ALBERT

Notes: Four papers were read during the first symposium to be held by the Photogrammetric Society, at the University of Birmingham on 3rd and 4th April. Major General R. LI. Brown examined the staff structure of the organisations engaged upon the photogrammetric production of maps in the United Kingdom. Mr. J. R. Hollwey outlined the syllabus for a new Higher National Certificate in photogrammetry during a session which was devoted to education and qualifications. Subsequently, Professor A. J. van der Weele explained the evolution of the courses at ITC. By way of contrast, Professor E. H. Thompson attempted a forecast of developments in photogrammetry during the next decade. The papers succeeded in initiating prolonged discussion among the 80 members who attended.

Notes: A method is described for determining wind vectors in the lower atmosphere from terrestrial stereophotography. The photographs were taken with specially adapted aerial cameras using the normal or parallel averted case with horizontal camera axes. The most favourable photographic registration was obtained on ORWO UT 16 colour reversal film. Photograph co-ordinates and horizontal parallaxes were measured and recorded on punched tape with the Zeiss (Jena) stecometer. Vector components, which were calculated from co-ordinate differences, and a statistical analysis were obtained by using an electronic computer.

Notes: The paper describes an experiment using three different methods for the production of control for topographic mapping from super-wide angle photography. The result showed that aerial triangulation by independent models observed on a Wild A9 would show economic advantages in cartographic effort required, control requirements, and accuracy attained in contouring. The experiment also indicated that great benefit in heighting accuracy is derived from the addition of tie strips flown at right angles to the main photographic cover at a suitable interval and that heights supplied by airborne profile recorder are not sufficiently accurate to be economically advantageous where close interval contours are a requirement.

Notes: The colour photograph requirements of the photogrammetrist and the photo-interpreter are not always compatible. The author puts forward suggestions for improving the quality and reducing the cost of photography for interpretation purposes, based on the use of 70 mm film cameras. He found supporting evidence for this point of view during his visit to the United States as the result of the award of a Winston Churchill Fellowship in 1969.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:INTRODUCTION TO THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES WITH SOME APPLICATIONS. By E. H. Thompson.BIBLIOGRAPHIE DES SCHRIFTTUMS AUF DEM GEBIET DER FORSTLICHEN LUFTBILDAUSWERTUNG 1887–1968. By G. Hildebrandt.INFRARED SYSTEM ENGINEERING. By R. D. Hudson.ELEMENTARY SURVEYING. By R. C. Brinker.REFERENCE GUIDE OUTLINE: SPECIFICATIONS FOR AERIAL SURVEYS AND MAPPING BY PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHODS FOR HIGHWAYS.INTERNATIONAL YEARBOOK OF CARTOGRAPHY (VOL. VIII, 1968). Editor K. Frenzel.MODERN MAPS AND ATLASES. By C. B. M. LOCK.USE OF STRIPS CONNECTED TO BLOCKS FOR LARGE SCALE MAPPING. Results of Experimental Research Organized by Commission B of the O.E.E.P.E. from 1959 to 1966. By M. Cunietti.PRINCIPLES OF HOLOGRAPHY. By H. M. Smith.LA PHOTOGRAMMÉTRIE DES PLANS TOPOGRAPHIQUES ET PARCEL-LAIRES. By B. DUBUISSON.

Notes: This paper introduces two special issues of the Review devoted to income distribution theory and its empirical implementation. Most of the papers that will appear in these two issues were prepared for a special session on income distribution held during the Eleventh General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, held at Nathanya, Israel, in August 1969. The present issue contains theoretical papers; the following one will present more empirical work. This introductory paper is intended to indicate the relationships among the papers that follow, and to suggest possible future directions for work in this area. In the latter connection, the author discusses the use of microanalytic models applied to microdata sets dealing with individuals and households.

Notes: A positive theory of income distribution based on assumptions concerning the supply of and demand for each type of productive service is presented. The demand function of the organizers of production may be derived from the maximization of profits with the income scale and the production function as restrictions. A normative theory based on the maximization of a social utility or welfare function is also considered. In the normative theory, production functions and balance equations (some representing compartmentalization of factor markets) are introduced as restrictions and again an income scale results, this time maximizing social welfare. Empirical testing is also considered. The positive theory was developed in part to take into consideration the fact that personal income distributions can reasonably well be described by log normal distributions, and that skill parameters are often normally distributed. Limited testing of the influence of wealth, intelligence, education, and sex suggest that these account for only a small part of the variance in the income distribution. This suggests the need for further research.

Notes: This note attempts to shed some light on the relationship between the total factor productivity derived from national income accounts and the total input productivity based upon input-output accounts, especially on a sectoral basis. Since there has been no positive evidence to support a constancy between changes in net and gross output in individual industries, the formulation of a measure of sectoral input productivity change by using the formula of the Divisia index based on input-output accounts may be valuable in examining possible biases which are associated with a common notion of the total factor productivity. An operational definition of sectoral input productivity change and its relation to sectoral total factor productivity are discussed in the present note, in addition to its empirical application to the Japanese data.

Notes: This paper describes the methods used by the Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce, in creating a microdata file for use in estimating the size distribution of income. It explains the techniques of statistical matching involved in merging microdata files from various sources to correct and supplement income estimates in the original field survey (The Current Population Survey) and to incorporate additional information that can be used to estimate items and types of income not contained in the original file.

Notes: The quantity index comparing the per capita consumption of one country vis-à-vis the other often gives widely different figures, depending on which country's prices are used as “weights”. In this paper, this gap between two quantity indexes is divided into a substitution effect and an income effect by assuming common tastes between nations. For this division, we estimate the points of over-compensated variation and under-compensated variation in income from Gilbert and Kravis’data.The results of our estimation show that the income effect is smaller than the substitution effect. But the sign of the income effect indicates that this effect is generally in the same direction as the difference between two quantity indexes. Translated into the Bortkiewicz covariance, this means that the income elasticities are inversely related to the relative prices; the higher the income elasticity of a good, the lower is its price in the high income country relative to the low income country.Since we only approximate the points of exactly compensated variation in income, we cannot estimate “true” quantity indexes. However, our result implies that the two indexes in Gilbert and Kravis’data do form the upper and lower boundaries to the true index-numbers.

Notes: There is increased interest in flow of funds analysis due to the greater role assigned to money and to financial processes in the economic reforms now being implemented in Eastern Europe. After presenting a history of financial flows analysis, the paper describes data sources, and sectoring procedures. The efforts of particular countries are then reviewed and compared.

