemical and fine-structural findings and evidence derived from the literature suggest that the capillary endothelium of the pecten shows particular adaptations in respect of transport mechanisms.
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  • 20
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    Cell & tissue research 132 (1972), S. 297-322 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Neonatal brain (rabbit) ; Ependymal cells ; Subependymal cells ; Lateral ventricle ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary The ultrastructural characteristics of a concentration of mitotically active cells near the lateral margin of the lateral ventricle was studied in the neonatal rabbit brain. This area, termed the caudato-pallial area, consists of subependymal cells, neuroblasts, microglial cells and astroblasts bordering a layer of ependymal epithelial cells. The character of the ependymal cells in this area indicates a persistence of embryonic conditions favoring the development of neuroblasts and astroblasts. It is not known what type of cells are produced in the subependymal layer since the primitive subependymal cells have no features which would clearly relate them to nerve or glial cells. Of the 80 subependymal cells which were reconstructed from serial sections none have processes extending beyond the limits of the subependymal layer. They range in form from simple cells devoid of processes to complex cells with several short cellular extensions. The presence of intermediate forms with transitional cytologic features indicates simple and complex cells may represent different stages in the mitotic cycle of a single cell type. No direct evidence was obtained to support the concept that the small ramified microglial cells of the caudato-pallial area or round and amoeboid microglial cells near the corpus callosum arise through mitosis of nearby ependymal or subependymal cells.
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  • 21
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    Cell & tissue research 134 (1972), S. 167-173 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Fenestrated capillaries ; Transplantation ; Vas deferens ; Ureter ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary This paper discusses the possibility that fenestrated capillaries may be induced by the presence or action of epithelial cells. Fenestrations were shown to exist in a number of capillaries in close proximity to the epithelium in the in situ guinea-pig vas deferens and ureter. These results suggest further roles for the vas deferens and ureter than those previously conceived. Transplants of these tissues in the anterior eye chamber were, by two weeks, highly vascularized. Those transplants containing epithelium showed fenestrated capillaries in close proximity to these cells. However, in transplants which did not contain epithelial cells, no fenestrations were noted in capillaries.
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  • 22
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    Cell & tissue research 135 (1972), S. 563-568 
    ISSN: 1432-0878
    Keywords: Pore cells ; Freshwater snails ; Haemoglobin ; Haemocyanin ; Cytochemistry ; Electronmicroscopy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Summary One of the cell types occurring in the connective tissue of gastropods and bivalves is thepore cell. Cells of this type have a characteristic morphology in that their plasmamembrane has many invaginations bridged by cytoplasmic tongues. In the well developed granular endoplasmic reticulum and in these invaginations fine granular material, sometimes arranged in crystalline patterns, is present. InLymnaea stagnalis this material has been identified as haemocyanin on a morphological basis. Histochemical and ultrastructural results on pore cells of 2 snail species(Biomphalaria glabrata, Planorbarius corneus) having haemoglobin in their blood indicate that the pore cells in these species synthesize haemoglobin. Possible other functions of pore cells are briefly discussed.
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  • 23
    Publication Date: 2015-07-30
    Description: While the kinematics of Anatolia plate and the North Anatolian Fault System (NAFS) has been studied extensively, the slip rate and locking depth along the NAFS are usually assumed constant in the analyses due to the lack of sufficient data. This is also partly due to the reasonably good fit of Euler small circle and partly due to the lack of spatial resolution of observations to determine slip rates independently from locking depths. On the other hand, recent geodetic studies show a contrast for locking depth between Marmara and other parts of the NAFS, implying a non-uniform locking depth across the NAFS. In this study, we analyse new GPS data and homogenously combine available data sets covering the eastern part of the NAFS to form the most complete data set. In particular, we incorporate the first results of Turkish Real-Time Kinematic GPS Network (CORS-TR) into our data set. A detailed analysis of three profiles within the NAFS reveals an increase of locking depth in the middle profile to 19.1 ± 3.4 km from 11.9 ± 3.5 km in the easternmost profile while the slip rate is nearly constant (20–22 mm yr –1 ), which implies a variation of strain rate of ~100 nanostrain yr –1 . Assuming a constant locking depth throughout whole NAFS gives an average locking depth of 14.3 ± 1.7 km. Our best estimates of slip rates in block modelling which takes the variation of locking depths into account are in the range between 22.5 and 22.8 mm yr –1 over eastern part of the NAFS.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 24
    Publication Date: 2015-07-30
    Description: The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is one of the world's most productive regions of rhyolitic volcanism and contains the highly active Okataina Volcanic Centre (OVC). Within the TVZ, intra-arc extension is expressed as normal faulting within a zone known as the Taupo Rift. The OVC is located within a complex part of the rift, where volcanism and deformation is considered influenced by rift structure and kinematics. There has been significant research on the structural, volcanic and geophysical properties of the rift and OVC, but less focus on deformation using geodetic data. The limited studies that have utilized geodetic data do not clearly resolve the distribution of deformation and strain rates within the rift and OVC. This is essential to ensure that deformation signals from volcanic processes at the OVC are correctly identified and distinguished from those related to regional tectonic or local hydrothermal processes within the rift. In this paper, we present a picture of contemporary deformation at the OVC and within the surrounding rift in detail, using existing and new GPS campaign and continuous GPS (cGPS) data collected between 1998 and 2011. The results show a highly heterogeneous deformation and strain rate field (both extension and shortening) through the study area, partitioned into different parts of the rift. Our results agree well with earlier geodetic studies, as well as identify new features, but some deformation patterns conflict with long-term geological observations. In the OVC, we observe a locally rotated horizontal velocity field, significant vertical deformation and variable strain rates across the caldera. In the Tarawera Rift, we identify elevated extension and shear rates, which may have significant implications for volcanism there. A shortening pattern is identified through the central rift, which is unexpected in an intra-arc rifting environment. We attempt to explain the source/s of shortening and extension and discuss their implications for geodetic monitoring efforts in the OVC.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
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  • 25
    Publication Date: 2015-09-11
    Description: The pre- and current collision of the Juan Fernández Ridge with the central Chilean margin at 31°–33°S is characterized by large-scale crustal thinning and long-term subsidence of the submarine forearc caused by subduction erosion processes. Here, we study the structure of the central Chilean margin in the ridge–trench collision zone by using wide-angle and multichannel seismic data. The transition from the upper to middle continental slope is defined by a trenchward dipping normal scarp with variable offsets of 500–2000 m height. Beneath the scarp, the 2-D velocity–depth models show a prominent lateral velocity contrast of 〉1 s –1 that propagates deep into the continental crust defining a major lateral seismic discontinuity. The discontinuity is interpreted as the lithological contact between the subsided/collapsed outermost forearc (composed of eroded and highly fractured volcanic rocks) and the seaward part of the uplifted Coastal Cordillera (made of less fractured metamorphic/igneous rocks). Extensional faults are abundant in the collapsed outermost forearc, however, landward of the continental slope scarp, both extensional and compressional structures are observed along the uplifted continental shelf that forms part of the Coastal Cordillera. Particularly, at the landward flank of the Valparaíso Forearc Basin (32°–33.5°S), shallow crustal seismicity has been recorded in 2008–2009 forming a dense cluster of thrust events of M w 4–5. The estimated hypocentres spatially correlate with the location of the fault scarp, and they highlight the upper part of the seismic crustal discontinuity.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
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  • 26
    Publication Date: 2015-05-31
    Description: Geodetic observations of interseismic deformation in the Western United States provide constraints on microplate rotations, earthquake cycle processes, and slip partitioning across the Pacific–North America Plate boundary. These measurements may be interpreted using block models, in which the upper crust is divided into microplates bounded by faults that accumulate strain in a first-order approximation of earthquake cycle processes. The number and geometry of microplates are typically defined with boundaries representing a limited subset of the large number of potentially seismogenic faults. An alternative approach is to include a large number of potentially active faults bounding a dense array of microplates, and then algorithmically estimate the boundaries at which strain is localized. This approach is possible through the application of a total variation regularization (TVR) optimization algorithm, which simultaneously minimizes the L 2 norm of data residuals and the L 1 norm of the variation in the differential block motions. Applied to 3-D spherical block models, the TVR algorithm can be used to reduce the total variation between estimated rotation vectors, effectively grouping microplates that rotate together as larger blocks, and localizing fault slip on the boundaries of these larger block clusters. Here we develop a block model comprised of 137 microplates derived from published fault maps, and apply the TVR algorithm to identify the kinematically most important faults in the western United States. This approach reveals that of the 137 microplates considered, only 30 unique blocks are required to approximate deformation in the western United States at a residual level of 〈2 mm yr –1 .
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 27
    Publication Date: 2015-05-31
    Description: We develop and validate a systematic approach to infer plate boundary strength and rheological parameters in models of mantle flow from surface velocity observations. Based on a realistic rheological model that includes yielding and strain rate weakening from dislocation creep, we formulate the inverse problem in a Bayesian inference framework. To study the distribution of parameters that are consistent with the observations, we compute the maximum a posteriori (MAP) point, Gaussian approximations of the parameter distribution around that MAP point, and employ Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling methods. The computation of the MAP point and the Gaussian approximation require first and second derivatives of an objective function subject to non-linear Stokes equations; these derivatives are computed efficiently using adjoint Stokes equations. We set up 2-D numerical experiments with many of the elements expected in a global geophysical inversion. This setup incorporates three subduction zones with slab and weak zone (interplate fault) geometry consistent with average seismic characteristics. With these experiments, we demonstrate that when the temperature field is known, we can recover the strength of plate boundaries, the yield stress and strain rate exponent in the upper mantle. When the number of uncertain parameters increases, there are trade-offs between the inferred parameters. These trade-offs depend on how well the observational data represents the surface velocities, and on the weakness of plate boundaries. As the plate boundary coupling drops below a threshold, the uncertainty of the inferred parameters increases due to insensitivity of plate motion to plate coupling. Comparing the trade-offs between inferred rheological parameters found from the Gaussian approximation of the parameter distribution and from MCMC sampling, we conclude that the Gaussian approximation—which is significantly cheaper to compute—is often a good approximation, in particular locally around the MAP point. Thus, the method can be applied to the global problem of inferring non-linear constitutive parameters and plate coupling factors for each subduction zone in a global geophysical inversion with known slab structure.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 28
    Publication Date: 2015-05-01
    Description: We estimate fluid sources around a subducted seamount along the northern Hikurangi subduction margin of New Zealand, using thermomechanical numerical modelling informed by wedge structure and porosities from multichannel seismic data. Calculated fluid sources are input into an independent fluid-flow model to explore the key controls on overpressure generation to depths of 12 km. In the thermomechanical models, sediment transport through and beneath the wedge is calculated assuming a pressure-sensitive frictional rheology. The change in porosity, pressure and temperature with calculated rock advection is used to compute fluid release from compaction and dehydration. Our calculations yield more precise information about source locations in time and space than previous averaged estimates for the Hikurangi margin. The volume of fluid release in the wedge is smaller than previously estimated from margin-averaged calculations (~14 m 3  yr –1  m –1 ), and is exceeded by fluid release from underlying (subducting) sediment (~16 m 3  yr –1  m –1 ). Clay dehydration contributes only a small quantity of fluid by volume (~2 m 3  yr –1  m –1 from subducted sediment), but the integrated effect is still significant landward of the seamount. Fluid source terms are used to estimate fluid pressures around a subducting seamount in the fluid-flow models, using subducted sediment permeability derived from porosity, and testing two end-members for décollement permeability. Models in which the décollement acts as a fluid conduit predict only moderate fluid overpressure in the wedge and subducting sediment. However, if the subduction interface becomes impermeable with depth, significant fluid overpressure develops in subducting sediment landward of the seamount. The location of predicted fluid overpressure and associated dehydration reactions is consistent with the idea that short duration, shallow, slow slip events (SSEs) landward of the seamount are caused by anomalous fluid pressures; alternatively, it may result from frictional effects of changing clay content along the subduction interface.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 29
    Publication Date: 2015-05-01
    Description: A method is outlined by means of which it is possible to estimate high-resolution vertical displacements due to an earthquake even in the case where high-resolution topography is lacking before the earthquake. This result can be achieved by combining a highly accurate, post-event digital elevation model (DEM), for example lidar, with archived satellite imagery. The method is illustrated by calculating vertical displacements for the 2010 El Mayor-Cucapah earthquake. For this earthquake, there are both pre- and post-event lidar DEMs from which vertical displacements may also be estimated after correcting for the lateral advection of topography due to horizontal displacements. A comparison between the two means of deriving vertical displacements shows generally good agreement, with the displacements obtained using satellite imagery performing better in high relief areas. As a result of this property, we are able to trace the vertical offsets due to the El Mayor-Cucapah earthquake as the rupture jumped from the Pescadores fault to the Borrego fault in propagating through the high relief of the Sierra Cucapah.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 30
    Publication Date: 2015-03-11
    Description: We present observations and models of the Sulaiman Range of western Pakistan that shed new light on the evolution and deformation of fold-thrust belts. Earthquake source inversions show that the seismic deformation in the range is concentrated in the thick pile of sediments overlying the underthrusting lithosphere of the Indian subcontinent. The slip vectors of the earthquakes vary in strike around the margin of the range, in tandem with the shape of the topography, suggesting that gravitational driving forces arising from the topography play an important role in governing the deformation of the region. Numerical models suggest that the active deformation, and the extreme plan-view curvature of the range, are governed by the presence of weak sediments in a pre-existing basin on the underthrusting Indian Plate. These sediments affect the stress-state in the over-riding mountain range and allow for the rapid propagation of the nose of the range and the development of extreme curvature and laterally varying surface gradients.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 31
    Publication Date: 2015-03-11
