ALBERT

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: The Study of Urbanization, edited by Philip M. Hauser and Leo F. Schnore. The Towns of Ghana: The Role of Service Centres in Regional Planning, by David Grove and Laszlo Huszar. The South in Continuity and Change, edited by John C. McKinney and Edgar T. Thompson. Elementary Applied Statistics: for Students in Behavioral Science, by Linton C. Freeman. Minerals and Men, by James F. McDivitt. The Public Library and The City, edited by Ralph W. Conant. Population Dynamics: Causes and Consequences of World Demographic Change, by Ralph Thomlinson. Dilemmas of Urban America, by Robert C. Weaver. Areas of Economic Stress in Canada, edited by W.D. Wood and R.S. Thoman.

Notes: It is only within the last two years that the published United Kingdom accounts have been extended to include sector financial accounts; their use for market analysis is, therefore, still in its infancy.The sectors and sub-sectors distinguished in the financial accounts agree very closely with those recommended by the Working Group on Financial Statistics of the Conference of European Statisticians. A major difference is that in the United Kingdom accounts particular emphasis is placed on the distinction between the public sector and the private sector. For this purpose the public sector consists not only of general government but also includes public corporations (that is, public non-financial corporate enterprises). The classification of assets and liabilities is based on a general list which is also similar to that developed by the Conference of European Statisticians.Because of the large capital formation of public corporations and local authorities, the public sector is normally a substantial borrower from the pirvate sector, although its borrowing requirements fluctuate considerably from quarter to quarter because of the uneven incidence of tax receipts. The personal sector provides about one-third of the total saving of the economy, much of which is in the form of contractual saving—through life assurance and superannuation funds and the repayment of house purchase loans. No direct information is available about transactions in stocks and shares by the personal sector, but it is estimated that the sector is a very large seller of securities and in recent years its sales have amounted to £700 million a year.One factor which is important in the analysis of financial accounts and which is not shown specifically as part of the system is the rate of interest. The proportion of personal saving going into the different forms of short term assets has tended to vary according to the relative rate of interest received. The rate of interest also affects the pattern of borrowing by public authorities.The United Kingdom prepares short term forecasts of national income and of the balance of payments, and also forecasts of the borrowing requirement of the public sector and of the central government in particular. For internal purposes, forecasts are made of the various ways in which the government is expected to finance its borrowing requirement. These forecasts provide a useful framework for considering monetary prospects and are particularly important for showing the relation between the forecasts of the balance of payments and of government borrowing from domestic sources, especially from the banks.

Notes: Ľutilisation du SCN actuel pour les besoins de la coopération économique internationale est considérée ci-après à la lumière des expériences accumulées au sein de la Communauté Economique Européenne.Ľexpérience des années récentes prouve que si, dans une première étape, le SCN a pu servir de cadre général ďanalyse économique, ce cadre s'est rapidement révélé insuffisant lorsqu'il s'est agi de confronter des structures et des politiques nationales ou de définir des politiques coordonnées dans les domaines économique, social ou financier. Les travaux menés dans différents domaines ont montré la nécessitéďétendre, de détailler, de modifier et de préciser le système actuel de comptabilité nationale.Une question importante concerne ľintérêt de faire apparaître ou ďéliminer du système comptable les différences institutionnelles existant entre pays. Bien qu'à cet égard ľavis des utilisateurs ne soit pas toujours unanime, ľexpérience plaide en faveur ďun système reflétant pleinement les différences réelles de structure entre pays, mais suffisamment détaillé afin de permettre les regroupements fonctionnels nécessaires à certaines analyses.Ľarticle se termine par un bref rappel des principales critiques adressées au SCN actuel par ceux qui, dans le cadre de la Communauté Economique Européenne, se servent de la comptabilité nationale, critiques auxquelles la révision du SCN apportera, espérons-le, une réponse satisfaisante.