Notes: This paper describes and examines three particular features of the official national income tables recently published by the Fiji Government. The need of development planners for a comprehensive set of national accounts incorporating detailed information relating to central government current expenditure, the operations of the private business sector, and the rural household economy has assumed special importance. The uses and limitations to the information contained under these specific headings is discussed and throughout an emphasis is placed on the need for the adoption of consistent and systematic methods of collection and estimation procedures to facilitate planning and decision making. As aids to more detailed interpretation and analysis, the features described are considered to be of general interest to other developing countries.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:Riqueza Nacional de Espaiia; estudio conmemorativa del cincuentenario de la Univer-sidad Comercial de Deustó.

Notes: Books reviewed in this articles: National Income of India: Trends and Structure. By M. Mukherjee.Usher, Dan, The Price Mechanism and the Meaning of National Income Statistics

Notes: This paper discusses the conceptual framework in which regional economic accounts in the United States are viewed and the functions which those accounts serve. It points out that the major differences between regional and national accounts relate to factor returns to capital. First, returns to capital are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to measure meaningfully on a geographic basis. Secondly, because the capital market in the United States is a reasonably perfect one geographically, the return to capital that originates in a given region has little significance as either a stimulant or a constraint to production in that region.In terms of the functions of regional accounts, the point is made that whereas national economic accounts can aid economic decision-making in three general areas of policyallocation, distribution and stabilization—with perhaps greatest emphasis now placed on the last of these, regional accounts are most useful in matters relating to allocation and distribution.Information needed for the use of regional accounts in decision-making with regard to allocation and distribution problems is examined. Against these needs are placed an inventory of regional accounts which are available in the Regional Economics Division, Office of Business Economics. The available accounts are found to fall considerably short of those needed for allocation decisions. In contrast, regional accounts as presently constituted have much to offer as tools for analyzing the problems of regional economic distribution, although here too, much additional information is needed.

Notes: This paper reports on a study designed to improve the information on income flows and income distribution in the Netherlands national accounts by building a bridge between the national accounts and income tax statistics. The methods used are described in some detail, and the significance of the results obtained is discussed. The figures show rather substantial fluctuations in the share of proprietors relative to that of wage earners. This result is not unexpected, since the share of proprietors is much more sensitive to the level of economic activity, but it does limit the usefulness of the figures for short-run economic policy determination. In the longer run, however, they do show what the development of the average incomes of the various social groups has been, and to what extent government action has contributed to that development.

Notes: Has economic growth in developing countries led to increasing inequality in the size distribution of income? Following a brief review of the advantages and deficiencies of several traditional measures of income distribution, the author examines the evidence from Puerto Rico, Argentina, and Mexico in recent years. The findings suggest that the income shares received by the lower half and by the top 5 per cent of families in Puerto Rico and Mexico have declined from 1950 to 1963, while the income shares received by the bottom nine deciles of families in Argentina have also fallen during the same period. The rising Gini ratio and standard deviation of the logs of income, both indicating greater inequality, contrast with a declining coefficient of variation for all three countries.More detailed sectoral distributions for each year reveal greater equality within agriculture than non-agriculture for Puerto Rico and Mexico, while Argentina and the United States demonstrate less equality within agriculture. The trends in the countrywide distributions are consistent with the observation of the increasing differential between sectors, the increasing weight of the more unequal sector, and the increasing level of inequality within both sectors. These trends, however, are qualified by the particular set of measures which are applied to the data. Finally, the author speculates on possible explainations for these trends in terms of changes in the crop and industry mix.

Notes: Historical data for the manufacturing industry in the United States and United Kingdom are quoted, showing in most cases divergences between Laspeyres and Paasche forms of the quantum index that are by no means negligible. When the Paasche index for two of the series is recalculated with quantity indicators for industries instead of for products, the divergence is greatly reduced, and when quantity indicators for industry groups are substituted it almost disappears. This raises some questions about the practices of econometricians and statisticians, which are discussed. In a mathematical appendix by E. R. Coleman it is suggested that the grouping effect referred to does not depend on the particular way in which the data are grouped in most quantum indexes.

Notes: Pour répondre aux besoins de la préparation du Plan, l'Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques (I.N.S.E.E.) élabore des séries de comptes économiques régionaux ayant pour origine 1'année 1962. Ces comptes concernent les 21 régions de programme que distingue la planification française et sont élaborés de façon centraliseé selon des concepts étroitement dérivés de ceux du système français de comptabilité nationale. Toutefois la régionalisation de certains éléments des comptes nationaux qui paraissent peu utiles pour ľanalyse régionale n'est pas prévue. A l'inverse il a fallu apporter des solutions originales à divers problèmes qui ne se posent pas au niveau national, comme celui de la localisation des entreprises èétablissements multiples.Si le cadre comptable a été défini pour l'ensemble des comptes qu'on envisage de régionaliser, les premiers travaux ont porté sur les éléments qui pouvaient être évalués rapidement èľaide des statistiques immédiatement disponibles et qui présentaient le plus ďintérêt pour la re gionalisation du Plan. C'est ainsi qu'ont été réalisés en priorité les comptes des agents régionaux (collectivités locales, méanages, entreprises et éatablissements). Mais 1'equilobre régional des opéarations, qui nécessite de lourdes investigations stastiques, n'a fait l'objet que de travaux préliminaires.Parallèlement è l'elaboration des comptes régionaux, un modèle projections è moyen terme a été mis au point. Ce modèle, qui constitue régionalisation du modèle physicofinancier utilisé pour la planification nationale, concerne deux domaines: les collectivités locales et les ménages. La projection des comptes des collectivités locales perment ďétudier le financement des équipements collectifs; la projection des comptes des ménages fournit une mesure des dispartés régionales de revenus et de leur évolution. Les premières projections, préparées en 1970 pour ľannéae 1975 gardent, plus encore que les séaries de comptes réagionaux, un caractégre expéarimental.

Notes: The purpose of this paper is to explore the question of at what stage should Divisia index numbers be introduced–within the social accounting schema proper or in the explanatory stage following? Three major reasons are given to support the case that Divisia index numbers have no role to play in measurement, but should and do provide a powerful tool in the explanation of productivity change.

Notes: Overall balance between expected available resources and planned investment is not sufficient to ensure development with stability. Imbalances and inflationary pressures could develop as a result of inconsistencies between sector-wise investment structure and the sector-wise structure of saving. This means that the dichotomy between real and financial planning needs to be eliminated not only at the national level but at the sectoral levels as well, so that the sector-wise investment pattern is consistent with the emerging structure of saving and the flow-of-funds. This presents an analysis of the structure of saving and flow-of-funds in India, shows how it is actually used for the purpose of financial planning, and attempts to derive a formalized technique of financial planning. Analysis of the structure of saving in India during 1954–1955 to 1967–1968 indicates the importance of the household sector as the net lending sector to the borrowing sectors, the government and the private corporate sectors. On the basis of the feasible sectoral rates of growth in income and the past trends in sectoral saving-income ratios and household saving pattern with such modifications as are necessary in the light of expected changes in various policies, sector-wise saving structure and the pattern of household sector saving are projected for the Fourth Plan period (1969–1974).Then a flow-of-funds matrix is prepared to derive sector-wise investment estimates as are consistent with the estimated structure of saving and the likely changes in the lending policies of the financial institutions. A formalized technique of financial planning based on the Indian planning experience is presented in the last section of the paper.