    Description: The mechanical damage characteristics of sandstone subjected to cyclic loading is very significant to evaluate the stability and safety of deep excavation damage zones. However to date, there are very few triaxial experimental studies of sandstone under cyclic loading. Moreover, few X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) observations have been adopted to reveal the damage mechanism of sandstone under triaxial cyclic loading. Therefore, in this research, a series of triaxial cyclic loading tests and X-ray micro-CT observations were conducted to analyse the mechanical damage characteristics of sandstone with respect to different confining pressures. The results indicated that at lower confining pressures, the triaxial strength of sandstone specimens under cyclic loading is higher than that under monotonic loading; whereas at confining pressures above 20 MPa, the triaxial strength of sandstone under cyclic loading is approximately equal to that under monotonic loading. With the increase of cycle number, the crack damage threshold of sandstone first increases, and then significantly decreases and finally remains constant. Based on the damage evolution of irreversible deformation, it appears that the axial damage value of sandstone is all higher than the radial damage value before the peak strength; whereas the radial damage value is higher than the axial damage value after the peak strength. The evolution of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of sandstone can be characterized as having four stages: (i) Stage I: material strengthening; (ii) Stage II: material degradation; (iii) Stage III: material failure and (iv) Stage IV: structure slippage. X-ray micro-CT observations demonstrated that the CT scanning surface images of sandstone specimens are consistent with actual surface crack photographs. The analysis of the cross-sections of sandstone supports that the system of crack planes under triaxial cyclic loading is much more complicated than that under triaxial monotonic loading. More axial and lateral tensile cracks were observed in the specimens under cyclic loading than under monotonic loading.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 32
    Publication Date: 2015-04-19
    Description: We determine the deep structure of the eastern Algerian basin and its southern margin in the Annaba region (easternmost Algeria), to better constrain the plate kinematic reconstruction in this region. This study is based on new geophysical data collected during the SPIRAL cruise in 2009, which included a wide-angle, 240-km-long, onshore–offshore seismic profile, multichannel seismic reflection lines and gravity and magnetic data, complemented by the available geophysical data for the study area. The analysis and modelling of the wide-angle seismic data including refracted and reflected arrival travel times, and integrated with the multichannel seismic reflection lines, reveal the detailed structure of an ocean-to-continent transition. In the deep basin, there is an ~5.5-km-thick oceanic crust that is composed of two layers. The upper layer of the crust is defined by a high velocity gradient and P -wave velocities between 4.8 and 6.0 km s –1 , from the top to the bottom. The lower crust is defined by a lower velocity gradient and P -wave velocity between 6.0 and 7.1 km s –1 . The Poisson ratio in the lower crust deduced from S -wave modelling is 0.28, which indicates that the lower crust is composed mainly of gabbros. Below the continental edge, a typical continental crust with P -wave velocities between 5.2 and 7.0 km s –1 , from the top to the bottom, shows a gradual seaward thinning of ~15 km over an ~35-km distance. This thinning is regularly distributed between the upper and lower crusts, and it characterizes a rifted margin, which has resulted from backarc extension at the rear of the Kabylian block, here represented by the Edough Massif at the shoreline. Above the continental basement, an ~2-km-thick, pre-Messinian sediment layer with a complex internal structure is interpreted as allochthonous nappes of flysch backthrusted on the margin during the collision of Kabylia with the African margin. The crustal structure, moreover, provides evidence for Miocene emplacement of magmatic intrusions in both the deep basin and the continental margin. Based on the crustal structure, we propose that the eastern Algerian basin opened during the southeastward migration of the European forearc before the collision, along a NW–SE elongated spreading centre that ran perpendicular to the subduction trend. Such an atypical geometry is explained by the diverging directions of the subduction rollback during the backarc opening: eastward for the Corsica–Sardinia block, and southward for the Kabylian blocks. This geometry of the forearc can be interpreted as the surface expression of a slab tear at depth, which is responsible for atypical magmatism in the overlying backarc oceanic basin.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 33
    Publication Date: 2015-12-13
    Description: Steady plate subduction elastically brings about permanent lithospheric deformation in island arcs, though this effect has been neglected in most studies based on elastic dislocation theory. We investigate the characteristics of the permanent lithospheric deformation using a kinematic model, in which steady slip motion is given along a plate interface in the elastic lithosphere overlying the viscoelastic asthenosphere under gravity. As a rule of thumb, long-term lithospheric deformation can be understood as a bending of an elastic plate floating on non-viscous fluid, because the asthenosphere behaves like water on the long term. The steady slip below the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary does not contribute to long-term lithospheric deformation. Hence, the key parameters that control the lithospheric deformation are only the thickness of the lithosphere and the geometry of the plate interface. Slip on a plate interface generally causes substantial vertical displacement, and gravity always tries to retrieve the original gravitational equilibrium. For a curved plate interface gravity causes convex upward bending of the island-arc lithosphere, while for a planar plate interface gravity causes convex downward bending. Larger curvature and thicker lithosphere generally results in larger deformation. When the curvature changes along the plate interface, internal deformation is also involved intrinsically, which modifies the deformation field due to gravity. Because the plate interface generally has some curvature, at least near the trench, convex upward bending of the island-arc lithosphere, which involves uplift of island-arc and subsidence around the trench, is always realized. On the other hand, the deformation field of the island-arc lithosphere sensitively depends on lithospheric thickness and plate interface geometry. These characteristics obtained by the numerical simulation are consistent with observed topography and free-air gravity anomalies in subduction zones: a pair of topography and gravity anomalies, high in the arc and low around the trench, is observed without exceptions all over the world, while there are large variety in the amplitude and horizontal scale of the topography and gravity anomalies.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 34
    Publication Date: 2015-06-17
    Description: We investigate the influence of the glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) on the deformation at the surface and at seismogenic depths in Fennoscandia. The surface strain rate field, derived from geodetic data, is controlled by GIA which causes NW–SE extension of up to 4  x  10 –9  yr –1 in most of mainland Fennoscandia, surrounded by regions of radial shortening towards the centre of uplift. The seismic deformation field, derived from a new compilation of focal mechanisms, shows consistent NW–SE compression on the Norwegian continental margin and a tendency towards tension in mainland Fennoscandia. The seismic moment rate is at least two orders of magnitude smaller than the geodetic moment rate. We propose that the low level of seismicity and the tendency towards tensional focal mechanisms in mainland Fennoscandia may be explained by the destructive interference of the regional stress from ridge push with the flexural stress due to GIA.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 35
    Publication Date: 2015-06-17
    Description: New Guinea is a region characterized by rapid oblique convergence between the Pacific and Australian tectonic plates. The detailed tectonics of the region, including the partitioning of relative block motions and fault slip rates within this complex boundary plate boundary zone are still not well understood. In this study, we quantify the distribution of the deformation throughout the central and western parts of Papua New Guinea (PNG) using 20 yr of GPS data (1993–2014). We use an elastic block model to invert the regional GPS velocities as well as earthquake slip vectors for the location and rotation rates of microplate Euler poles as well as fault slip parameters in the region. Convergence between the Pacific and the Australian plates is accommodated in northwestern PNG largely by the New Guinea Trench with rates exceeding 90 mm yr –1 , indicating that this is the major active interplate boundary. However, some convergent deformation is partitioned into a shear component with ~12 per cent accommodated by the Bewani-Torricelli fault zone and the southern Highlands Fold-and-Thrust Belt. New GPS velocities in the eastern New Guinea Highlands region have led to the identification of the New Guinea Highlands and the Papuan Peninsula being distinctly different blocks, separated by a boundary through the Aure Fold-and-Thrust Belt complex which accommodates an estimated 4–5 mm yr –1 of left-lateral and 2–3 mm yr –1 of convergent motion. This implies that the Highlands Block is rotating in a clockwise direction relative to the rigid Australian Plate, consistent with the observed transition to left-lateral strike-slip regime observed in western New Guinea Highlands. We find a better fit of our block model to the observed velocities when assigning the current active boundary between the Papuan Peninsula and the South Bismark Block to be to the north of the city of Lae on the Gain Thrust, rather than on the more southerly Ramu-Markham fault as previously thought. This may indicate a temporary shift of activity onto out of sequence thrusts like the Gain Thrust as opposed to the main frontal thrust (the Ramu-Markham fault). In addition, we show that the southern Highlands Fold-and-Thrust Belt is the major boundary between the rigid Australian Plate and the New Guinea Highlands Block, with convergence occurring at rates between ~6 and 13 mm yr –1 .
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 36
    Publication Date: 2015-06-17
    Description: We examine the geodetically derived rotational variations for the rate of change of degree-two harmonics of Earth's geopotential, $\skew5\dot J_2$ , and true polar wander, combining a recent melting model of glaciers and the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets taken from the IPCC 2013 Report (AR5) with two representative GIA ice models describing the last deglaciation, ICE5G and the ANU model developed at the Australian National University. Geodetically derived observations of $\skew4\dot J_2$ are characterized by temporal changes of –(3.7 ± 0.1)  x 10 –11 yr –1 for the period 1976–1990 and –(0.3 ± 0.1)  x 10 –11 yr –1 after ~2000. The AR5 results make it possible to evaluate the recent melting of the major ice sheets and glaciers for three periods, 1900–1990, 1991–2001 and after 2002. The observed $\skew4\dot J_2$ and the component of $\skew4\dot J_2$ due to recent melting for different periods indicate a long-term change in $\skew4\dot J_2$ —attributed to the Earth's response to the last glacial cycle—of –(6.0–6.5)  x 10 –11 yr –1 , significantly different from the values adopted to infer the viscosity structure of the mantle in most previous studies. This is a main conclusion of this study. We next compare this estimate with the values of $\skew4\dot J_2$ predicted by GIA ice models to infer the viscosity structure of the mantle, and consequently obtain two permissible solutions for the lower mantle viscosity ( lm ), ~10 22 and (5–10)  x 10 22 Pa s, for both adopted ice models. These two solutions are largely insensitive to the lithospheric thickness and upper mantle viscosity as indicated by previous studies and relatively insensitive to the viscosity structure of the D '' layer. The ESL contributions from the Antarctic ice sheet since the last glacial maximum (LGM) for ICE5G and ANU are about 20 and 30 m, respectively, but glaciological reconstructions of the Antarctic LGM ice sheet have suggested that its ESL contribution may have been less than ~10 m. The GIA-induced $\skew4\dot J_2$ for GIA ice models with an Antarctic ESL component of ~10 m suggests two permissible lower mantle viscosity solutions of lm ~ 2  x 10 22 and ~5  x 10 22 Pa s or one solution with (2–5)  x 10 22 Pa s. These results suggest that the effective lower mantle viscosity is larger than ~10 22 Pa s regardless of the uncertainties for an Antarctic ESL component. We also examine the polar wander due to recent melting and GIA processes, suggesting that the observed polar wander may be significantly attributed to convection motions in the mantle and/or another cause, particularly for permissible lower mantle viscosity solution of (5–10)  x 10 22 Pa s.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 37
    Publication Date: 2015-06-28
    Description: In this work, we test the analysis of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) for the study of diapirs in the Naval salt wall that is located in the western end of the South Pyrenean Central Unit. Two hundred eighty-six specimens from 30 sites were sampled in the mobilized Middle-Upper Triassic evaporites and shales that constitute the core of this diapir. Resulting magnetic ellipsoids are mostly oblate and scalar parameters are similar to those found in weakly deformed, sedimentary rocks. From the observation of samples and thin sections, magnetic fabrics can be related to petrofabric: magnetic foliation corresponds to flattening or shear planes and magnetic lineation to flow/shear direction, elongation of grains or tight microfolds. The magnetic foliation shows a roughly circular pattern with shallow dips and some deflections due to Pyrenean structures. Magnetic lineations show a slightly dominant NE–SW trend and shallow plunges. Magnetic lineations and foliations are consistent with the theoretical pattern expected at the roof of a vertically grown salt wall, thus supporting that magnetic fabrics registered evaporitic flow at late stages of diapiric growth. We demonstrate that AMS is an efficient and promising tool to define diapiric flow where tectonic fabric cannot be directly measured. Knowledge of the geometry and internal deformation of the diapiric body helps to minimize ambiguities in the interpretation of magnetic fabrics in terms of internal deformation.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 38
    Publication Date: 2015-08-29
    Description: Several large earthquakes in the Hellenic subduction zone have been documented in historical records from around the eastern Mediterranean, but the relative seismic quiescence of the region over the period of instrumental observation means that the exact locations of these earthquakes and their tectonic significance are not known. We present AMS radiocarbon dates from uplifted late Holocene palæoshorelines from the island of Rhodes, showing that uplift is most consistent with a single large ( M W  ≥ 7.7) reverse-faulting earthquake between about 2000 BC and 200 BC. Analysis of the uplift treating the earthquake as a dislocation in an elastic half-space shows a predominantly reverse-faulting event with a slip vector oblique to the direction of convergence between Rhodes and Nubia. We suggest that the fault responsible for the uplift dips at an angle of 30–60° above the more gently dipping oblique subduction interface. The highly oblique convergence across the eastern Hellenic plate boundary zone appears to be partitioned into reverse slip on faults that strike parallel to the boundary and strike-parallel or oblique slip on the subduction interface. Hydrodynamical simulation of tsunami propagation from a range of tectonically plausible sources suggests that earthquakes on the fault uplifting Rhodes represent a significant tsunami hazard for Rhodes and SW Turkey, and also possibly for Cyprus and the Nile Delta.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 39
    Publication Date: 2015-08-29
    Description: Reconstructions of the history of convergence between the Nubia and Eurasia plates constitute an important part of a broader framework for understanding deformation in the Mediterranean region and the closing of the Mediterranean Basin. Herein, we combine high-resolution reconstructions of Eurasia-North America and Nubia-North America Plate motions to determine rotations that describe Nubia-Eurasia Plate motion at ~1 Myr intervals for the past 20 Myr. We apply trans-dimensional hierarchical Bayesian inference to the Eurasia-North America and Nubia-North America rotation sequences in order to reduce noise in the newly estimated Nubia-Eurasia rotations. The noise-reduced rotation sequences for the Eurasia-North America and Nubia-North America Plate pairs describe remarkably similar kinematic histories since 20 Ma, consisting of relatively steady seafloor spreading from 20 to 8 Ma, ~20 per cent opening-rate slowdowns at 8–6.5 Ma, and steady plate motion from ~7 Ma to the present. Our newly estimated Nubia-Eurasia rotations predict that convergence across the central Mediterranean Sea slowed by ~50 per cent and rotated anticlockwise after ~25 Ma until 13 Ma. Motion since 13 Ma has remained relatively steady. An absence of evidence for a significant change in motion immediately before or during the Messinian Salinity Crisis at 6.3–5.6 Ma argues against a change in plate motion as its causative factor. The detachment of the Arabian Peninsula from Africa at 30–24 Ma may have triggered the convergence rate slowdown before 13 Ma; however, published reconstructions of Nubia-Eurasia motion for times before 20 Ma are too widely spaced to determine with confidence whether the two are correlated. A significant discrepancy between our new estimates of Nubia-Eurasia motion during the past few Myr and geodetic estimates calls for further investigation.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 40
    Publication Date: 2015-10-15