Notes: This article presents the results of a study of distributions of wage rates in approximately 250 trades, comprising 225,000 workers, in Copenhagen in the second quarter of 1951. It examines particularly the effects of heterogeneity within trades and aggregation upon the resulting distributions, both for individual trades and for all trades combined. Separate distributions are studied for men and women, for skilled and unskilled, and for three types of institutional wage payment systems.

Notes: This paper presents an attempt to examine the applicability of the relative income hypothesis (RIH) in terms of its various specifications proposed by Duesenberry, Duesenberry, Eckstein and Fromm (DEF), Davis and the authors (MD). Using the time series data for 1951 through 1968 the analysis has been carried out for Canada, Finland, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Japan, Philippines, Sweden, United Kingdom and the United States. It is found that RIH provides a fairly good representation of the consumption behaviour of all the countries included in the study. All specifications, however, do not perform equally well. DEF and Davis functions score the maximum points; MD comes at par with DEF in case of Finland, Guatemala, and India. The original Duesenberry specification performs very poorly. This leads us to conclude that the process of habit formation is continuous contrary to what is implied by Duesenberry's original specification and that consumption is a better indicator of the standard of living than income is. Estimates of the long-run marginal propensities to consume are essentially the same as those computed from the permanent income hypothesis by Singh and Drost [1970]. This lends support to the view that the two hypotheses have essentially the same long-run implications.

Notes: This paper contains some of the main results of an investigation into the use of educated manpower in Norwegian industries. An input-output model with labour inputs specified by education is presented. Per unit of final delivery, Norwegian exports in 1960 used relatively less labour, and less educated labour, but more capital (measured by depreciation) than the other categories of final demand. But when the use of labour is compared to the income created by the final deliveries, the differences are much smaller.

Notes: The objective of this paper is to reformulate the terms of trade effect within a framework of national accounts in constant prices. The issue has been discussed by Professor R. C. Geary, Dr. G. Stuvel and others. In what follows the author proposes a new formula for deflating the net factor income from abroad and the net lending to the rest of the world. It is shown that the terms of trade effect which follows from the formula be expressed as a synthesis of Geary's and Stuvel's approaches.The author also shows that a similar approach be applied to the construction of the sector production account in constant prices. By formulating an appropriate deflator which is right for deflating factor incomes he concludes that the terms of trade arising from changes in inputs prices relative to output price be closely associated with the term which expresses the effect of productivity changes.

Notes: The main objective of this paper is to explore and quantify the difference between two measures of comparative economic welfare: (a) the more or less conventional measure of per capita national income, and (b) the capitalized value of expected future income per capita. The paper begins with a brief summary of the argument in favor of the present value of expected future income per capita as a measure of economic welfare. This is followed by an examination of the empirical relationship of the ratio of the suggested alternative measure to per capita income and an analysis of the variables used to compute the present value of expected income per capita. The main conclusion drawn from the calculations is that very substantial differences occur in the measurement of relative economic well-being depending on which measure is used. A final section discusses the implications of this finding for international comparisons of economic welfare.

Notes: The official U.S. price deflators for investment goods continue to be based on defective methodology, despite frequent criticism in recent years. This paper contributes new price information, which is combined with the empirical results from other studies to yield a revised investment deflator for the 1954–1963 period which (a) rises much more slowly than the official index and (b) declines relative to a revised price index for consumption expenditures.

Notes: A number of official and Western estimates of China's national income for the period since 1949 are at present available. The official estimates are based on the Marxian production concept while the Western estimates are, in the main, based on the comprehensive production concept. The periods covered by the estimates vary; and even in cases where the periods covered are the same, the estimates vary in magnitude and, in most cases, in the implied rate of economic growth. Apart from differences arising from the different national income concepts and definitions employed in individual estimates, sources of discrepancies between series of estimates can be traced to the particular sets of primary data employed and also to the particular procedures followed in estimating the national income components. The present paper brings together the various estimates available to date and indicates for each, as far as possible, the basic production concept adopted, the particular national income aggregates estimated, the basic estimation approach employed, and the special procedures used for estimating some of the components of national income. Comparisons of the major series of estimates for the period 1952–1959 are made and the sources of discrepancies between the series are discussed. Finally, some problems are described which a researcher in the West has to contend with in working on China's national income accounting.

Notes: The purpose of this article is to present estimates of the Czechoslovak gross domestic product from 1913 through 1937 and to interpret these data in terms of certain crucial economic policy decisions. In the first part of the article, the major methods of estimation of the G.D.P. using a sector of origin approach are briefly discussed; a fuller description is presented in the appendix. The second part examines the major economic dilemmas facing the Czechoslovak government and the most important actual policy decisions. In order to provide quantitative perspective on the Czechoslovak successes and failures, national product and export series for all the Central European nations are also presented and briefly discussed.

Notes: This paper, the first of a two-part series, surveys the literature in the field of income and wage distributions. The author divides work in this area into two schools: the theoretic-statistical school, and the socio-logical school. Within each of these groups he reviews leading contributions. He then examines the work of Tinbergen, which, the author feels, fits into neither of the older classifications; rather, Tinbergen approaches the distribution of income as a problem in analyzing the supply of and demand for various attributes, such as intelligence, physical strength, ability to get along with people, etc. In conclusion, the author points out areas which he feels need further work. The paper is based upon the author's book in Danish, Indkomst-og lonfordelinger.

Notes: Capital gains are an important source of personal income in the United States but they are not included in the national accounts or the official estimate of personal income and saving. Individuals report their realized gains for tax purposes but the economic theorist would include both realized and accrued gains in income. National income theorists continue to debate whether capital gains should be included in income but, because of the many conceptual and statistical problems involved in estimating capital gains, no satisfactory estimates have been developed. Consequently, the debate has stayed mainly at the theoretical level. This paper deals with the methodology of estimating accrued capital gains. A simple analytical model is developed to estimate capital gains from data on market value and net acquisitions of an asset but the model can be adapted to incorporate asset prices directly. It is shown that the methods used for estimating accrued gains in the past are special cases of the model proposed in the paper. The model is then used for estimating gains accruing to individuals in the United States on their holdings of corporate stock, real estate and livestock during 1948–1964.During this period accrued gains have amounted to roughly five times the realized gains reported for tax purposes; corporate stock and real estate are the most important sources of capital gains and corporate stock accounts for almost two-thirds of all accrued gains. The paper goes on to examine the implications of these estimates for the existing series on personal income and saving in the United States. The inclusion of accrued gains would increase the variance in the official estimates but personal saving is affected more than personal income. The paper concludes with an evaluation of these results and some suggestions for further research.