    Description: The Yellowstone–East Snake River Plain hotspot track has been intensely studied since several decades and is widely considered to result from the interaction of a mantle plume with the North American plate. An integrated conclusive geodynamic interpretation of this extensive data set is however presently still lacking, and our knowledge of the dynamical processes beneath Yellowstone is patchy. It has been argued that the Yellowstone plume has delaminated the lower part of the thick Wyoming cratonic lithosphere. We derive an original dynamic model to quantify delamination processes related to mantle plume–lithosphere interactions. We show that fast (~300 ka) lithospheric delamination is consistent with the observed timing of formation of successive volcanic centres along the Yellowstone hotspot track and requires (i) a tensile stress regime within the whole lithosphere exceeding its failure threshold, (ii) a purely plastic rheology in the lithosphere when stresses reach this yield limit, (iii) a dense lower part of the 200 km thick Wyoming lithosphere and (iv) a decoupling melt horizon inside the median part of the lithosphere. We demonstrate that all these conditions are verified and that ~150 km large and ~100 km thick lithospheric blocks delaminate within 300 ka when the Yellowstone plume ponded below the 200 km thick Wyoming cratonic lithosphere. Furthermore, we take advantage of the available extensive regional geophysical and geological observation data sets to design a numerical 3-D upper-mantle convective model. We propose a map of the ascending convective sheets contouring the Yellowstone plume. The model further evidences the development of a counter-flow within the lower part of the lithosphere centred just above the Yellowstone mantle plume axis. This counter-flow controls the local lithospheric stress field, and as a result the trajectories of feeder dykes linking the partial melting source within the core of the mantle plume with the crust by crosscutting the lithospheric mantle. This counter-flow further explains the 50 km NE shift observed between the mantle plume axis and the present-day Yellowstone Caldera as well as the peculiar shaped crustal magma chambers.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 41
    Publication Date: 2015-10-16
    Description: We present source models for the August 2014 Murmuri (Dehloran) earthquake sequence in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. An M w 6.2 mainshock was followed by an aftershock sequence containing five events of M w ≥ 5.4. Models of P and SH waveforms show that all events had dominantly thrust-faulting mechanisms, and had centroid depths that place them within the thick sedimentary sequence, above the crystalline basement. The combination of our estimated focal mechanisms, relative relocations of the event hypocentres and the surface displacement patterns observed using InSAR imply that the mainshock and largest aftershock ruptured different fault planes and both contributed to the surface deformation. The fault planes both slipped in horizontally elongated patches, possibly due to rheological layering limiting the updip and downdip extent of rupture. The slip vector of the Murmuri mainshock implies that the decollement beneath the Lorestan Arc is weaker than any such feature beneath the Dezful Embayment, providing an explanation for the plan-view sinuosity of the range-front of the Zagros Mountains.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 42
    Publication Date: 2015-03-27
    Description: Displacements and stress-field changes associated with earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and human activity are often simulated using numerical models in an attempt to understand the underlying processes and their governing physics. The application of elastic dislocation theory to these problems, however, may be biased because of numerical instabilities in the calculations. Here, we present a new method that is free of artefact singularities and numerical instabilities in analytical solutions for triangular dislocations (TDs) in both full-space and half-space. We apply the method to both the displacement and the stress fields. The entire 3-D Euclidean space $\mathbb {R}^{3}$ is divided into two complementary subspaces, in the sense that in each one, a particular analytical formulation fulfils the requirements for the ideal, artefact-free solution for a TD. The primary advantage of the presented method is that the development of our solutions involves neither numerical approximations nor series expansion methods. As a result, the final outputs are independent of the scale of the input parameters, including the size and position of the dislocation as well as its corresponding slip vector components. Our solutions are therefore well suited for application at various scales in geoscience, physics and engineering. We validate the solutions through comparison to other well-known analytical methods and provide the MATLAB codes.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 43
    Publication Date: 2015-03-27
    Description: Using dynamic rupture models of a right-lateral fault embedded in an elastic or elastoplastic 3-D medium, we investigate elastic and inelastic responses of compliant fault zones to nearby earthquake ruptures. We particularly examine effects of fault zone depth, width, shape and rigidity reduction on the surface displacement field. Our results from elastic models show that deeper and wider fault zones generally result in larger residual displacements. However, for shallow fault zones, the vertical residual displacement is insensitive to or even decreases with fault zone width. The width of horizontal displacement anomalies across a fault zone is only indicative of the fault zone width near the Earth's surface. There are trade-off effects among fault zone depth, width, shape and rigidity reduction on the amplitude of surface residual displacements. Our elastoplastic models show that plastic strain can occur along the entire fault zone near the Earth's surface and in the extensional quadrant at depth, if fault zone rocks are close to failure before a nearby earthquake happens. Compared with results from elastic models, plastic strain near the Earth's surface generally enhances surface displacements of a fault zone and does not change the trend of effects of fault zone depth and width, while plastic strain at depth can result in reduced retrograde motion or sympathetic motion across the fault zone, and introduce complexities in effects of fault zone depth and width. Sympathetic horizontal motion more likely occurs across a narrow fault zone with inelastic response at depth. Vertical motion in the extensional quadrant may actually decrease with fault zone width in elastoplastic models. Sympathetic horizontal motion, or small retrograde horizontal motion in conjunction with large vertical motion above a fault zone is indicative of inelastic response of a fault zone at depth.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 44
    Publication Date: 2015-03-27
    Description: Models of the glacial isostatic adjustment process, which is dominated by the influence of the Late Pleistocene cycle of glaciation and deglaciation, depend on two fundamental inputs: a history of ice-sheet loading and a model of the radial variation of mantle viscosity. These models may be tested and refined by comparing their local predictions of relative sea level history to geological inferences based upon appropriate sea level indicators. The U.S. Atlantic coast is a region of particular interest in this regard, due to the fact that data from the length of this coast provides a transect of the forebulge associated with the former Laurentide ice sheet. High-quality relative sea level histories from this region are employed herein to explore the ability of current models of mantle viscosity to explain the inferred evolution of relative sea level that have accompanied forebulge collapse following deglaciation. Existing misfits are characterized, and alternatives are explored for their reconciliation. It is demonstrated that a new model of mantle viscosity, referred to herein as VM6, when coupled with the latest model of deglaciation history ICE-6G_C, is able to eliminate the majority of these misfits, while continuing to reconcile a wide range of other important geophysical observables, as well as additional relative sea level data from the North American. West coast which also record the collapse of the forebulge but which have not been employed in tuning the viscosity profile to enable ICE-6G_C (VM6) to fit the East coast data set.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 45
    Publication Date: 2015-10-15
    Description: Knowledge and understanding of the ocean–continent transition (OCT) structure, continent–ocean boundary (COB) location and crustal type are of critical importance in evaluating rifted continental margin formation and evolution. OCT structure, COB location and magmatic type also have important implications for the understanding of the geodynamics of continental breakup and in the evaluation of petroleum systems in deep-water frontier oil and gas exploration at rifted continental margins. Mapping the distribution of thinned continental crust and lithosphere, its distal extent and the start of unequivocal oceanic crust and hence determining the OCT structure and COB location at rifted continental margins is therefore a generic global problem. In order to assist in the determination of the OCT structure and COB location, we present methodologies using gravity anomaly inversion, residual depth anomaly (RDA) analysis and subsidence analysis, which we apply to the west Iberian rifted continental margin. The west Iberian margin has one of the most complete data sets available for deep magma-poor rifted margins, so there is abundant data to which the results can be calibrated. Gravity anomaly inversion has been used to determine Moho depth, crustal basement thickness and continental lithosphere thinning; subsidence analysis has been used to determine the distribution of continental lithosphere thinning; and RDAs have been used to investigate the OCT bathymetric anomalies with respect to expected oceanic bathymetries at rifted continental margins. These quantitative analytical techniques have been applied to the west Iberian rifted continental margin along profiles IAM9, Lusigal 12 (with the TGS-extension) and ISE-01. Our predictions of OCT structure, COB location and magmatic type (i.e. the volume of magmatic addition, whether the margin is ‘normal’ magmatic, magma-starved or magma-rich) have been tested and validated using ODP wells (Legs 103, 149 and 173), which provide observational constraints on the west Iberian margin.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 46
    Publication Date: 2015-10-16
    Description: The large-scale geological evolution of the North Atlantic Realm during the past 450 Myr is largely understood, but crucial elements remain uncertain. These involve the Caledonian orogeny, the formation of the North Atlantic and accompanying igneous activity, and the present-day high topography surrounding the North Atlantic. Teleseismic receiver function interpretation in the Central Fjord Region of East Greenland recently suggested the presence of a fossil Caledonian subduction complex, including a slab of eclogitised mafic crust and an overlying wedge of serpentinised mantle peridotite. Here we further investigate this topic using inverse receiver functions modelling. The obtained velocity models are tested with regard to their consistency with the regional gravity field and topography. We find that the obtained receiver function model is generally consistent with gravity and isostasy. The western part of the section, with topography of 〉1000 m, is clearly supported by the 40-km-thick crust. The eastern part requires additional buoyancy as provided by the hydrated mantle wedge. The geometry, velocities and densities are consistent with interpretation of the lithospheric structure as a fossil subduction zone complex. The spatial relations with Caledonian structures suggest a Caledonian origin. The results indicate that topography is isostatically compensated by density variations within the lithosphere, and that significant dynamic topography is not required at the present-day.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 47
    Publication Date: 2015-10-26
    Description: We present a high-resolution shear wave tomography of the Japan subduction zone down to a depth of 700 km, which is determined by inverting a large number of high-quality S -wave arrival-time data from local earthquakes and teleseismic events. The subducting Pacific and Philippine Sea (PHS) slabs are revealed clearly as high-velocity (high- V ) zones, whereas low-velocity (low- V ) anomalies are revealed in the mantle wedge above the two slabs. The PHS slab has subducted aseismically down to a depth of 480 km under the Japan Sea and to a depth of 540 km under the Tsushima Strait. A window is revealed within the aseismic PHS slab, being consistent with P -wave tomography. Prominent low- V and high-Poisson's ratio ( ) anomalies exist below the PHS slab and above the Pacific slab, which reflect hot and wet mantle upwelling caused by the joint effect of deep dehydration of the Pacific slab and convective circulation process in the mantle wedge above the Pacific slab. The hot and wet mantle upwelling has caused the complex geometry and structure of the PHS slab in SW Japan, and contributed to the Quaternary volcanism along the Japan Sea coast. In eastern Japan, low- V zones are revealed at depths of 200–700 km below the Pacific slab, which may reflect hot upwelling from the lower mantle or even the core–mantle boundary.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 48
    Publication Date: 2015-10-22
    Description: The Piano di Pezza fault is the central section of the 35 km long L'Aquila-Celano active normal fault-system in the central Apennines of Italy. Although palaeoseismic data document high Holocene vertical slip rates (~1 mm yr –1 ) and a remarkable seismogenic potential of this fault, its subsurface setting and Pleistocene cumulative displacement are still poorly known. We investigated for the first time the shallow subsurface of a key section of the main Piano di Pezza fault splay by means of high-resolution seismic and electrical resistivity tomography coupled with time-domain electromagnetic soundings (TDEM). Our surveys cross a ~5-m-high fault scarp that was generated by repeated surface-rupturing earthquakes displacing Holocene alluvial fans. We provide 2-D Vp and resistivity images, which show significant details of the fault structure and the geometry of the shallow basin infill material down to 50 m depth. Our data indicate that the upper fault termination has a sub-vertical attitude, in agreement with palaeoseismological trench evidence, whereas it dips ~50° to the southwest in the deeper part. We recognize some low-velocity/low-resistivity regions in the fault hangingwall that we relate to packages of colluvial wedges derived from scarp degradation, which may represent the record of some Holocene palaeo-earthquakes. We estimate a ~13–15 m throw of this fault splay since the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (~18 ka), leading to a 0.7–0.8 mm yr –1 throw rate that is quite in accordance with previous palaeoseismic estimation of Holocene vertical slip rates. The 1-D resistivity models from TDEM soundings collected along the trace of the electrical profile significantly match with 2-D resistivity images. Moreover, they indicate that in the fault hangingwall, ~200 m away from the surface fault trace, the pre-Quaternary carbonate basement is at ~90–100 m depth. We therefore provide a minimal ~150–160 m estimate of the cumulative throw of the Piano di Pezza fault system in the investigated section. We further hypothesize that the onset of the Piano di Pezza fault activity may date back to the Middle Pleistocene (~0.5 Ma), so this is a quite young active normal fault if compared to other mature normal fault systems active since 2–3 Ma in this portion of the central Apennines.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 49
    Publication Date: 2015-10-22
    Description: To investigate the coupling relationship between great earthquake and ionosphere, the GPS-derived total electron contents (TECs) by the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe and the foF2 data from the Space Weather Prediction Center were used to analyse the impending ionospheric anomalies before the Iquique Mw8.2 earthquake in Chile on 2014 April 1. Eliminating effects of the solar and geomagnetic activities on ionosphere by the sliding interquartile range with the 27-day window, the TEC analysis results represent that there were negative anomalies occurred on 15th day prior to the earthquake, and positive anomalies appeared in 5th day before the earthquake. The foF2 analysis results of ionosonde stations Jicamarca, Concepcion and Ramey show that the foF2 increased by 40, 50 and 45 per cent, respectively, on 5th day before the earthquake. The TEC anomalous distribution indicates that there was a widely TEC decrement over the epicentre with the duration of 6 hr on 15th day before the earthquake. On 5th day before the earthquake, the TEC over the epicentre increased with the amplitude of 15 TECu, and the duration exceeded 6 hr. The anomalies occurred on the side away from the equator. All TEC anomalies in these days were within the bounds of equatorial anomaly zone where should be the focal area to monitor ionospheric anomaly before strong earthquakes. The relationship between ionospheric anomalies and geomagnetic activity was detected by the cross wavelet analysis, which implied that the foF2 was not affected by the magnetic activities on 15th day and 5th day prior to the earthquake, but the TECs were partially affected by anomalous magnetic activity during some periods of 5th day prior to the earthquake.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 50
    Publication Date: 2015-10-22
    Description: We present the first estimates of Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR) plate motions at high temporal resolution during the Quaternary and Neogene based on nearly 5000 crossings of 21 magnetic reversals out to C6no (19.72 Ma) and the digitized traces of 17 fracture zones and transform faults. Our reconstructions of this slow-spreading mid-ocean ridge reveal several unexpected results with notable implications for regional and global plate reconstructions since 20 Ma. Extrapolations of seafloor opening distances to zero-age seafloor based on reconstructions of reversals C1n (0.78 Ma) through C3n.4 (5.2 Ma) reveal evidence for surprisingly large outward displacement of 5 ± 1 km west of 32°E, where motion between the Nubia and Antarctic plates occurs, but 2 ± 1 km east of 32°E, more typical of most mid-ocean ridges. Newly estimated SWIR seafloor spreading rates are up to 15 per cent slower everywhere along the ridge than previous estimates. Reconstructions of the numerous observations for times back to 11 Ma confirm the existence of the hypothesized Lwandle plate at high confidence level and indicate that the Lwandle plate's western and eastern boundaries respectively intersect the ridge near the Andrew Bain transform fault complex at 32°E and between ~45°E and 52°E, in accord with previous results. The Nubia–Antarctic, Lwandle–Antarctic and Somalia–Antarctic rotation sequences that best fit many magnetic reversal, fracture zone and transform fault crossings define previously unknown changes in the Neogene motions of all three plate pairs, consisting of ~20 per cent slowdowns in their spreading rates at 7.2 $^{+0.9 }_{ -1.4}$ Ma if we enforce a simultaneous change in motion everywhere along the SWIR and gradual 3°–7° anticlockwise rotations of the relative slip directions. We apply trans-dimensional Bayesian analysis to our noisy, best-fitting rotation sequences in order to estimate less-noisy rotation sequences suitable for use in future global plate reconstructions and geodynamic studies. Notably, our new Nubia–Antarctic reconstruction of C5n.2 (11.0 Ma) predicts 20 per cent less opening than do two previous estimates, with important implications for motion that is estimated between the Nubia and Somalia plates. A Nubia–Somalia rotation determined from our Nubia–Antarctic and Somalia–Antarctic plate rotations for C5n.2 (11.0 Ma) predicts cumulative opening of 45 ± 4 km (95 per cent uncertainty) across the northernmost East Africa rift since 11.0 Ma, 70 per cent less than a recent 129 ± 62 km opening estimate based on a now-superseded interpretation of Anomaly 5 along the western portion of the SWIR.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 51