Notes: In both political discussions and scientific literature the income distribution has come to occupy a central position for the consideration of social welfare and economic equalization. It has been assumed that an individual's income reflects his consumption opportunities and therefore his standard of living or economic welfare. The thesis of this paper is, however, that there are reasons for being quite pessimistic about drawing meaningful conclusions from income distribution data. As illustrated by the use of Swedish data, the distribution of income gives an extremely incomplete picture of the distribution of consumption for a wide variety of definitional and statistical reasons. The distribution of consumption, furthermore, cannot be transformed into a corresponding distribution of welfare, since there is no well defined concept of welfare. The treatment of public consumption in empirical analysis of the distribution of welfare also raises problems. The paper closes with the presentation of the conceptual basis for an alternative to the traditional method of analyzing the distribution of income.

Notes: There are serious questions about the social costs and benefits of extending the role of prices in the national accounts. The costs may be greater, and the benefits smaller, than is commonly supposed. Many important uses of price (and other) data do not require that these data be organized within an elaborate—or even any—framework of national accounts. Also, the basic price (and other) data are still too often very scanty and rough. Would it not be better to devote available resources to improving these data rather than trying to force them, prematurely, into an elaborated set of national accounts?

Notes: “The whole question of making inter-spatial comparisons between countries is a most complicated and hazardous business” (Mr. Campion); international comparisons of a particular value aggregate between countries present a difficult problem connected with the conversion of national value aggregates into a comparable magnitude. This paper presents an alternative approach in that an internationally comparable value aggregate for each country is prepared by the international average prices of commodities which are determined simultaneously with the partial exchange rates of national currencies to a standard currency. The calculated partial exchange rates are so defined as to reflect the purchasing power of national currencies in respect of the group of commodities selected. Consequently, the resulting value aggregate for international comparison has a quantity dimension, eliminating the effect due to the different purchasing power of national currencies in which original prices are quoted. The other methods of international comparison so far being used by other research workers, such as C. Clerk and M. Gilbert and his associates, are examined in the light of the properties of the present method and the crucial differences are delineated. Using the method proposed, an international comparison is made of the aggregate value of agricultural products for 11 selected countries in the world, with sub-divisions into two regions.

Notes: The objective of this paper is to provide a conceptual basis for separating social product and social factor input accounts into price and quantity components. Despite the essential similarity between concepts of real product and real factor input, the measurement of social factor outlay in constant prices is not well established in social accounting practice.Production accounts are constructed for the United States in current and constant prices, including social product and social factor outlay, for the period 1929–1967. The resulting estimates are applied to the measurement of total factor productivity and the study of the responsiveness of product and factor intensities to price changes.

Notes: Macroeconomic productivity in Israel is here conceived as comparison of output with factor inputs during given periods, and as creation of sustained capacity out of given resource increments. However, present social accounting practice prevents full implementation of this second approach.In contrast to nine European countries, only one third of the rapid growth rate of Israel in 1950–1965 is “explained” by the “Residual” because of relatively large infrastructural investments and of growth problems. One of these problems is inflationary pressures which caused productivity increases to restrain the rise of product prices by 30 per cent only below the rise of input prices. The real productivity gain accrued, in Israel and in the U.S.A. (1919–1957), nearly fully to labor because unit returns to capital remained constant whereas those to labor sharply rose.Some refinements of the statistical models are attempted by incorporating the utilization rates of labor and capital (for industry); and by measuring product from the uses, instead of from the income, side, adding the differences to the capital shares. This makes distributive factor shares nearly constant as postulated by Cobb-Douglas.In order to get a basis for appraising efficiency in creating long-term capacity, that part of product increments is measured which represents rises of p.c. final domestic uses and changes in the export surplus. This “net margin” formed in Israel one fifth and in the U.S.A. (1889–1913) much less of incremental product. Though in Israel one quarter, and in the U.S.A. over half (in 1919–1953) of the net margin went into sonsumption, large proportions of it presumably actually created human capacity. A comparison of product growth rates with population growth, and of the breakdown of the resulting p.c. product growth rates into full final uses, for Israel and two groups, of developed and less developed countries in the fifties shows, inter-alia, that in the L.D.C. only small proportions of their presumable capacity creation was financed by net capital inflows, thus imposing upon them domestic saving rates which presumably are too high to be sustainable.

Notes: There are both major philosophical and major econometric questions to be faced in the measurement of inequality of income. The scaling of different sizes and types of families can never be unique and may be a function of real income. However, even subjective guesses may be better than doing nothing. Demographic changes, such as the increase in pensioners with the increase in life expectancy, affects the distribution of income, and it seems desirable to estimate the separate effect of their influence. The extent to which the inequality of incomes is reduced by all taxes and benefits combined has remained remarkably constant in the U.K. over the period for which estimates have been made (1937–1967). The progressive effect of all taxes and benefits combined is largely the result of benefits (in cash and kind). The stability in the degree of inequality of original income is much more difficult to explain. A number of factors which reduce or increase inequality can be identified for further analysis.

Notes: In the introduction of the paper, Economic Accounts are defined as a set of statistics useful in economic analysis and region is defined as a province. The paper is divided into four sections the first of which contains a brief historical outline of the development of demands for provincial economic accounts and the Dominion Bureau of Statistics' response to these needs. Apart from a description of the more well-known conceptual difficulties, some of the fundamental problems of the usefulness and applicability of a national accounting framework to the regional scene are discussed. The resource problems of constructing analytically meaningful and reliable as well as spatially reconcilable regional accounts are described.Section II outlines the impact of present policies and problems on the development of regional statistics. It describes the reasons for the Bureau's desire to strengthen its data base in regional terms and the decision to await possible construction of regional accounts till the regional data base has been fleshed out in a more systematic manner. With the development of the latter, the ability, advantages and disadvantages of the provinces undertaking their own estimates must also be more fully explored. The third part of the paper deals with an over-view of work in Canada on provincial accounts carried out by organizations other than the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Section IV gives a very summary description of the data gaps which exist in presently available regional statistics.