    Publication Date: 2015-12-18
    Description: Geodynamic models predict that rifting of thick, ancient continental lithosphere should not occur unless it is weakened by heating and magmatic intrusion. Therefore, the processes occurring along sections of the western branch of the East African Rift, where ~150 km thick, Palaeoproterozoic lithosphere is rifting with no surface expression of magmatism, are a significant challenge to understand. In an attempt to understand the apparently amagmatic extension we probed the regional uppermost mantle for signatures of thermal alteration using compressional ( Vp ) and shear ( Vs ) wave speeds derived from Pn and Sn tomography. Pervasive thermal alteration of the uppermost mantle and possibly the presence of melt can be inferred beneath the Rungwe volcanic centre, but no signatures on a similar scale were discerned beneath amagmatic portions of the western rift branch encompassing the southern half of the Lake Tanganyika rift and much of the Rukwa rift. In this region, Vp and Vs wave speeds indicate little, if any, heating of the uppermost mantle and no studies have reported dyking. Vp / Vs ratios are consistent with typical, melt-free, olivine-dominated upper mantle. Although our resolution limit precludes us from imaging potential localised magmatic intrusions with dimensions of tens of kilometres, the absence of surface volcanism, the amagmatic upper crustal rupture known to have occurred at disparate locations on the western branch, the presence of lower crustal seismicity and the low temperatures implied by the fast seismic wave speeds in the lower crust and uppermost mantle in this region suggests possible amagmatic extension. Most dynamic models predict that this should not happen. Indeed even with magmatic intrusion, rifting of continental lithosphere 〉100 km thick is considered improbable under conditions found on Earth. Yield strength envelopes confirm that currently modelled stresses are insufficient to produce the observed deformation along these portions of the rift system. Stresses arising from the gravitational force related to the uplift of the East African Plateau provide only one-eighth of the minimum stress necessary to produce observed lower crustal earthquakes in the western branch. We expect that some of this disparity may be accounted for by considering smaller scale bending stresses and dynamic feedbacks between brittle and elastic deformation and between faulting, topography and weathering that are not currently included in models of the East African Rift.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 52
    Publication Date: 2015-04-12
    Description: The Zambales Ophiolite Complex (ZOC) in the western portion of Luzon Island, Philippines represents a typical exposure of an emplaced crust-upper mantle section of an ancient lithosphere. The ZOC is divided into the Acoje and Coto Blocks based on petrological, geochemical and age disparities, thus implying diverse and complex origins for the archipelago's lithospheric sources. We used gravity and magnetic data to reveal differences in the subsurface characteristics of the two ophiolite blocks for the first time. Low Bouguer gravity (〈135 mGal) and magnetic (〈69 nT) anomalies characterize the ophiolitic units in the Acoje Block whereas high Bouguer gravity (〉150 mGal) and magnetic (〉110 nT) anomalies typify the Coto Block. Such contrasting signatures further extend at greater depths which reflect the disparities in the crustal density, the basement structure, and the depth to Moho. Petrophysical characteristics such as density, magnetic susceptibility and natural remanent magnetization (NRM) intensities correlate well with the interpreted Bouguer gravity and magnetic anomalies. Densities of gabbros and peridotites from the Acoje and Coto Blocks reveal mean values ranging from 2640 to 2810 kg m –3 and 2570 to 2690 kg m –3 , respectively. Magnetic susceptibility (〉4.43 x 10 –3 SI) and NRM (〉0.69 A m –1 ) data are also generally higher over the Coto Block. Both Bouguer gravity and magnetic anomaly maps reveal a prominent steep gradient that potentially marks the structural contact between Acoje and Coto Blocks. We further infer that the steep anomaly gradient validates the presence of the Lawis Fault Zone which separates the two ophiolite blocks in the Masinloc Massif. Recent field evidence from rock exposures in Coto reveals both right lateral and vertical displacements along the fault zone.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 53
    Publication Date: 2015-04-17
    Description: In this work, we analyse in detail how a large earthquake could cause stress changes on volcano plumbing systems and produce possible positive feedbacks in promoting new eruptions. We develop a sensitivity analysis that considers several possible parameters, providing also new constraints on the methodological approach. The work is focus on the M w 8.8 2010 earthquake that occurred along the Chile subduction zone near 24 historic/Holocene volcanoes, located in the Southern Volcanic Zone. We use six different finite fault-slip models to calculate the static stress change, induced by the coseismic slip, in a direction normal to several theoretical feeder dykes with various orientations. Results indicate different magnitudes of stress change due to the heterogeneity of magma pathway geometry and orientation. In particular, the N–S and NE–SW-striking magma pathways suffer a decrease in stress normal to the feeder dyke (unclamping, up to 0.85 MPa) in comparison to those striking NW–SE and E–W, and in some cases there is even a clamping effect depending on the magma path strike. The diverse fault-slip models have also an effect (up to 0.4 MPa) on the results. As a consequence, we reconstruct the geometry and orientation of the most reliable magma pathways below the 24 volcanoes by studying structural and morphometric data, and we resolve the stress changes on each of them. Results indicate that: (i) volcanoes where post-earthquake eruptions took place experienced earthquake-induced unclamping or very small clamping effects, (ii) several volcanoes that did not erupt yet are more prone to experience future unrest, from the point of view of the host rock stress state, because of earthquake-induced unclamping. Our findings also suggest that pathway orientation plays a more relevant role in inducing stress changes, whereas the depth of calculation (e.g. 2, 5 or 10 km) used in the analysis, is not key a parameter. Earthquake-induced magma-pathway unclamping might contribute to promote new eruptions at volcanoes as far as 450 km from the epicentre.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 54
    Publication Date: 2015-05-20
    Description: Seismic studies indicate that the Earth's inner core has a complex structure and exhibits a strong elastic anisotropy with a cylindrical symmetry. Among the various models which have been proposed to explain this anisotropy, one class of models considers the effect of the Lorentz force associated with the magnetic field diffused within the inner core. In this paper, we extend previous studies and use analytical calculations and numerical simulations to predict the geometry and strength of the flow induced by the poloidal component of the Lorentz force in a neutrally or stably stratified growing inner core, exploring also the effect of different types of boundary conditions at the inner core boundary (ICB). Unlike previous studies, we show that the boundary condition that is most likely to produce a significant deformation and seismic anisotropy is impermeable, with negligible radial flow through the boundary. Exact analytical solutions are found in the case of a negligible effect of buoyancy forces in the inner core (neutral stratification), while numerical simulations are used to investigate the case of stable stratification. In this situation, the flow induced by the Lorentz force is found to be localized in a shear layer below the ICB, whose thickness depends on the strength of the stratification, but not on the magnetic field strength. We obtain scaling laws for the thickness of this layer, as well as for the flow velocity and strain rate in this shear layer as a function of the control parameters, which include the magnitude of the magnetic field, the strength of the density stratification, the viscosity of the inner core and the growth rate of the inner core. We find that the resulting strain rate is probably too small to produce significant texturing unless the inner core viscosity is smaller than about 10 12 Pa s.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 55
    Publication Date: 2015-05-26
    Description: We analyse Bouguer anomaly data and previously published Moho depths estimated from receiver functions in order to determine the amount of isostatic compensation or uncompensation of the Rif topography in northern Morocco. We use Moho depth variations extracted from receiver function analyses to predict synthetic Bouguer anomalies that are then compared to observed Bouguer anomaly. We find that Moho depth variations due to isostatic compensation of topographic and/or intracrustal loads do not match Moho depth estimates obtained from receiver function analyses. The isostatic misfit map evidences excess crustal root as large as 10 km in the western part of the study area, whereas a ‘missing’ crustal root of ~5 km appears east of 4.3°E. This excess root/missing topography correlates with the presence of a dense mantle lid, the noticeable southwestward drift of the Western Rif area, and with a current surface uplift. We propose that a delaminated mantle lid progressively detaching westward or southwestward from the overlying crust is responsible for viscous flow of the ductile lower crust beneath the Rif area. This gives rise to isostatic uplift and westward drift due to viscous coupling at the upper/lower crust boundary. At the same time, the presence of this dense sinking mantle lid causes a negative dynamic topography, which explains why the observed topography is too low compared to the crustal thickness.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 56
    Publication Date: 2015-04-12
    Description: Flow-like landslides are rapidly moving fluid–solid mixtures that can cause significant destruction along paths that run far from their original sources. Existing models for run out prediction and motion simulation of flow-like landslides have many limitations. In this paper, we develop a new method named ‘Tsunami Squares’ to simulate the generation, propagation and stoppage of flow-like landslides based on conservation of volume and momentum. Landslide materials in the new method form divisible squares that are displaced, then further fractured. The squares move under the influence of gravity-driven acceleration and suffer decelerations due to basal and dynamic frictions. Distinctively, this method takes into account solid and fluid mechanics, particle interactions and flow regime transitions. We apply this approach to simulate the 1982 El Picacho landslide in San Salvador, capital city of El Salvador. Landslide products from Tsunami Squares such as run out distance, velocities, erosion and deposition depths and impacted area agree well with field investigated and eyewitness data.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 57
    Publication Date: 2015-04-17
    Description: Numerous regional plate reorganizations and the coeval ages of the Hawaiian Emperor bend (HEB) and Louisville bend of 50–47 Ma have been interpreted as a possible global tectonic plate reorganization at ~chron 21 (47.9 Ma). Yet for a truly global event we would expect a contemporaneous change in Africa absolute plate motion (APM) reflected by physical evidence distributed on the Africa Plate. This evidence has been postulated to take the form of the Réunion-Mascarene bend which exhibits many HEB-like features, such as a large angular change close to ~chron 21. However, the Réunion hotspot trail has recently been interpreted as a sequence of continental fragments with incidental hotspot volcanism. Here we show that the alternative Réunion-Mascarene Plateau trail can also satisfy the age progressions and geometry of other hotspot trails on the Africa Plate. The implied motion, suggesting a pivoting of Africa from 67 to 50 Ma, could explain the apparent bifurcation of the Tristan hotspot chain, the age reversals seen along the Walvis Ridge, the sharp curve of the Canary trail, and the diffuse nature of the St. Helena chain. To test this hypothesis further we made a new Africa APM model that extends back to ~80 Ma using a modified version of the Hybrid Polygonal Finite Rotation Method. This method uses seamount chains and their associated hotspots as geometric constraints for the model, and seamount age dates to determine APM through time. While this model successfully explains many of the volcanic features, it implies an unrealistically fast global lithospheric net rotation, as well as improbable APM trajectories for many other plates, including the Americas, Eurasia and Australia. We contrast this speculative model with a more conventional model in which the Mascarene Plateau is excluded in favour of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge rotated into the Africa reference frame. This second model implies more realistic net lithospheric rotation and far-field APMs, but fails to explain key details of the Atlantic Ocean volcanic chains. Both models predict a Canary plume influence beneath the Madeiras. Neither model, when projected via the global plate circuit into the Pacific, predicts any significant change in plate motion around chron 21. Consequently, Africa APM models do not appear to provide independent support for a chron 21 global reorganization.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 58
    Publication Date: 2015-04-17
    Description: The North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) starts to branch off in the western Bolu plain. The branches of the NAFZ in this location create the Almacık block which is surrounded by the latest surface ruptures of significant earthquakes that occurred between 1944 and 1999, but its northeastern part remains unruptured. The most recently formed rupture, that was a result of the 1999 November 12 Düzce earthquake, ended to the northwest of the Bakacak Fault. The connection between the Bakacak Fault and the main branch of the NAFZ via the Bolu plain has until now remained unknown. This paper establishes that the route of the missing link runs through the Dağkent, Kasaplar and Bürnük faults, a finding achieved with the help of seismic reflection studies. The paper also argues that the cross cutting nature of these newly determined faults and a stress analysis based on focal mechanism solutions of recent earthquakes demonstrate the termination of the suggested pull-apart nature of the Bolu plain.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 59
    Publication Date: 2015-06-28
    Description: The source parameters and slip distribution of the 2013 May 11 M w 6.1 Minab earthquake are studied using seismology, geodesy and field observations. We observe left-lateral strike-slip motion on a fault striking ENE–WSW; approximately perpendicular to previously studied faults in the Minab–Zendan–Palami fault zone. The fault that ruptured in 2013 is one of a series of ~E–W striking left-lateral faults visible in the geology and geomorphology. These accommodate a velocity field equivalent to right-lateral shear on ~N–S striking planes by clockwise rotations about vertical axes. The presence of these faults can reconcile differences in estimates of fault slip rates in the western Makran from GPS and Quaternary dating. The longitudinal range of shear in the western Makran is likely to be controlled by the distance over which the underthrusting Arabian lithosphere deepens in the transition from continent–continent collision in the Zagros to oceanic subduction in the Makran.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 60
    Publication Date: 2015-06-28
    Description: The Earth's outer core is a rotating ellipsoidal shell of compressible, stratified and self-gravitating fluid. As such, in the treatment of geophysical problems a realistic model of this body needs to be considered. In this work, we consider compressible and stratified fluid core models with different stratification parameters, related to the local Brunt-Väisälä frequency, in order to study the effects of the core's density stratification on the frequencies of some of the inertial-gravity modes of this body. The inertial-gravity modes of the core are free oscillations with periods longer than 12 hr. Historically, an incompressible and homogeneous fluid is considered to study these modes and analytical solutions are known for the frequencies and the displacement eigenfunctions of a spherical model. We show that for a compressible and stratified spherical core model the effects of non-neutral density stratification may be significant, and the frequencies of these modes may change from model to model. For example, for a spherical core model the frequency of the spin-over mode, the (2, 1, 1) mode, is unaffected while that of the (4, 1, 1) mode is changed from –0.410 for the Poincaré core model to –0.434, –0.447 and –0.483 for core models with the stability parameter β = –0.001, –0.002 and –0.005, respectively, a maximum change of about 18 per cent when β = –0.005. Our results also show that for small stratification parameter, |β| ≤ 0.005, the frequency of an inertial-gravity mode is a nearly linear function of β but the slope of the line is different for different modes, and that the effects of density stratification on the frequency of a mode is likely related to its spatial structure, which remains the same in different Earth models. We also compute the frequencies of some of the modes of the ‘PREM’ (spherical shell) core model and show that the frequencies of these modes may also be significantly affected by non-zero β.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 61