Notes: PRIM I is a numerical model which has been extensively used as a basis for an income policy in Norway in recent years. It is a static, cost-push, input-output model. Wage rates, agricultural prices, productivities and world market prices are treated as exogenous variables, and the model derives short-term changes in income shares and in the national price level from changes in these exogenous variables. A key feature of the model is a distinction between “exposed industries” which are subject to strong foreign price competition, and “sheltered industries” which are relatively free of such competition. These two groups of industries are found to react with very different pricing policies in response to increases in costs; furthermore, possibly for technological reasons, the export industries have greater scope than the majority of the sheltered industries for compensating cost increases through productivity gains. These two facts are shown to have important implications for a price and income policy. It is demonstrated, i.a. that the goal of a stable national price level is, in general, inconsistent with the maintenance of stable income shares when exchange rates are kept constant.

Notes: In a recent issue of the Review of Income and Wealth[1], Uma Datta Roy Choudhury presented some results on consumption and saving functions in India. While the study is interesting, some of the results are quite peculiar. Thus she reports a marginal propensity to save of 0.88 for the urban sector, an abnormally high figure. Other available evidence points to a much lower figure. Again she reports a negative marginal propensity to consume out of permanent income for urban households. This makes no economic sense. Furthermore her attempts at explaining urban consumption behaviour are not very successful. In this paper, we shall show that these suspicious results are the consequences of the measurement and definitions of the variables, and the specification of the functions. Once these shortcomings are removed, we obtain more satisfactory and more plausible results.In the first section we present a critique of Mrs. Roy Choudhury's article. In the second section we present our results. The last section summarizes the conclusions.

Notes: This paper compares the income distribution of Canada and the United States as well as other characteristics of the population such as the labour force and income trends in the two countries in the post-war years. In both countries family income distributions show similar degrees of inequality and similar movements in real incomes through time. However, an examination of Canadian data suggests that differences do exist in underlying patterns. For example, there are greater earnings differentials between skilled and unskilled workers in Canada than in the United States while on the other hand in the United States greater differences exist between family incomes with heads in different age groups than is the case in Canada.

Notes: The income distribution statistics which are based on income for a single year show a far larger inequality of income than actually exists. The distribution of annual incomes differs from the distribution of lifetime income partly because of short run fluctuations because of such things as sickness, unemployment, and unusual gains, and partly because different individuals are at different points in their life cycles. The vertical distribution of income can be considered to be the distribution of lifetime income. The horizontal distribution can be considered to be the differences arising in the current period due to short run fluctuations and differences in the age-income cycle of persons. The observed annual income distribution statistics are a mixture of the vertical and horizontal distributions. The estimation of the lifetime income distribution implies discounting, and also raises questions as to the treatment of transfers, subsidies, public investments and taxes. However, statistics based upon a mixture of the horizontal and vertical distributions of income are of no interest.

Notes: In both developed and developing countries, the national accounting statistician who wishes to establish a composite set of values in current and base year prices is faced with a series of difficulties arising from a lack of indicators which are adequate for relating quantities and values within the national accounting framework. Consequently, ad hoc solutions are extensively adopted and use is made of price data which in the majority of cases have been collected for completely different purposes. The inter-relationship of prices, quantities and values fundamental to the compatibility of the national accounts can therefore be, and often is, a rather tenuous one. In the case of many developing countries, the situation is accentuated by a very volatile behaviour of prices, a greater impact of price change and a much greater scarcity of useable statistical material. In addition, since structural change is frequently implicit in a development process, the pattern of values and of prices is often variable and irregular—this in turn creates problems in determining relative importance, in assigning weights and in imputing for prices of items not directly entering into the calculation of the indicators.This paper analyses the series which are most commonly available, it points out the major deficiencies or limitations and it attempts to formulate a few guide-lines for determining priorities called for in an integrated network of price statistics.

Notes: The paper discusses the role of prices in the framework of the new System of National Accounts (SNA) in terms of three major uses: (1) deflation, (2) price indicators, and (3) price analysis. Following a brief review of the price and quantity measures required by the new SNA with its emphasis on deflation of commodity flows and input-output accounts, in addition to the more conventional deflation of final demand categories, the paper discusses some of the conceptual, methodological and data problems involved in implementing the various uses of prices in the new SNA.Implementing the use of prices as deflators depends, in part, on the concept of output selected (national versus domestic; gross versus net), and which of six concepts of valuation, ranging from purchasers'value to true factor cost, is used. Some of the difficulties in deflating nonmarket flows (e.g., interplant transfers) and industry value added, based on the double deflation method, are discussed.In concept price deflators, which have shifting weights, cannot be used as price indicators, which should have fixed weights. In practice, this is often disregarded and the deflators are used as price indicators. The paper support the SNA recommendation for the development of price indexes with fixed weights to be used as price indicators, in addition to the implicit price deflators. Research in the United States indicates that differences in weights can result in different price measures for various subperiods, components of demand and sector output.Periodic revisions in weights to provide more current fixed weights for price and quantity indexes in each subperiod may minimize the problem but it introduces a new problem—lack of comparability with the constant price tables in the SNA which have fixed weights for the entire period.The new SNA provides a comprehensive and integrated framework for price analysis including the analysis of the structure of aggregate price changes, the industrial origin of final demand prices, and the impact of price change in one sector of the economy on the rest of the economy. Some major gaps which need to be overcome in order to implement the use of the new SNA for price analysis include the development of industry capital stock estimates, separate estimates of proprietors’income, reconciliation of value added and distribution share estimates, and the development of a wide variety of information to supplement the conventional input-output tables in the SNA.Implementing the various objectives of price measures within the framework of the accounts will require a number of improvements in existing price measures and expanding the scope of coverage. “List” prices should be superseded by “transactions” prices and better techniques and data need to be developed to provide for quality adjustment of prices. Coverage will need to be expanded to include services, freight rates, trade margins, government expenditures, and also fill in gaps for many manufactured products. Finally, where possible, use of unit values as price indexes or deflators, e.g., imports and exports, should be replaced by direct price measures.

Notes: The paper develops a descriptive history of the changing level and sources of income of the male population of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1959, as a preliminary step in building a model of income determination. The history is based on data from a one percent sample of the taxpaying population of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1959. Analysis of income sources received by male birth cohorts is followed by summary data on individual income variation.Changes in earnings of birth cohorts appear to be determined by changes in labor force participation, general productivity increases, and acquisition of skills. Education, as reflected in occupational status, appears to affect the initial level and lifetime profile of earnings; however, education has played a changing role in the dynamics of earnings.Movements in non-earned income appear to be determined by rising real yields on capital, accumulation of wealth, and possibly by asset conversion and selective migration and mortality favoring wealth holders. Cohort asset accumulation for the period seems to have been determined by the growth rate of earnings, life cycle contingencies, and the pattern of asset prices and yields during the period.Analysis of individuals’ incomes over the period reveals great heterogeneity of experience of individuals within birth cohorts and within occupations. This suggests that study of micro units is necessary to obtain behavioral information obscured in aggregate cohort data.