    Publication Date: 2015-01-29
    Description: Reaching sub-salt hydrocarbon targets in the deeper part of the Gulf of Mexico requires drilling through a salt canopy. The suture zones in the salt canopy are potential drilling hazards due to anomalous pressure behaviour of entrapped sediments. The Pólya vector field of coalescing salt sheets inside the canopy is used to explain suture formation and distinguish between upright and inclined suture contacts. Our analytical models, based on complex potentials, provide exact solutions for multiple source flows as they compete for space when spreading into the viscous continuum of the salt canopy. The velocity gradient tensor yields the strain rate tensor, which is used to map the principal strain rate magnitude inside the canopy. Quantification of one of the principal strain rates is sufficient because the plane deformation assumption ensures the two principal strain rates are equal in magnitude (but of opposite sign); the third principal dimension can have neither strain nor deviatoric stress. Visualization of the locations where the principal stress vanishes or peaks (with highs and lows) is useful for pre-drilling plans because such peaks must be avoided and the stress-free locations provide the safer drilling sites. A case study—of the Walker Ridge region—demonstrates the practical application of our new method.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 62
    Publication Date: 2015-02-05
    Description: The Indochina block is important to our understanding of the extrusion model as a consequence of the Indo-Eurasia collision. The lithospheric structure of this block, however, remains obscured due to a lack of sufficient instrumentation for high resolution seismic imaging. We present a shear velocity model derived from Rayleigh wave phase velocity tomography using data from recently deployed seismic networks in this region. Our inversion results for lithospheric structure show strong correlations with tectonic history in this block. A prominent slow-velocity anomaly (5 per cent) is observed in northern Indochina along the Ailao Shan-Red River (ASRR) shear zone including Chuxiong basin, Lanping-Simao fold belt and Thailand rift basin, which has seen extensive deformation events since Eocene. The Khorat Plateau basin is characterized by thick continental keel type lithosphere, consistent with palaeomagnetic and geological observations indicating this basin has experienced much less deformation than the surrounding regions. Additionally, our inversion imaged a sharp, lithospheric-scale velocity contrast across the southeastern segment of ASRR, indicative of a thin and thus relatively weak lithosphere southwest of Red River Fault. The thin lithosphere, low asthenospheric seismic velocities we observe and the average crustal thicknesses in the region suggest that the topography high is dynamically supported by upwelling asthenosphere rather than thickening of the crust/lithosphere. Based on the occurrence of Palaeogene volcanism and its timing, we prefer an explanation of thinning of the lithosphere and allowing a throughgoing fault rather than emplacement of a thin terrane to explain the thin lithosphere. Therefore, the anomalously thin lithosphere between Khorat Plateau and the ASRR in conjunction with other geological observations is generally consistent with the extrusion model for Indochina, which requires localization of lithospheric deformation around tectonic blocks.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 63
    Publication Date: 2015-02-16
    Description: On Earth, oceanic plates subduct beneath a variety of overriding plate (OP) styles, from relatively thin and negatively buoyant oceanic OPs to thick and neutrally/positively buoyant continental OPs. The inclusion of an OP in numerical models of self-consistent subduction has been shown to reduce the rate that subducting slabs roll back relative to the equivalent single plate models. We use dynamic, 2-D subduction models to investigate how the mechanical properties, namely viscosity, thickness, and density, of the OP modify the slab rollback rate and the state of stress of the OP. In addition, we examine the role of the subducting plate (SP) viscosity. Because OP deformation accommodates the difference between the slab rollback rate and the far-field OP velocity, we find that the temporal variations in the rollback rate results in temporal variations in OP stress. The slabs in our models roll back rapidly until they reach the lower mantle viscosity increase, at which point the rollback velocity decreases. Concurrent with this reduction in rollback rate is a switch from an OP dominated by extensional stresses to a compressional OP. As in single plate models, the viscosity of the SP exerts a strong control on subducting slab kinematics; weaker slabs exhibit elevated sinking velocities and rollback rates. The SP viscosity also exerts a strong control on the OP stress regime. Weak slabs, either due to reduced bulk viscosity or stress-dependent weakening, have compressional OPs, while strong slabs have dominantly extensional OPs. While varying the viscosity of the OP alone does not substantially affect the OP stress state, we find that the OP thickness and buoyancy plays a substantial role in dictating the rate of slab rollback and OP stress state. Models with thick and/or negatively buoyant OPs have reduced rollback rates, and increased slab dip angles, relative to slabs with thin and/or positively buoyant OPs. Such elevated trench rollback for models with positively buoyant OPs induces extensional stresses in the OP, while OPs that are strongly negatively buoyant are under compression. While rollback is driven by the negative buoyancy of the subducting slab in such models of free subduction, we conclude that the physical properties of the OP potentially play a significant role in modulating both rollback rates and OP deformation style on Earth.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 64
    Publication Date: 2015-04-26
    Description: In the central Andes, the Nazca plate displays large along strike variations in dip with a near horizontal subduction angle between 28 and 32°S referred to the Pampean flat slab segment. The upper plate above the Pampean flat slab has high rates of crustal seismicity and active basement cored uplifts. The SIEMBRA experiment, a 43-broad-band-seismic-station array was deployed to better characterize the Pampean flat slab region around 31°S. In this study, we explore the lithospheric structure above the flat slab as a whole and its relation to seismicity. We use the SIEMBRA data to perform a joint inversion of teleseismic receiver functions and Rayleigh wave phase velocity dispersion to constrain the shear wave velocity variations in the lithosphere. Our joint inversion results show: (1) the presence of several upper-plate mid-crustal discontinuities and their lateral extent that are probably related to the terrane accretion history; (2) zones of high shear wave velocity in the upper-plate lower crust associated with a weak Moho signal consistent with the hypothesis of partial eclogitization in the lower crust; (3) the presence of low shear-wave velocities at ~100 km depth interpreted as the subducting oceanic crust. Finally, in order to investigate the relation of the lithospheric structure to seismicity, we determine an optimal velocity–depth model based on the joint inversion results and use it to perform regional moment tensor inversions (SMTI) of crustal and slab earthquakes. The SMTI for 18 earthquakes that occurred between 2007 and 2009 in the flat slab region below Argentina, indicates systematically shallower focal depths for slab earthquakes (compared with inversions using previous velocity models). This suggests that the slab seismicity is concentrated mostly between 90 and 110 km depths within the subducting Nazca plate's oceanic crust and likely related to dehydration. In addition, the slab earthquakes exhibit extensional focal mechanisms suggesting new faulting at the edges of the flat portion of the slab. SMTI solutions for upper-plate crustal earthquakes match well the geological observations of reactivated structures and agree with crustal shortening. Our new constraints on flat slab structure can aid earthquake characterization for regional seismic hazard assessment and efforts to help understand the mechanisms for slab flattening in the central Andes.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 65
    Publication Date: 2015-10-07
    Description: The elastic displacement and stress fields due to rectangular faults and opening-mode fractures within an anisotropic homogeneous half-space are derived in this paper. The solution is expressed in terms of the mathematically elegant and computationally powerful Stroh formalism and can be applied to the generally anisotropic half-space or a transversely isotropic half-space with any oriented isotropic plane. For any flat fault or opening-mode fracture of polygonal shape, one needs only to carry out a simple line integral from 0 to in order to express the fault-induced response. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the effect of the anisotropy and fault orientation on the internal and surface responses of the half-space. Our results prove that both rock anisotropy and fault orientation could dramatically change the fields in the domain and one needs to consider these properties as accurately as possible to be able to predict the response in the domain precisely. Anisotropy of the rock mass may alter the dominant displacement and stress components at observation points in the model domain as compared to the isotropic case.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 66
    Publication Date: 2015-10-09
    Description: Shear deformation of partially molten rock in laboratory experiments causes the emergence of melt-enriched sheets (bands in cross-section) that are aligned at about 15°–20° to the shear plane. Deformation and deviatoric stress also cause the coherent alignment of pores at the grain scale. This leads to a melt-preferred orientation that may, in turn, give rise to an anisotropic permeability. Here we develop a simple, general model of anisotropic permeability in partially molten rocks. We use linearized analysis and nonlinear numerical solutions to investigate its behaviour under simple-shear deformation. In particular, we consider implications of the model for the emergence and angle of melt-rich bands. Anisotropic permeability affects the angle of bands and, in a certain parameter regime, it can give rise to low angles consistent with experiments. However, the conditions required for this regime have a narrow range and seem unlikely to be entirely met by experiments. Anisotropic permeability may nonetheless affect melt transport and the behaviour of partially molten rocks in Earth's mantle.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 67
    Publication Date: 2015-10-09
    Description: Eastern Anatolia region between north–south colliding Arabian and Eurasian plates has no significant crustal root and shallow (upper) mantle flow beneath seems to be vertically supporting its high topography. It has a high surface heat flow and the underlying mantle is characterized by low seismic velocity zones. Using a mantle density/temperature variation field derived from P -wave seismic velocity, current shallow mantle flow and resultant dynamic topography of Eastern Anatolia and adjacent Arabian foreland and Caucasus areas were calculated along a vertical section. The section crosses the tectonic boundaries interrelated with slab bodies (high seismic velocity/cold regions) and the low velocity zones above the slabs. According to the modelling experiments, the surface topography of Eastern Anatolia seems to be supported by shallow mantle flow dynamics. On the other hand, residual topography for the region was calculated using high resolution crustal thickness data. Positive residual topography that suggests an undercompensated state of Eastern Anatolia is in concordance with the dynamic topography anomaly. The modelled local shallow mantle flow support due to the density contrast between hot (low velocity) zones and underlying cold slab bodies beneath the area may be the present-day snapshot of the mantle flow uplift in Eastern Anatolia presence of which was previously suggested.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 68
    Publication Date: 2015-12-17
    Description: Observations of the temporal variations in the volume flux of a plume can provide useful constraints on geodynamic models of plumes and plume-plate interactions. Furthermore, they can be compared with observations at other plumes and may be analysed further to understand the nature and cause of the variations. The volume plume flux is typically derived from a sum of edifice and compensation root volumes. The former can be obtained via the application of regional–residual separation procedures that split the observed relief into regional (swell) and residual (edifice) components, while the latter is generally inferred from the former using local (Airy) or regional (flexural) compensation models. Most regional–residual techniques used in past studies give non-unique results and provide no estimates of the uncertainty in the separation, which impacts the significance of the results. Here, the optimal robust separator (ORS) method achieves a unique separation for the swell and edifice components of the Hawaiian Ridge and furthermore obtain confidence bounds on the total volume flux. A fast spectral method for plate flexure with different edifice and infill densities is used to determine compensation volumes. Although my flux estimates have assigned confidence bounds, these are much smaller than the flux estimates themselves. A comparison of my new results to published volume flux curves shows that my revised flux estimates are lower by a factor of 2–3. Reproducing the prior higher results demonstrates that these discrepancies appear to be related to shortcomings in the implementation of the methodology used in the separation. The variability in the Hawaiian plume flux occurs at two different time scales: A short (1–2 Myr) periodicity related to the spacing of islands and seamounts, which ultimately is related to plume-plate flexural interactions, and a much longer (10–15 Myr) periodicity that may be related to plate kinematic changes. Superimposed on these trends may be an exponential increase towards more recent times, but this trend may also be explained by a higher flux level during the period when the plume was positioned beneath the relatively younger lithospheric segment bracketed by the Murray and Molokai fracture zones. Landslides and erosion of the edifice may imply an underestimation of total volumes by 5–10 per cent. The main uncertainty facing studies of plume flux is related to the unknown quantity of magmatic underplating.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 69
    Publication Date: 2015-10-30
    Description: The Castrovillari scarps (Cfs) are located in northern Calabria (Italy) and consist of three main WSW-dipping fault scarps resulting from multiple rupture events. At the surface, these scarps are defined by multiple breaks in slope. Despite its near-surface complexity, the faults likely merge to form a single normal fault at about 200 m depth, which we refer to as the Castrovillari fault. We present the results of a multidisciplinary and multiscale study at a selected site of the Cfs with the aim to (i) characterize the geometry at the surface and at depth and (ii) obtain constraints on the fault slip history. We investigate the site by merging data from quantitative geomorphological analyses, electrical resistivity and ground penetrating radar surveys, and palaeoseismological trenching along a ~40 m high scarp. The closely spaced investigations allow us to reconstruct the shallow stratigraphy, define the fault locations, and measure the faulted stratigraphic offsets down to 20 m depth. Despite the varying resolutions, each of the adopted approaches suggests the presence of sub-parallel fault planes below the scarps at approximately the same location. The merged datasets permit the evaluation of the fault array (along strike for 220 m within a 370-m-wide zone). The main fault zone consists of two closely spaced NW–SE striking fault planes in the upper portion of the scarp slope and another fault at the scarp foot. The 3-D image of the fault surfaces shows west to southwest dipping planes with values between 70° and 80°; the two closely spaced planes join at about 200 m below the surface. The 8-to-12-m-high upper fault, which shows the higher vertical displacements, accommodated most of the deformation during the Holocene. Results from the trenching analysis indicate a minimum slip per event of 0.6 m and a maximum short-term slip rate of 0.6 mm yr –1 for the Cf. The shallow subsurface imaging techniques are particularly helpful in evaluating the possible field uncertainties related to postfaulting modification by erosional/depositional/human processes, such as within stream valleys and urbanized zones.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 70
    Publication Date: 2015-11-20
    Description: With the progress of mantle convection modelling over the last decade, it now becomes possible to solve for the dynamics of the interior flow and the surface tectonics to first order. We show here that tectonic data (like surface kinematics and seafloor age distribution) and mantle convection models with plate-like behaviour can in principle be combined to reconstruct mantle convection. We present a sequential data assimilation method, based on suboptimal schemes derived from the Kalman filter, where surface velocities and seafloor age maps are not used as boundary conditions for the flow, but as data to assimilate. Two stages (a forecast followed by an analysis) are repeated sequentially to take into account data observed at different times. Whenever observations are available, an analysis infers the most probable state of the mantle at this time, considering a prior guess (supplied by the forecast) and the new observations at hand, using the classical best linear unbiased estimate. Between two observation times, the evolution of the mantle is governed by the forward model of mantle convection. This method is applied to synthetic 2-D spherical annulus mantle cases to evaluate its efficiency. We compare the reference evolutions to the estimations obtained by data assimilation. Two parameters control the behaviour of the scheme: the time between two analyses, and the amplitude of noise in the synthetic observations. Our technique proves to be efficient in retrieving temperature field evolutions provided the time between two analyses is 10 Myr. If the amplitude of the a priori error on the observations is large (30 per cent), our method provides a better estimate of surface tectonics than the observations, taking advantage of the information within the physics of convection.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 71
    Publication Date: 2015-11-25
    Description: In this study, the Moho depth is estimated based on the refined spherical Bouguer gravity disturbance and DTM2006 topographic data using the Vening Meinesz-Moritz gravimetric-isostatic hypothesis. In this context, we compute the refined spherical Bouguer gravity disturbances in a set of 1° x 1° blocks. The spherical terrain correction, a residual correction to each Bouguer shell, is computed using rock heights and ice sheet thicknesses from the DTM2006 and Earth2014 models. The study illustrates that the defined simple Bouguer gravity disturbance corrected for the density variations of the oceans, ice sheets and sediment basins and also the non-isostatic effects needs a significant terrain correction to become the refined Bouguer gravity disturbance, and that the isostatic gravity disturbance is significantly better defined by the latter disturbance plus a compensation attraction. Our study shows that despite the fact that the lateral variation of the crustal depth is rather smooth, the terrain affects the result most significantly in many areas. The global numerical results show that the estimated Moho depths by the simple and refined spherical Bouguer gravity disturbances and the seismic CRUST1.0 model agree to 5.6 and 2.7 km in RMS, respectively. Also, the mean value differences are 1.7 and 0.2 km, respectively. Two regional numerical studies show that the RMS differences between the Moho depths estimated based on the simple and refined spherical Bouguer gravity disturbance and that using CRUST1.0 model yield fits of 4.9 and 3.2 km in South America and yield 3.2 and 3.4 km in Fennoscandia, respectively.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 72
    Publication Date: 2015-11-25
    Description: The rifting episode that occurred in Dabbahu–Manda–Hararo (Ethiopia) between 2005 and 2010 during which 14 dyke intrusions were emitted, was a unique opportunity to study interactions between tectonic deformation and magmatic processes. While magmatism has been shown to control primarily the spatial and temporal distribution of dyke intrusions during this accretion sequence, the role of faults in accommodating plate spreading in rift segments is poorly understood. During interdyking periods, transient ground deformation due to magma movement is generally observed. Investigating such a small-scale deformation and in particular the movement along faults during these periods will help understanding the factors that trigger fault movement in magmatic rifts. We analyse fault activity during three interdyking periods: 2006 December–June (d0–d1), 2007 January–July (d5–d6) and 2009 November–January (d10–d11). The time–space evolution of surface displacements along ~700 faults is derived from pairs of ascending and descending SAR interferograms. Surface slip distributions are then compared with codyking ground deformation fields. The results show that faults are mainly activated above the areas affected by magma emplacement during interdyking periods. A detailed analysis of brittle deformation during the six months following the 2005 September intrusion shows asymmetric deformation on the rift shoulders, with significant opening on faults located to the west of the dyke. We explain this feature by the activation of westward dipping pre-existing faults, with block rotations in between. In addition, we observe that the strip encompassing the activated faults narrows by 30 per cent from co- to interdyking period. This suggests that magma keeps migrating to shallower depths after the dyke intrusion. During a rifting episode, activation of faults in a pre-existing fracture network therefore seems to be mainly controlled by deep magma processes.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 73
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: We investigate how uncertainties in seismic and density structure of the crust propagate to uncertainties in mantle density structure. The analysis is based on interpretation of residual upper-mantle gravity anomalies which are calculated by subtracting (stripping) the gravitational effect of the crust from the observed satellite gravity field data (GOCE Direct release 3). Thus calculated residual mantle gravity anomalies are caused mainly by a heterogeneous density distribution in the upper mantle. Given a relatively small range of expected compositional density variations in the lithospheric mantle, knowledge on uncertainties associated with incomplete information on crustal structure is of utmost importance for progress in gravity modelling. Uncertainties in the residual upper-mantle gravity anomalies result chiefly from uncertainties in (i) seismic V P velocity–density conversion for the crust and (ii) uncertainties in the seismic crustal structure (thickness and average V P velocities of individual crustal layers, including the sedimentary cover). We examine the propagation of these uncertainties into determinations of lithospheric mantle density and analyse both sources of possible uncertainties by applying different velocity-to-density conversions and by introducing variations into the crustal structure which correspond to typical resolution of high-quality and low-quality seismic models. We apply our analysis to Siberia (the West Siberian Basin and the Siberian Craton) for which a new regional seismic crustal model, SibCrust, has recently become available. For the same region, we also compute upper-mantle gravity and density anomalies based on three global crustal models (CRUST 5.1, CRUST 2.0 and CRUST 1.0) and compare the results based on four different crustal models. A large uncertainty in the V P -to-density conversion may result in the uncertainty in lithospheric mantle density anomalies of ca. 0.02–0.03 g cm –3 (i.e. 0.5–1 per cent, which is comparable to compositional density anomalies expected for continental lithosphere mantle). Similar values of uncertainties may be caused by a 0.2 km s –1 error in average crustal V P velocities or by a 2 km uncertainty in the Moho depth. One of the largest uncertainties is caused by errors in thickness of the sedimentary layer, and a 2 km error leads to ca. 0.03 g cm –3 error in lithospheric mantle densities. Large deviations (locally ±10 km) of the Moho depth in global crustal models (CRUST 5.1, CRUST2.0 and CRUST1.0) from the high-resolution regional seismic model of the crust, SibCrust, may produce artefact residual mantle gravity anomalies of up to ±150 mGal locally, caused by large errors in crustal gravity corrections. These errors in gravity anomalies produce up to ca. 0.04 g cm –3 ( ca. 1.2 per cent) errors in density of the lithospheric mantle, which may well correspond to the amplitude of real density anomalies in the mantle. Our results demonstrate that gravity modelling alone cannot reliably constrain the crustal structure, including the Moho depth and thickness of sediments.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 74
    Publication Date: 2015-03-25
    Description: The Pyrenean mountain range is a slowly deforming belt with continuous and moderate seismic activity. To quantify its deformation field, we present the velocity field estimated from a GPS survey of the Pyrenees spanning 18 yr. The PotSis and ResPyr networks, including a total of 85 GPS sites, were installed and first measured in 1992 and 1995–1997, respectively, and remeasured in 2008 and 2010. We obtain a deformation field with velocities less than 1 mm yr –1 across the range. The estimated velocities for individual stations do not differ significantly from zero with 95 per cent confidence. Even so, we estimate a maximum extensional horizontal strain rate of 2.0 ± 1.7 nanostrain per year in a N–S direction in the western part of the range. We do not interpret the vertical displacements due to their large uncertainties. In order to compare the horizontal strain rates with the seismic activity, we analyse a set of 194 focal mechanisms using three methods: (i) the ‘r’ factor relating their P and T axes, (ii) the stress tensors obtained by fault slip inversion and (iii) the strain-rate tensors. Stress and strain-rate tensors are estimated for: (i) the whole data set, (ii) the eastern and western parts of the range separately, and (iii) eight zones, which are defined based on the seismicity and the tectonic patterns of the Pyrenees. Each of these analyses reveals a lateral variation of the deformation style from compression and extension in the east to extension and strike-slip in the west of the range. Although the horizontal components of the strain-rate tensors estimated from the seismic data are slightly smaller in magnitude than those computed from the GPS velocity field, they are consistent within the 2 uncertainties. Furthermore, the orientations of their principal axes agree with the mapped active faults.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 75
    Publication Date: 2015-03-29
    Description: The resistivity structure of the lithospheric mantle beneath the Proterozoic Grenville Province in southern Ontario, Canada is investigated using 84 magnetotelluric (MT) sites divided into four profiles. Depth-based regional geoelectric dimensionality analyses of the MT responses indicate that the mantle lithosphere north of Lake Ontario can be subdivided into upper (45–150 km) and deeper (〉200 km) lithospheric mantle layers with regional strike azimuths of N85°E (±5°) and N65°E (±5°), respectively. MT responses from the Grenville Front and the northwest part of the Central Gneiss Belt are compatible with the presence of 2-D resistivity structures but farther to the southeast, in the southeast part of the Central Gneiss Belt and Central Metasedimentary Belt, they suggest the presence of localized 3-D structures. 2-D inversion of distortion-free MT responses images a large scale very resistive (〉20 000  m) region that extends 300 km southeast of the Grenville Front and for at least 800 km along-strike in the lithospheric mantle beneath the Grenville Province. This feature is interpreted to be Superior Province lithosphere and the corresponding N85°E geoelectric strike to be associated with the fabric of the Superior Province. The base of the resistor reaches depths of 280 km on two of the three MT profiles north of Lake Ontario and this depth is interpreted to be the base of the lithosphere. A large region of enhanced conductivity in the lower lithosphere, spatially correlated with decreased seismic velocity, is bounded to the northwest by a subvertical resistivity anomaly located near the Kirkland Lake and Cobalt kimberlite fields. The enhanced conductivity in the lower lithosphere is attributed to refertilization by fluids associated with Cretaceous kimberlite magmatism and can be explained by water content in olivine of 50 wt ppm in background areas with higher values in a localized anomaly beneath the kimberlite fields. Farther to the southeast the resistivity models include a lithospheric conductor between 100 and 150 km depth beneath the Central Metasedimentary Belt. The enhanced conductivity is attributed to grain boundary graphite films, associated with the Cretaceous kimberlitic magmatic process, or to water and carbon, introduced into the mantle during the pre-Grenvillian tectonism.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 76
    Publication Date: 2015-03-29
    Description: Displacements and stress-field changes associated with earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and human activity are often simulated using numerical models in an attempt to understand the underlying processes and their governing physics. The application of elastic dislocation theory to these problems, however, may be biased because of numerical instabilities in the calculations. Here, we present a new method that is free of artefact singularities and numerical instabilities in analytical solutions for triangular dislocations (TDs) in both full-space and half-space. We apply the method to both the displacement and the stress fields. The entire 3-D Euclidean space $\mathbb {R}^{3}$ is divided into two complementary subspaces, in the sense that in each one, a particular analytical formulation fulfils the requirements for the ideal, artefact-free solution for a TD. The primary advantage of the presented method is that the development of our solutions involves neither numerical approximations nor series expansion methods. As a result, the final outputs are independent of the scale of the input parameters, including the size and position of the dislocation as well as its corresponding slip vector components. Our solutions are therefore well suited for application at various scales in geoscience, physics and engineering. We validate the solutions through comparison to other well-known analytical methods and provide the MATLAB codes.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 77
    Publication Date: 2015-03-29
    Description: Models of the glacial isostatic adjustment process, which is dominated by the influence of the Late Pleistocene cycle of glaciation and deglaciation, depend on two fundamental inputs: a history of ice-sheet loading and a model of the radial variation of mantle viscosity. These models may be tested and refined by comparing their local predictions of relative sea level history to geological inferences based upon appropriate sea level indicators. The U.S. Atlantic coast is a region of particular interest in this regard, due to the fact that data from the length of this coast provides a transect of the forebulge associated with the former Laurentide ice sheet. High-quality relative sea level histories from this region are employed herein to explore the ability of current models of mantle viscosity to explain the inferred evolution of relative sea level that have accompanied forebulge collapse following deglaciation. Existing misfits are characterized, and alternatives are explored for their reconciliation. It is demonstrated that a new model of mantle viscosity, referred to herein as VM6, when coupled with the latest model of deglaciation history ICE-6G_C, is able to eliminate the majority of these misfits, while continuing to reconcile a wide range of other important geophysical observables, as well as additional relative sea level data from the North American. West coast which also record the collapse of the forebulge but which have not been employed in tuning the viscosity profile to enable ICE-6G_C (VM6) to fit the East coast data set.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 78
    Publication Date: 2015-04-04
    Description: The origin of shear wave splitting (SWS) in the mantle beneath Iceland is examined using numerical models that simulate 3-D mantle flow and the development of seismic anisotropy due to lattice-preferred orientation (LPO). Using the simulated anisotropy structure, we compute synthetic SKS waveforms, invert them for fast polarization directions and split times, and then compare the predictions with the results from three observational studies of Iceland. Models that simulate a mantle plume interacting with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in which the shallow-most mantle has a high viscosity due to the extraction of water with partial melting, or in which C-type olivine LPO fabric is present due to high water content in the plume, produce the largest chi-squared misfits to the SWS observations and are thus rejected. Models of a low-viscosity mantle plume with A-type olivine fabric everywhere, or with the added effects of E-type fabric in the plume below the solidus produce lower misfits. The lowest misfits are produced by models that include a rapid (~50 km Myr –1 ) northward regional flow (NRF) in the mid-upper mantle, either with or without a plume. NRF was previously indicated by a receiver function study and a regional tomography study, and is shown here to be a major cause of the azimuthal anisotropy beneath Iceland. The smallest misfits for the models with both a plume and NRF are produced when LPO forms above depths of 300–400 km, which, by implication, also mark the depths above which dislocation creep dominates over diffusion creep. This depth of transition between dislocation and diffusion creep is greater than expected beneath normal oceanic seafloor, and is attributed to the unusually rapid strain rates associated with an Iceland plume and the NRF.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 79
    Publication Date: 2015-03-26
    Description: The resistivity structure of the lithospheric mantle beneath the Proterozoic Grenville Province in southern Ontario, Canada is investigated using 84 magnetotelluric (MT) sites divided into four profiles. Depth-based regional geoelectric dimensionality analyses of the MT responses indicate that the mantle lithosphere north of Lake Ontario can be subdivided into upper (45–150 km) and deeper (〉200 km) lithospheric mantle layers with regional strike azimuths of N85°E (±5°) and N65°E (±5°), respectively. MT responses from the Grenville Front and the northwest part of the Central Gneiss Belt are compatible with the presence of 2-D resistivity structures but farther to the southeast, in the southeast part of the Central Gneiss Belt and Central Metasedimentary Belt, they suggest the presence of localized 3-D structures. 2-D inversion of distortion-free MT responses images a large scale very resistive (〉20 000  m) region that extends 300 km southeast of the Grenville Front and for at least 800 km along-strike in the lithospheric mantle beneath the Grenville Province. This feature is interpreted to be Superior Province lithosphere and the corresponding N85°E geoelectric strike to be associated with the fabric of the Superior Province. The base of the resistor reaches depths of 280 km on two of the three MT profiles north of Lake Ontario and this depth is interpreted to be the base of the lithosphere. A large region of enhanced conductivity in the lower lithosphere, spatially correlated with decreased seismic velocity, is bounded to the northwest by a subvertical resistivity anomaly located near the Kirkland Lake and Cobalt kimberlite fields. The enhanced conductivity in the lower lithosphere is attributed to refertilization by fluids associated with Cretaceous kimberlite magmatism and can be explained by water content in olivine of 50 wt ppm in background areas with higher values in a localized anomaly beneath the kimberlite fields. Farther to the southeast the resistivity models include a lithospheric conductor between 100 and 150 km depth beneath the Central Metasedimentary Belt. The enhanced conductivity is attributed to grain boundary graphite films, associated with the Cretaceous kimberlitic magmatic process, or to water and carbon, introduced into the mantle during the pre-Grenvillian tectonism.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 80