Notes: A simple calculation procedure that gives the equilibrium temperature in geothermal measurements reduces the reading time in field work from reported 60 minutes to about 10 minutes.

Notes: Boundary-value problems in steady-state current flow were solved numerically in bispherical coordinates for a sphere of arbitrary conductivity in a half-space. Solutions for the potential on the surface of the half-space were examined for the cases where both current sources were on the surface, one source on the surface and the second between the surface and the sphere, and one source on the surface and the other in the sphere. Results show a great similarity with the layered case when the buried electrode is placed between the surface and the conducting region. Such a buried electrode configuration makes it possible to obtain an accurate measurement of the depth to the conductor in both cases. A model with the current electrode placed in a conductive sphere is compared with a three-layered model with the source in a conductive intermediate layer, and results indicate that the lateral extent of a finite anomalous zone can be estimated using these limiting curves. The validity of these theoretical calculations for buried spheres was confirmed experimentally by tests conducted on an analog model.

Notes: When the fixed-source electromagnetic method is applied the quantities measured are influenced by the resistivity of the whole environment. This occurs mostly in the cases of measurements in areas with prevailing high resistivities, and if a weathered layer with considerably lower resistivity than that of the original rock has been formed near the surface. For this reason it is important to be acquainted with the properties of the two-layer ground with an overlying conductive layer.In the present paper attention will be drawn to theoretical calculations connected with the field of the homogeneous ground and that of the two-layer ground.

Notes: The comparison of a group of continuous total field stations in Ireland with the record of the total field from Valentia Observatory enables the errors which would be involved in using the Observatory as a diurnal correction base to be examined. For the most part, for a single correction, these errors lie between ± 2 and ± 6 gammas. However, they have three notable characteristics: (i) they are not closely dependent on the magnetic ‘noisiness’ of the day, (ii) they are only marginally reduced by the application of station-base time differences and (iii), they are strongly related to differences between the amplitude of the daily magnetic variation at the station and at the base. A permanent geographical basis for the latter differences enables a system for the estimation of the errors to be proposed.

Notes: The automatic picking of seismic sections becomes delicate with the presence of blind zones breaking up the continuity of horizons. This makes it difficult to establish correlations between reflections coming from above and below these blind zones.With the help of a certain number of characteristic parameters, a computer capable of storing a great quantity of data makes it possible to identify the horizons bounding a blind zone. Once this investigation has been made, the coherence between these horizons still has to be measured by making a factorial analysis of these different parameters. The statistical decision functions involved in this analysis are well adapted to computer logic. They enable the probability to be given with which the horizons located above and below blind zones correspond.A program has been worked out to provide the degree of coherence between such horizons.

Notes: An operative technique is described along with a method of representation of Induced Polarization values obtained over homogeneous rocks against the electrical power per unit volume.The results of similar experiments over two-layer ground, are shown according to the same operative technique and method of representation.With the method of representation suggested in this paper it is possible to distinguish discontinuities and to get information about the thickness of the upper medium.

Notes: Nomograms are presented for the purpose of rapid computation of the apparent resistivity functions from the field data for symmetrical and unsymmetrical linear electrode arrays.

Notes: Apparent resistivity measurements with the square array technique in the vicinity of a dipping interface have the advantage over collinear array methods that they are less dependent on orientation of the array.In order to exploit this, existing potential solutions for the dipping interface problem have been adapted for the computation of apparent resistivities over such a feature using a square array.Comprehensive interpretation techniques covering this problem are given and the limitations imposed by residual array orientation effects are discussed.

Notes: L'onde amortie de type Rayleigh à l'interface de deux milieux solides à fort contraste de densités et de vitesses est étudiée théoriquement et expérimentalement sur un modèle à deux dimensions plexiglas-laiton.

Notes: In the interpretation of anomalies obtained with moving source-receiver dipole electromagnetic surveys, use is frequently made of the so-called phasor or vector diagrams. Most such diagrams are based on model experiments or theoretical calculations on bodies of simple geometry. If the anomaly at some given coil-separation and frequency is known it is possible to predict the anomaly at some other separation and frequency. While the results of such predictions often agree admirably in the laboratory experiments, wide, systematic discrepancies are observed in full-scale field work. Some of the discrepancies can be explained by various phenomenological arguments and in this respect the effect of overburden conductivity appears to be more serious than is generally supposed. The effect of phase rotation due to the overburden is discussed in detail.The paper is mainly a cautionary note based on some full-scale data of multi-frequency, multi-separation surveys against the blind use of vector diagrams, but it also discusses the extent of the extra information and interpretation aid provided by such surveys.

Notes: The considerable increase of sensitivity of new magnetometers allows the elaboration of magnetometric maps with contour intervals of fractions of one gamma. On these maps, small anomalies appear which had never been visible before. They are caused by susceptibility contrasts within the sediments.The areal distribution of these small undulations of the magnetic field depends on tectonics, therefore their analysis can give useful information about the tectonic pattern of the sediments. This paper discusses the automatic transformation of these small anomalies into tectonic units. The problem is solved by a method called Digital Template Analysis which has already yielded very useful results in gravity interpretation.The application of the method described is restricted to surveys executed by high sensitivity magnetometers. Therefore it is supposed that in most oil exploration problems these magnetometers will replace instruments with lower sensitivity. The improved magnetometer surveys in combination with the interpretation method described represent a most efficient, fast and unexpensive reconnaissance method.

Notes: The interface phenomena for low periods, i.e. the initial oscillations, and the cut-off periods are two characteristic features in Magnetotelluric Sounding curves. A method is proposed to distinguish between transitional and homogeneous layered earth by means of these two features.

Notes: Reddy, I. K., D. Rankin, 1971, Magnetotelluric Effect of Dipping Anisotropies, Geophysical Prospecting 19, 84–97.A solution is obtained for the magnetotelluric effect in the case of multi-layered earth, each layer containing dipping anisotropy, with the strike of anisotropy oriented at an arbitrary angle to the measuring directions. A technique to compute tensor impedances and tensor apparent resistivities is presented and the importance of anisotropies in magnetotelluric interpretation is discussed.

Notes: Results of rock magnetic investigations and magnetic field measurements in the Logar Valley, Afghanistan, are presented. Rock magnetic investigations on samples of the ore and the country rock have demonstrated that the chromite is strongly magnetic, whereas the country rock has proved predominantly non-magnetic, partly weakly magnetic. The isanomalic maps show strong anomalies of some 1000 γ above the known chromite occurrences. Anomalies of the country rock amounting to some 100 γ have been observed only above basic dikes. The measured anomalies have been interpreted quantitatively by 2- and 3-dimensional models. This interpretation is demonstrated and the question of chromite detection discussed. Model graphs are used to investigate in detail whether the extension in depth of ore bodies can be estimated.