    Publication Date: 2015-03-29
    Description: Using dynamic rupture models of a right-lateral fault embedded in an elastic or elastoplastic 3-D medium, we investigate elastic and inelastic responses of compliant fault zones to nearby earthquake ruptures. We particularly examine effects of fault zone depth, width, shape and rigidity reduction on the surface displacement field. Our results from elastic models show that deeper and wider fault zones generally result in larger residual displacements. However, for shallow fault zones, the vertical residual displacement is insensitive to or even decreases with fault zone width. The width of horizontal displacement anomalies across a fault zone is only indicative of the fault zone width near the Earth's surface. There are trade-off effects among fault zone depth, width, shape and rigidity reduction on the amplitude of surface residual displacements. Our elastoplastic models show that plastic strain can occur along the entire fault zone near the Earth's surface and in the extensional quadrant at depth, if fault zone rocks are close to failure before a nearby earthquake happens. Compared with results from elastic models, plastic strain near the Earth's surface generally enhances surface displacements of a fault zone and does not change the trend of effects of fault zone depth and width, while plastic strain at depth can result in reduced retrograde motion or sympathetic motion across the fault zone, and introduce complexities in effects of fault zone depth and width. Sympathetic horizontal motion more likely occurs across a narrow fault zone with inelastic response at depth. Vertical motion in the extensional quadrant may actually decrease with fault zone width in elastoplastic models. Sympathetic horizontal motion, or small retrograde horizontal motion in conjunction with large vertical motion above a fault zone is indicative of inelastic response of a fault zone at depth.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 81
    Publication Date: 2015-04-06
    Description: The Algerian margin formed through back-arc opening of the Algerian basin (Mediterranean Sea) resulting from the roll-back of the Tethyan slab. Recent geophysical data acquired along the Algerian margin showed evidence of active or recent compressive deformation in the basin due to the ongoing Africa–Eurasia convergence. Published data from four wide-angle seismic profiles have allowed imaging the deep structure of the Algerian margin and its adjacent basins. In this study, we converted these velocity models into density models, then into isostatic anomalies. This allowed us to image an isostatic disequilibrium (relative to a local isostasy model) reaching a maximum amplitude at the margin toe. Converting isostatic anomalies into Moho depth variations shows that the Moho extracted from wide-angle seismic data is deeper than the one predicted by a local isostasy model in the oceanic domain, and shallower than it in the continental domain. These anomalies can be interpreted by opposite flexures of two plates separated by a plate boundary located close to the margin toe. We use a finite element model to simulate the lithospheric flexure. The amplitude of the equivalent vertical Moho deflection is larger in the central part of the study area (6–7 km) than on the easternmost and westernmost profiles (3 km). The effective elastic thickness used to best match the computed deflection is always extremely low (always less than 10 km) and probably reflects the relatively low strength of the lithosphere close to the plate boundary. Comparison with other wide-angle seismic profiles across an active and a passive margin show that the North Algerian margin displays isostatic anomalies close to that of an active margin. Finally, plate flexure is highest at the southern tip of the ocean-continent transition, possibly indicating that a former passive margin detachment is reactivated as a crustal scale reverse fault pre-dating a future subduction.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 82
    Publication Date: 2015-01-01
    Description: Between 2011 and 2013, two dense transects were deployed across the central and western Pyrenees to get better constraints on the deep lithospheric architecture and discriminate the competing models of the structure and formation of the Pyrenees. Each transect recorded the regional and global seismicity during a period of approximately 1 yr. Here, we exploit the records of teleseismic compressional waves and of their conversions to shear waves on internal discontinuities in order to map lithospheric interfaces beneath the two transects. The migrated sections, obtained by performing common conversion point stacks, are in remarkable agreement with the results of the ECORS-Pyrenees and ECORS-Arzacq deep seismic surveys. However, the migrations of converted waves reveal new details of the deep lithospheric architecture that could not be seen with the active source experiments. The new images provide clear and definite evidence for the subduction of a thinned Iberian crust down to at least ~70 km depth, a result that has important implications for the formation of the Pyrenees. The subduction of the Iberian lithosphere leads to reconsider the amount of convergence between Iberia and Europe during the Cenozoic. A recent regional P -wave tomography, relying on the data of the PYROPE and IBERARRAY temporary experiments, revealed the segmentation of lithospheric structures by inherited Hercynian NE–SW transfer faults that were reactivated during the Albian rifting. Our migration images are consistent with this model, and give further support to the idea that the Pyrenees were produced by the tectonic inversion of a segmented hyperextended rift that was buried by subduction beneath the European Plate.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 83
    Publication Date: 2015-11-27
    Description: Post-seismic deformation is commonly attributed to viscoelastic relaxation and/or afterslip, although discerning between the two driving mechanisms can be difficult. A major complication in modeling post-seismic deformation is that forward models can be computationally expensive, making it difficult to adequately search model space to find the optimal fault slip distribution and lithospheric viscosity structure that can explain observable post-seismic deformation. We propose an inverse method which uses coseismic and early post-seismic deformation to rapidly and simultaneously estimate a fault slip history and an arbitrarily discretized viscosity structure of the lithosphere. Our method is based on an approximation which is applicable to the early post-seismic period and expresses surface deformation resulting from viscoelastic relaxation as a linearized function with respect to lithospheric fluidity. We demonstrate this approximation using two-dimensional earthquake models. We validate the approximation and our inverse method using two three-dimensional synthetic tests. The success of our synthetic tests suggests that our method is capable of distinguishing the mechanisms driving early post-seismic deformation and recovering an effective viscosity structure of the lithosphere.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 84
    Publication Date: 2015-08-02
    Description: Geophysical data from the MEDOC experiment across the Northern Tyrrhenian backarc basin has mapped a failed rift during backarc extension of cratonic Variscan lithosphere. In contrast, data across the Central Tyrrhenian have revealed the presence of magmatic accretion followed by mantle exhumation after continental breakup. Here we analyse the MEDOC transect E–F, which extends from Sardinia to the Campania margin at 40.5°N, to define the distribution of geological domains in the transition from the complex Central Tyrrhenian to the extended continental crust of the Northern Tyrrhenian. The crust and uppermost mantle structure along this ~400-km-long transect have been investigated based on wide-angle seismic data, gravity modelling and multichannel seismic reflection imaging. The P -wave tomographic model together with a P -wave-velocity-derived density model and the multichannel seismic images reveal seven different domains along this transect, in contrast to the simpler structure to the south and north. The stretched continental crust under Sardinia margin abuts the magmatic crust of Cornaglia Terrace, where accretion likely occurred during backarc extension. Eastwards, around Secchi seamount, a second segment of thinned continental crust (7–8 km) is observed. Two short segments of magmatically modified continental crust are separated by the ~5-km-wide segment of the Vavilov basin possibly made of exhumed mantle rocks. The eastern segment of the 40.5°N transect E–F is characterized by continental crust extending from mainland Italy towards the Campania margin. Ground truthing and prior geophysical information obtained north and south of transect E–F was integrated in this study to map the spatial distribution of basement domains in the Central Tyrrhenian basin. The northward transition of crustal domains depicts a complex 3-D structure represented by abrupt spatial changes of magmatic and non-magmatic crustal domains. These observations imply rapid variations of magmatic activity difficult to reconcile with current models of extension of continental lithosphere essentially 2-D over long distances.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 85
    Publication Date: 2015-11-19
    Description: Northern Attica in Greece is characterized by a set of north dipping, subparallel normal faults. These faults were considered to have low tectonic activity, based on historical earthquake reports, instrumental seismicity and slip rate estimates. This study presents new data for one of these faults, the Milesi Fault. We run GIS based geomorphological analyses on fault offset distribution, field mapping of postglacial fault scarps and ground penetrating radar profiling to image hangingwall deformation. The first palaeoseismological trenching in this part of Greece allowed obtaining direct data on slip rates and palaeoearthquakes. The trenching revealed downthrown and buried palaeosols, which were dated by radiocarbon. The results of our investigations show that the slip rates are higher than previously thought and that at least four palaeoearthquakes with magnitudes of around M 6.2 occurred during the last 4000–6000 yr. We calculate an average recurrence interval of 1000–1500 yr and a maximum throw rate of ~0.4–0.45 mm a –1 . Based on the new geological earthquake data we developed a seismic hazard scenario, which also incorporates geological site effects. Intensities up to IX must be expected for Northern Attica and the southeastern part of Evia. Earthquake environmental effects like liquefaction and mass movements are also likely to occur. This scenario is in contrast to the official Greek seismic hazard zonation that is based on historical records and assigns different hazard zones for municipalities that will experience the same intensity by earthquakes on the Milesi Fault. We show that the seismic hazard is likely underestimated in our study area and emphasize the need to incorporate geological information in such assessments.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 86
    Publication Date: 2015-11-07
    Description: Numerical models of mantle convection typically employ a temperature- or pressure-dependent viscous or viscoplastic rheology and a free slip upper boundary condition. The Earth, however, has a stress-free rather than a free slip surface condition. In addition, with decreasing temperature, the viscosity of rocks increases, which might induce a change from viscous to elastic behaviour (depending on the timescale of deformation). Here, we study the effects of both a Maxwell viscoelastic rheology and a free surface upper boundary condition on viscoelastic convection with a strongly temperature dependent rheology. We particularly focus on the effect of elasticity on the stress state of the lithosphere. Results show that convection vigor and heat transport are not significantly altered by the upper boundary condition or by elasticity. However, the stress state of the lithosphere is significantly affected by both factors. If elasticity is unimportant, a free surface upper boundary condition results in significantly elevated surface stresses (which are up to two magnitudes larger than in the free slip case). Elasticity counteracts this effect and significantly reduces the surface stresses, but distributes stresses over a thicker layer than in the case of a purely viscous rheology. At Earth-like conditions, this effect is significant. While it is warranted to use a free slip upper boundary condition and neglecting elasticity when studying mantle convection and its effect on the thermal state of the Earth, both factors are significant when one wants to predict the stress state of the lithosphere and related questions. Additional 2-D simulations of a plume impinging on a constant thickness and constant viscosity lithosphere show that reasonable parameters might induce lithospheric stress levels that are on the order of a GPa or larger, for viscous free surface models, and that these stresses are several orders of magnitude larger than stresses that occur for free slip models. This suggests that the effect of a free surface should not be ignored in models where the rheology is stress-dependent, such as in viscoplastic models of self-consistent plate tectonics.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 87
    Publication Date: 2015-08-30
    Description: On 2012 August 11, a pair of large, damaging earthquakes struck the Varzaghan–Ahar region in northwest Iran, in a region where there was no major mapped fault or any well-documented historical seismicity. To investigate the active tectonics of the source region we applied a combination of seismological methods (local aftershock network, calibrated multiple event relocation and focal mechanism studies), field observations (structural geology and geomorphological) and inversions for the regional stress field. The epicentral region is north of the North Tabriz Fault. The first main shock is characterized by right-lateral strike-slip motion on an almost E–W fault plane of about 23 km length extending from the surface to a depth of about 14 km. The second main shock occurred on an ENE-striking fault that dips at 60–70° to the NW. Independent inversions of focal mechanisms and geologically determined fault kinematic data for the active stress state yield a transpressional tectonic regime with 1 oriented N132E. For the region northeast of the North Tabriz Fault, the presence of rigid lithosphere of the South Caspian Basin implies the kinematic adjustment by northward transferring of the contracted masses through both distributed deformation and structural deflections. Our results suggest that the kinematic adjustment inside a contracting wedge may occur along interacting crosswise or conjugate faults to accommodate low rates of internal deformation. At a global scale, our results indicate that despite the basic assumption of ‘rigid blocks’ in geodetic plate modelling, internal deformation of block-like regions could control the kinematics of deformation and the level of seismic hazard within and around such regions of low deformation rate.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 88
    Publication Date: 2015-07-02
    Description: Many salt diapirs are thought to have formed as a result of down-building, which implies that the top of the diapir remained close to the surface during syn-halokinetic sediment deposition. Down-building is largely a 3-D process and in order to better understand what controls the patterns of the diapirs that form by this process, we here perform 3-D numerical models of down-built diapirs initiated by the gravity instability in linear viscous materials and compare the results with analytical models. We vary several parameters of the numerical models such as initial salt thickness, sedimentation rate, salt viscosity, salt-sediment viscosity ratio as well as the density of sediments. Down-building of 3-D diapirs only occurs for a certain range of parameters and is favoured by lower sediment/salt viscosity contrasts and sedimentation rates in agreement with analytical predictions and findings from previous 2-D models. However, the models show that the sedimentation rate has an additional effect on the formation and evolution of 3-D diapir patterns. At low sedimentation rates, salt ridges that form during early model stages remain preserved at later stages as well. For higher sedimentation rates, the initial salt ridges are covered up and finger-like diapirs form at their junctions, which results in different salt exposure patterns at the surface. Once the initial pattern of diapirs is formed, higher sedimentation rate can also result in covered diapirs if the diapir extrusion velocity is insufficiently large. We quantify the effect of sedimentation rate on the number of diapirs exposed at the surface as well as on their spacing and we explain the observations with analytical predictions using thick-plate analytical models. In some cases, this final pattern is distinctly different from the initial polygonal pattern.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 89
    Publication Date: 2015-11-01
    Description: We present a generalized formalism for computing gravitationally self-consistent sea level changes driven by the combined effects of dynamic topography, geoid perturbations due to mantle convection, ice mass fluctuations and sediment redistribution on a deforming Earth. Our mathematical treatment conserves mass of the surface (ice plus ocean) load and the solid Earth. Moreover, it takes precise account of shoreline migration and the associated ocean loading. The new formalism avoids a variety of approximations adopted in previous models of sea level change driven by dynamic topography, including the assumption that a spatially fixed isostatic amplification of ‘air-loaded’ dynamic topography accurately accounts for ocean loading effects. While our approach is valid for Earth models of arbitrary complexity, we present numerical results for a set of simple cases in which a pattern of dynamic topography is imposed, the response to surface mass loading assumes that Earth structure varies only with depth and that isostatic equilibrium is maintained at all times. These calculations, involving fluid Love number theory, indicate that the largest errors in previous predictions of sea level change driven by dynamic topography occur in regions of shoreline migration, and thus in the vicinity of most geological markers of ancient sea level. We conclude that a gravitationally self-consistent treatment of long-term sea level change is necessary in any effort to use such geological markers to estimate ancient ice volumes.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 90
    Publication Date: 2015-10-31
    Description: The Gibraltar arc and surrounding areas are a complex tectonic region and its tectonic evolution since Miocene is still under debate. Knowledge of its lithospheric structure will help to understand the mechanisms that produced extension and westward motion of the Alboran domain, simultaneously with NW–SE compression driven by Africa–Europe plates convergence. We perform a P -wave receiver function analysis in which we analyse new data recorded at 83 permanent and temporary seismic broad-band stations located in the South of the Iberian peninsula. These data are stacked and combined with data from a previous study in northern Morocco to build maps of thickness and average v P / v S ratio for the crust, and cross-sections to image the lithospheric discontinuities beneath the Gibraltar arc, the Betic and Rif Ranges and their Iberian and Moroccan forelands. Crustal thickness values show strong lateral variations in the southern Iberia peninsula, ranging from ~19 to ~46 km. The Variscan foreland is characterized by a relatively flat Moho at ~31 km depth, and an average v P / v S ratio of ~1.72, similar to other Variscan terranes, which may indicate that part of the lower crustal orogenic root was lost. The thickest crust is found at the contact between the Alboran domain and the External Zones of the Betic Range, while crustal thinning is observed southeastern Iberia (down to 19 km) and in the Guadalquivir basin where the thinning at the Iberian paleomargin could be still preserved. In the cross-sections, we see a strong change between the eastern Betics, where the Iberian crust underthrusts and couples to the Alboran crust, and the western Betics, where the underthrusting Iberian crust becomes partially delaminated and enters into the mantle. The structures largely mirror those on the Moroccan side where a similar detachment was observed in northern Morocco. We attribute a relatively shallow strong negative-polarity discontinuity to the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. This means relatively thin lithosphere ranging from ~50 km thickness in southeastern Iberia and northeastern Morocco to ~90–100 km beneath the western Betics and the Rif, with abrupt changes of ~30 km under the central Betics and northern Morocco. Our observations support a geodynamic scenario where in western Betics oceanic subduction has developed into ongoing continental subduction/delamination while in eastern Betics this process is inactive.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 91
    Publication Date: 2015-03-15
    Description: Inner core convection, and the corresponding variations in grain size and alignment, has been proposed to explain the complex seismic structure of the inner core, including its anisotropy, lateral variations and the F-layer at the base of the outer core. We develop a parametrized convection model to investigate the possibility of convection in the inner core, focusing on the dominance of the plume mode of convection versus the translation mode. We investigate thermal and compositional convection separately so as to study the end-members of the system. In the thermal case the dominant mode of convection is strongly dependent on the viscosity of the inner core, the magnitude of which is poorly constrained. Furthermore recent estimates of a large core thermal conductivity result in stable thermal stratification, hindering convection. However, an unstable density stratification may arise due to the pressure dependant partition coefficient of certain light elements. We show that this unstable stratification leads to compositionally driven convection, and that inner core translation is likely to be the dominant convective mode due to the low compositional diffusivity. The style of convection resulting from a combination of both thermal and compositional effects is not easy to understand. For reasonable parameter estimates, the stabilizing thermal buoyancy is greater than the destabilizing compositional buoyancy. However we anticipate complex double diffusive processes to occur given the very different thermal and compositional diffusivities.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 92
    Publication Date: 2015-03-15
    Description: Relative sea level histories from previously glaciated areas have been used to study Earth rheology and ice sheet evolution during the last glacial cycle. The analysis of postglacial decay times has been used to place estimates on Earth viscosity structure that are relatively independent of uncertainty in the local ice history. Reconstructed sea levels from Ångermanland, Sweden have been commonly adopted for this purpose. We have assessed and compiled an updated relative sea level curve for this region, combining both varve-dated and radiocarbon dated index points. We fitted an exponential curve to the observations, taking into account estimates of eustatic sea level rise, elevation uncertainties as well as the geographical spread of the data sites to arrive at a decay time range (2 ) of 4.2–4.9 kyr for the whole record length (0–8 kyr) and 4.2–6.2 when 0–7 kyr fits are included. We computed model decay times using a large suite of over 900 ice and earth model combinations based on over 400 three-layer Earth viscosity models and more than 30 ice history reconstructions. Based on these extensive results, we confirm that decay time estimates are relatively independent of the regional ice model (at least within the range of ice chronology uncertainties) and so this data parametrization provides a relatively robust measure of Earth viscosity structure. We find that the observational constraints listed above are satisfied by 29 (8 kyr record) and 52 (7 and 8 kyr record) of the viscosity models considered. These subsets define uncertainty ranges in upper and lower mantle viscosity that are interdependent (Fig. 5). Consistent with previous analyses, we find that the observational decay time estimate does not provide useful constraints on model lithospheric thickness (within the range explored; 46–146 km).
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 93
    Publication Date: 2015-03-15
    Description: Seismological, geological and geodetic data have been integrated to characterize the seismogenic structure of the late 2013-early 2014 moderate energy (maximum local magnitude M Lmax = 4.9) seismic sequence that struck the interior of the Matese Massif, part of the Southern Apennines active extensional belt. The sequence, heralded by a M L = 2.7 foreshock, was characterized by two main shocks with M L = 4.9 and M L = 4.2, respectively, which occurred at a depth of ~17–18 km. The sequence was confined in the 10–20 km depth range, significantly deeper than the 1997–1998 sequence which occurred few km away on the northeastern side of the massif above ~15 km depth. The depth distribution of the 2013–14 sequence is almost continuous, albeit a deeper (16–19 km) and a shallower (11–15 km) group of events can be distinguished, the former including the main shocks and the foreshock. The epicentral distribution formed a ~10 km long NNW–SSE trending alignment, which almost parallels the surface trace of late Pliocene–Quaternary southwest-dipping normal faults with a poor evidence of current geological and geodetic deformation. We built an upper crustal model profile for the eastern Matese massif through integration of geological data, oil exploration well logs and seismic tomographic images. Projection of hypocentres on the profile suggests that the seismogenic volume falls mostly within the crystalline crust and subordinately within the Mesozoic sedimentary cover of Apulia, the underthrust foreland of the Southern Apennines fold and thrust belt. Geological data and the regional macroseismic field of the sequence suggest that the southwest-dipping nodal plane of the main shocks represents the rupture surface that we refer to here as the Matese fault. The major lithological discontinuity between crystalline and sedimentary rocks of Apulia likely confined upward the rupture extent of the Matese fault. Repeated coseismic failure represented by the deeper group of events in the sequence, activated in a passive fashion the overlying ~11–15 km deep section of the upper crustal normal faults. We consider the southwest-dipping Matese fault representative of a poorly known type of seismogenic structures in the Southern Apennines, where extensional seismogenesis and geodetic strain accumulation occur more frequently on NE-dipping, shallower-rooted faults. This is the case of the Boiano Basin fault located on the northern side of the massif, to which the 1997–1998 sequence is related. The close proximity of the two types of seismogenic faults at the Matese Massif is related to the complex crustal architecture generated by the Pliocene–early Pleistocene contractional and transpressional tectonics.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
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  • 94
    Publication Date: 2015-03-01
    Description: The Scythian Platform (ScP) with a heterogeneous basement of Baikalian–Variscan–Cimmerian age is located between the East European Craton (EEC) on the north and the Crimean–Caucasus orogenic belt and the Black Sea (BS) Basin on the south. In order to get new constrains on the basin architecture and crustal structure of the ScP and a better understanding of the tectonic processes and evolution of the southern margin of the EEC during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, a 630-km-long seismic wide-angle refraction and reflection (WARR) profile DOBRE-5 was acquired in 2011 October. It crosses in a W–E direction the Fore-Dobrudja Trough, the Odessa Shelf of the BS and the Crimean Plain. The field acquisition included eight chemical shot points located every 50 km and recorded by 215 stations placed every ~2.0 km on the land. In addition, the offshore data from existing profile 26, placed in the Odessa Shelf, were used. The obtained seismic model shows clear lateral segmentation of the crust within the study region on four domains: the Fore-Dobrudja Domain (km 20–160), an offshore domain of the Karkinit Trough at the Odessa Shelf of the BS (km 160–360), an onshore domain of the Central Crimean Uplift (Crimean Plain, km 360–520) and the Indolo-Kuban Trough at the Kerch Peninsula (km 520–620) that is the easternmost part of the Crimea. Two contrasting domains of the ScP within the central part of the DOBRE-5 profile, the Karkinit Trough and the Central Crimean Uplift, may represent different stages of the ScP formation. A deep Karkinit Trough with an underlying high-velocity (〉7.16 km s –1 ) lower crust body suggests its rifting-related origin during Early Cretaceous time. The Central Crimean Uplift represents a thick (up to 47 km) crustal domain consisting of three layers with velocities 5.8–6.4, 6.5–6.6 and 6.7–7.0 km s –1 , which could be evidence of this part of the ScP originating on the crust of Precambrian craton (EEC). The thick heterogeneous basement of the Central Crimean Uplift shows inclusions of granitic bodies associated with magmatic activity related with Variscan orogeny within the ScP. General bending and crustal scale buckling of the Central Crimean Uplift with a wavelength of 230 km could be an effect of the Alpine compressional tectonics in the adjacent Crimean Mountains. The extended/rifted continental margin of the ScP (EEC) at the Odessa Shelf and buckling/uplifted domain of the Central Crimean Uplift affected by compressional tectonics, are separated by the N–S oriented Western Crimean Fault. The crust of the southern margin of the EEC is separated from the ScP, which originated on the EEC crust tectonised and reworked during the Palaeozoic–Mesozoic, by the crustal fault of ~W–E orientation, which corresponds with the Golitsyn Fault observed at the surface between the EEC and the ScP. The Fore-Dobrudja Domain with a thick (〉10 km) heterogeneous basement and two subhorizontal layers in the crystalline crust (with velocities 6.2–6.3 and 6.4–6.65 km s –1 ) differs from the ScP crust and its origin could be very similar to that of the Trans-European Suture Zone and Palaeozoic West European Platform.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 95
    Publication Date: 2015-03-07
    Description: New Zealand straddles the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plate. Cenozoic relative plate motion has resulted in a complex pattern of faulting and block rotation in a zone of continental lithosphere up to 250 km wide. I investigate the implications of the short-term kinematics for the strength of the deforming lithosphere. I use a compilation of seismic reflection/refraction studies and high quality receiver function analyses to determine both the regional structure of the crust, which ranges from 20 to 50 km thick, and fields of buoyancy stress (or GPE per unit volume). Deformation over thousands of years is quantified in terms of velocity and strain rate fields, based on an inversion of neotectonic fault slip and palaeomagnetic data, in the context of the short-term relative plate motions. Forces on the subduction megathrust, as well as deviatoric stresses in the behind subduction region, are calculated from simple 2-D force balances across the Hikurangi Margin, given negligible deviatoric stresses at the along-strike transition between backarc extension and compression. Average megathrust shear stresses are in the range 6–15 MPa, and average lithospheric stresses 〈20 MPa in the overriding plate. The regional lithospheric strength of the plate boundary zone, assuming a viscous rheology (Newtonian or power law), is determined from an inversion of the field of gradients of buoyancy stress (averaged over either the top 25 km of the crust, or 100-km-thick lithosphere) and strain rate, using the thin sheet stress balance equations, calibrated with the subduction force balance analysis. Effective viscosities for the deforming lithosphere and/or crust are in the range 0.1–5 x 10 21 Pa s, with marked weakening in zones of high strain rate, and an abrupt transition to viscosities 〉10 22 Pa s at the margins of the rigid plates. If lateral variations in effective viscosity are only due to non-Newtonian behaviour, these data indicate a bulk power law rheology, with exponent n in the range 2–6. Average lithospheric or crustal deviatoric stresses 〈30 MPa. Such low driving stresses for the deforming crust are likely to be the result of a combination of pore fluid pressures much greater than hydrostatic (〉〉40 per cent lithostatic) and low coefficients of friction (〈〈0.6) on crustal faults.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 96
    Publication Date: 2015-03-07
    Description: On 1580 April 6 one of the most destructive earthquakes of northwestern Europe took place in the Dover Strait ( Pas de Calais ). The epicentre of this seismic event, the magnitude of which is estimated to have been about 6.0, has been located in the offshore continuation of the North Artois shear zone, a major Variscan tectonic structure that traverses the Dover Strait. The location of this and two other moderate magnitude historical earthquakes in the Dover Strait suggests that the North Artois shear zone or some of its fault segments may be presently active. In order to investigate the possible fault activity in the epicentral area of the AD 1580 earthquake, we have gathered a large set of bathymetric and seismic-reflection data covering the almost-entire width of the Dover Strait. These data have revealed a broad structural zone comprising several subparallel WNW–ESE trending faults and folds, some of them significantly offsetting the Cretaceous bedrock. The geophysical investigation has also shown some indication of possible Quaternary fault activity. However, this activity only appears to have affected the lowermost layers of the sediment infilling Middle Pleistocene palaeobasins. This indicates that, if these faults have been active since Middle Pleistocene, their slip rates must have been very low. Hence, the AD 1580 earthquake appears to be a very infrequent event in the Dover Strait, representing a good example of the moderate magnitude earthquakes that sometimes occur in plate interiors on faults with unknown historical seismicity.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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  • 97
    Publication Date: 2015-02-06
    Description: The normal fault-system responsible of the 2009 M w 6.1 L'Aquila earthquake (Paganica-San Demetrio fault-system) comprises several narrow, fault-parallel valleys of controversial origin. We investigated a key section of the southeastern portion of this fault network along the small Verupola Valley. In order to characterize its nature and possible tectonic activity, we applied multiple-geosciences techniques able to image at depth the structure associated to this peculiar landform. We integrated magnetometry, 2-D P wave and resistivity tomography, surface waves and seismic noise analysis coupled with field mapping, shallow boreholes and trenching. According to our results, the Verupola Valley is a ~30–40-m-deep graben controlled by a SW-dipping master fault and synthetic splays paired with an antithetic NE-dipping fault. The SW-dipping splays are active and cut very shallow (〈2 m deep) Late Pleistocene sediments. The small amount of cumulated vertical offset (~15 m) across the conjugated system may indicate a young fault inception or very low Quaternary slip-rates. Due to its structural continuity with the adjacent mapped strands of the Paganica–San Demetrio fault network, we relate the Verupola Valley to the recent activity of the southeastern segment of this fault system. We also suggest that other fault-parallel valleys can have the same tectonic origin and setting of the Verupola Valley. This latter represents a scale-independent analogue from metric scale (exposed in the palaeoseismological trenches) to the Middle Aterno Basin scale (seen from seismic profiles and fault mapping). Overall, the imaged structural style is coherent with the regional tectonic setting due to Quaternary crustal extension.
    Keywords: Geodynamics and Tectonics
    Print ISSN: 0956-540X
    Electronic ISSN: 1365-246X
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft (DGG) and the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS).
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