Notes: This work deals with a theoretical investigation of the magnetotelluric sounding where the horizontal layers of a geological section do not have a sharp but a transitional boundary. The ratio of the horizontal electric to the horizontal magnetic components gives a measure of “Cagniard impedance”, which together with the phase relationship between them, enables one to determine the subsurface geometry and the true resistivities.Utilising the principle of similitude a set of Resistivity Master Curves and the corresponding phase relationships are presented here for the case where the lower half-space is infinitely resistive. The relation between the relative transition thickness and the cut-off period is illustrated.

Notes: A point source or a dipole source of electric current, placed on a randomly layered semi-infinite medium, produces an inhomogeneous random potential field on the surface. The variance of the random potential, normalized with reference to the normal field (that is, a field due to a point source or a dipole source on a homogeneous medium), falls off inversely as the distance from the source. The conductivity of the layers is assumed to vary randomly about a mean value (unity) such that the variations can be represented by a zero mean homogeneous random function. Further the variations are assumed to be small compared to the mean so that the first order perturbation is adequate. The analysis shows that the dipole field is more sensitive than the single pole field to the conductivity variations.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:F. Link, Eclipse Phenomena in AstronomyMarine Geophysical Researches–an International Journal for the Study of the Earth Beneath the SeaM. K. Polshkov (editor): Exploration Geophysics, Vol. 48

Notes: The relationship between porosity and formation factor in unconsolidated homogeneous and anisotropic sediments without granule-liquid interaction is investigated by introducing a parametric model that simulates a variable cellular structure.In this hypothesis, porosity φ and F-factor are calculated for some fixed values of the parameter, solving numerically two integral expressions.From these calculations the form of the function φ=f(F), corresponding to the proposed model, has been deduced. This relation is in very good agreement with Archie's empirical law for unconsolidated sands which requires that F=φ--1,3. Therefore it seems that the validity of Archie's law is theoretically confirmed for the unconsolidated sediments considered in this paper.

Notes: In a previous publication (Koefoed 1968) a function called the “raised kernel function” has been introduced as an intermediate function in the interpretation of resistivity sounding data, and methods have been described both for the determination of the raised kernel function from the apparent resistivity function, and for the determination of the layer distribution from the raised kernel function.In the present paper a procedure is described by which the second step in this interpretation method–i.e. the determination of the layer distribution from the raised kernel function–is considerably accelerated. This gain in interpretation speed is attained by the use of a standard graph for a function which defines the reduction of the raised kernel function to a lower boundary plane.

Notes: Despite the use of CDP and digital methods the Zechstein base is still the deepest horizon in the vast salt-dome basin of Central Europe for which continuous information can be obtained by reflection seismics. Thus in North-western Germany, in addition to reflection seismics, the refraction seismic method has been increasingly used for a reliable survey of deeper horizons.The first part of the paper deals with the investigation of the various possibilities and limitations of refraction seismics with regard to the investigation of Pre-Zechstein layers in a basin with a tectonically very complicated overburden. The recording techniques specially developed for continuous profiling of the desired refraction seismic arrivals and the data processing methods are described.The main problems of interpretation are then discussed, in particular with regard to depth representation. The advantages and disadvantages of the various methods, e.g. Gardner's, Hales' and Wyrobek's, and of the wave-front method, are compared. On account of the tectonically complicated overburden Thornburgh's wave-front method proved to be the most useful.In a further section the various possibilities for velocity determinations are mentioned, e.g. Wyrobek's determination of the overburden velocity, for which the wave-front method automatically furnishes the necessary corrections to a deep datum.Finally, some examples are given for the results obtained, including some incidental information on the deeper crust.

Notes: Two alternative types of diagrams are shown which allow the direct conversion of readings taken by certain types of proton magnetometers into magnetic field strength. The accuracy of these diagrams is discussed and found to satisfy the requirements.

Notes: Boundary-value problems in steady-state current flow were solved numerically for one and two layers over a half-space. Solutions were obtained for layers of various resistivities where one of the current sources was placed below the surface and the second kept at some finite distance from the drill hole. When a fixed surface dipole receiving pair was used, it was found that as the buried source approached a conductive region, quite good determinations of the depth to the conductor could be made, hence reducing the possibility of extended drilling in “dry” holes resulting from poor surface data and/or interpretation. Numerous models were generated to find the optimum positioning of the two current electrodes for different field situations of this type. It was also found that by placing a current source in the conductive region, better resolution of the lateral extent of a possible ore zone could be obtained, due both to the more rapid convergence of the apparent resistivity to the resistivity of the conductor, and the fact that a smaller separation in the receiving dipole could be used. Numerous analog models were constructed to verify the digital results. Surface and down-hole resistivity field data are compared to show the strength of this technique in delineating structure.

Notes: For almost two years, satellite navigation has been used in reconnaissance exploration. However, only in the last six months has it been demonstrated that an “integrated” system provides navigational accuracy for all geophysical prospecting. This paper describes the accuracy of the integrated system and illustrates its merits.The primary objective of the integrated system is to provide continuous, accurate, geodetic position information. This is accomplished by integrating instantaneous position, velocity and heading from outputs of the Doppler sonar, gyrocompass, velocimeter, vertical references with periodic updates obtained from the Navy Navigation Satellite System. Each of the subsystems, their operations and functions will be discussed.Satellite navigation offers many advantages for marine surveys. Features for point-to-point automatic steering, onboard plotting of shotpoint data, firing of seismic energy source as a function of exact distance and real-time data logging onto digital tape have been implemented. With the onboard computer all navigation, gravity and magnetic information is recorded on tape and some preprocessing and filtering of gravity and magnetic data may be accomplished.

Notes: As an extension of the eddy current pattern computed by Koefoed and Kegge (1968) for a thin vertical infinitely-conducting half-plate in presence of oscillating magnetic dipoles, this paper computes the contribution to the (electro-) magnetic anomaly at the receiver by each element of the vein separately. Twelve contour diagrams for such elemental contributions are presented as samples. Two points of general interest stand out: (1) The contributions from different portions of the vein are not all of one sign; the contribution from one part may cancel that from another; and (2) The portion of the vein nearest to the transmitter-receiver system does not necessarily make the largest contribution to the total measured signal.

Notes: Koefoed has given practical procedures of obtaining the layer parameters directly from the apparent resistivity sounding measurements by using the raised kernel function H(λ) as the intermediate step. However, it is felt that the first step of his method—namely the derivation of the H curve from the apparent resistivity curve—is relatively lengthy.In this paper a method is proposed of determining the resistivity transform T(λ), a function directly related to H(λ), from the resistivity field curve. It is shown that the apparent resistivity and the resistivity transform functions are linearily related to each other such that the principle of linear electric filter theory could be applied to obtain the latter from the former. Separate sets of filter coefficients have been worked out for the Schlumberger and the Wenner form of field procedures. The practical process of deriving the T curve simply amounts to running a weighted average of the sampled apparent resistivity field data with the pre-determined coefficients. The whole process could be graphically performed within an quarter of an hour with an accuracy of about 2%.

Notes: Fontanel, A., G. Grau, 1971, Corrélation optique en lumière cohérente, Geophysical Prospecting 19, 98–117.This paper describes a general bidimensional two-step method of correlation (or convolution) making use of the theory of holography.In the first step the light diffracted by one of the two plane transparent objects to be correlated interferes with the light diffracted by the other one. The hologram thus generated is photographed in the focal image plane of a convergent lens. Owing to the quadratic detection property of the photographic emulsion, the square of the modulus of the product of the spectra of the two objects considered is recorded on the photographic plate.In the second step the convolution product of the two objects appears when the hologram is illuminated with a beam of coherent light.In its geophysical application this optical method of convolution makes it easy for us to obtain the autocorrelogram of a seismic cross-section. This method also makes it possible to correlate each of the seismic traces by special precalculated optically-recorded filters.

Notes: In order to locate relatively optimum sites for drilling exploratory holes for fresh water, an electrical resistivity survey was conducted along the new Mahukona-Kawaihae Road on the west flank of the Kohala Mountain. Two resistivity soundings made at the same stations, using the Schlumberger electrode configuration, determined an a spacing of 275 feet for horizontal profiling with the Wenner array.The correlation coefficient of the elevation to profile data was 0.41. A procedure for removing elevation effect from observed apparent resistivity was developed. Based on the reduced resistivity profile, four relatively optimum sites for additional exploration, such as by drilling, are specified. There is no specific interpretation of the data that can definitely indicate the occurrence of large underground reservoirs of fresh water anywhere along the profile. This is because the interpretation of horizontal profiling data is essentially relative and not absolute.

Notes: The nature of competition between a grass species either invading or introduced hy sowing into an established grass sward and the estahlished sward was examined by using a divided-pot tecbnique. The species studied were Lolium perenrte S23 and Festuca rubra SS9, grown at two levels of N and P. Data are given for DM yield, tiller number, species ratio and uptake of N and P.The results show that competition for nutrients was a dominant factor and anything which affected this, such as prior establishment of one species, had an important effect on the success of the introduced species which amounted, under some conditions, to complete inhibition of growth of the latter. The data throw some light on the means whereby dominance is maintained in a pasture community.

Notes: Burnt Molinia caerulea–dominant range on the Isle of Rhum, N.W. Scotland, was grazed much more heavily by red deer than surrounding unhurnt Molinia stands. The effect was greatest in the first growing season after hurning. The practice of hurning Molinia in this region, where red–deer management is a major land use and Molinia is one of the main forage plants, is discussed.

Notes: Three Uages containing 18.7, 35.2 and 51.0% DM were given to young beef cattle without supplementary barley or with a daily allowance of 1.8 or 3.6 kg air-dry fortified barley. Each diet was given to 9 individually fed animals, the mean fasted liveweight of which at the start of the experiment was 304 kg. The dafly voluntary DM intake was recorded for a 10-day period for the 9 animals on each silage without supplementary barley. The mean DM intakes per kg W0.73 were 58.4, 94.6 and 104.1 g for Silages 1, 2 and 3 and the intakes increased curvilinearly with the DM content of the silage. The mean daily liveweight gains on Silages 1, 2 and 3 were 0.63,0.73 and 0.75 kg, respectively; the relationship was significantly linear (P 〈0.01). The barley supplement also had a significantly linear CP 〈0.01) effect on daily gains. The mean daily gains for 0, 18 and 3 6 kg fortified barley per day were 0.54, 0.74 and 0.84 kg, respectively. The DM and digestible organic matter required per kg liveweight gain were not significantly affected by the DM of the silage, but were significantly (P 〈 0.01) affected by supplementation.The metabolizable energy (ME) values of Silages 1,2 and 3 were 2.46, 2.52 and 2.50 Meal/ kg DM, respectively. The supplementary concentrate increased the ME concentration significantly (P 〈 0.05), although the overall increase was small. The mean values were 2.49, 2.54 and 2.61 Meal/ kg DM, respectively, for 0, 1.8 and 3.6 kg fortified barley per day. The digestibilities of DM and organic matter were not significantly affected by the type of silage, but there was a significant increase with increasing intake of supplementary barley.

Notes: Six identical experiments (3 in Devon and 3 in Suffolk) investigated the effect of 200, 300 and 400 lb N/ac (224, 336 and 448 kg/ha), given in 1, 2, 4 or 8 equal applications, on the yield and seasonal production of perennial ryegrass swards cut every 25 days.Each rate of N Increased DM and N yields. Giving the N in 4 or 8 dressings gave higher DM, bnt rather lower N yields, than applying the N in 1 or 2 dressings. The effect on DM yield of splitting the N was most marked at 400 lb NJac (448 kgJha). Seasonal production was closely related to the time of N application and most uniform where N was given in 8 dressings.Differences between Devon and Suffolk were most evident where the N was given in 4 or 8 dressings and occurred in the second half of the season when the low rainfall in Suffolk apparently restricted N uptake and DM yield. The efficiency with which N taken up by the plant was used for DM production was affected by sunshine. It is concluded that rainfall and sunshine will limit the extent to which fertilizer N can he used to control herbage production.

Notes: Results are presented to show the effect of white clover (Trifolium repens) and of applied N on the hotanical composition of swards sown with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perernne), timothy (Phleum pratense), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) and mixtures of two and three of these species. White clover had a more favourahle effect on the growth of perennial ryegrass than on either timothy or meadow fescue both in terms of yield and in terms of tiller numbers. Tiller numbers of rough-stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis) were increased and tiller numbers of Agrostis species were reduced by application of N and by inclusion of clover. Possible reasons for these effects are considered.

Notes: Sequential harvests of two tetraploid ryegrasses have shown that the commercially critical level of 90% germination was attained early in the ripening process. For the greater part of the maturation period the moisture level was maintained at 60% as in diploid grasses, but the rate of moisture loss during the latter part of ripening proved to be slower than in diploids. The large seeds are more susceptible to mecbanical damage at harvest and therefore require lower drum speed.