Notes: Both the yearly and the quarterly national accounts of Norway are derived with intensive use of electronic computers, punchcards and magnetic tapes.The introduction of the paper gives a short description of the Norwegian national accounting system. Four aspects are stressed. First, the accounts are built up by the production approach with the main purpose of, on the one hand, showing the domestic product at market prices by industry of origin and, on the other hand, showing a detailed breakdown by categories of expenditure. Second, the main part of the system consists of an input/output matrix of about 1700 commodities, 130 industries, and 150 final demand sectors. The input/output table is thus not made separately but is the main body of the national accounts. Third, this annual input/output table is used as a basis for estimating quarterly accounts. Fourth, an econometric model for analysing and forecasting developed by the Norwegian Central Bureau of Statistics is closely linked to the national accounts.The paper concentrates on how the computers and punchcards are used. It describes how all available information on the supply and use of commodities, prices, etc., is brought together. As far as possible punchcards from the basic statistics are taken over for further processing. As the end result each flow in the national accounts is represented by a punchcard.The paper discusses what has been gained by switching from worksheets to punchcards. There are advantages during the work and there are advantages of having the final results on punchcards.The final sections describe how the punched cards for the yearly accounts data are used as basis for preliminary estimates of quarterly accounts and also in a model for forecasting.

Notes: It is argued that the conventions of an accounting system, such as the S.N.A., are a matter of convenience. The treatment of education as a current expenditure, instead of as a form of capital formation, derives from the Keynesian system, and is not appropriate for dynamic problems of developing countries, where weaknesses in education are often the main “bottleneck” in the process of development. In such countries, expenditure on education clearly yields its benefits mainly in the longer run. To treat this as a consumption item biases policy in the direction of using financial resources for fixed capital rather than human investment, and may cause aid agencies to penalize countries which expand their educational systems. A similar problem arises on other expenditures such as health, but the case for treating them as investment is not so strong.To treat educational expenditure as part of capital formation logically requires two major changes. First education needs to be removed from private and public consumption, and for this purpose a fairly broad definition of what is education should be used. Secondly, the stock of educational capital should be valued. The valuation problems are, however, severe. Variations in cost components make historic cost of little value as a yardstick, and calculations of future returns are fraught with difficulties. Using replacement costs, which seems the best method, involves the construction of education profiles in physical terms which can then be valued by present or by standardised costs. The depreciation of human capital through mortality and retirement can be allowed for by applying national average rates to these physical profiles.Switching educational expenditure from current to capital accounts involves no serious practical problem. However, although there should logically be an allowance for depreciation on human capital, this is not recommended; single monetary measures of educational stock are not very meaningful, and this would involve changing the definition of “net” aggregates. Development of statistics of educational stocks and flows in physical terms—the beginnings of “demographic accounting” fully integrated with the rest of national accounting—is strongly advocated.

Notes: The now urgent problem in the field is to translate into practice the theoretical agreement, slowly reached over the past two decades, on the need for and feasibility of sectorized national balance sheets.The paper discusses the five main uses of national balance sheets, viz. (1) the study of the relations among assets and liabilities at one point of time in one country, particularly the position of financial institutions; (2) the analysis of changes in one country's financial structure between several balance sheet dates; (3) the comparison of balance sheet structure at one date among two or more countries; (4) the comparison of the financial development of several countries for at least two but usually more numerous balance sheet dates; and (5) the use of selected balance sheet items, e.g., reproducible tangible assets or liquid financial assets, in econometric models.Examples are presented of the first three uses, viz. for (1) an eleven sector balance sheet matrix for the U.S. as of the end of 1962; for (2) an unsectored national balance sheet of the U.S. in 1900, 1912, 1929, 1939, 1945 and 1958; and for (3) a comparison of condensed unsectored national balance sheets for a dozen countries (USA, UK, France, Germany, Belgium, Norway, Italy, Japan, Israel, Mexico, India and the USSR) for a date in the neighborhood of 1960.

Notes: The paper discusses national balance sheets in the light of the proposals for their inclusion in the revised SNA. The author uses his own estimated national balance sheet of the United Kingdom as a basis for discussing the problems encountered in the compilation of national balance sheets, and the greater part of the paper is concerned with questions of valuation, classification and statistical source material. The concluding section deals briefly with the structure of the national balance sheet of the United Kingdom and compares its structure with that of the national balance sheet of the United States. Provisional national balance sheets of the United Kingdom for each of the five years 1957 to 1961 are presented.

Notes: This article deals in an axiomatic manner with problems of definition, classification, and measurement in the national accounts. It argues that the elementary units which must be classified in national accounting are economic objects (real and financial), rather than transactions. The article defines briefly a set of postulates, and shows that the structure of a simple system of national accounting can be derived from them. There are twenty postulates—certain of them establishing basic categories such as sector, time, economic object, value (price); others establishing relations between categories (for example the notion of ownership); and others describing operations in which economic objects can be involved, such as production, final consumption, change of ownership, and change of debtor and creditor (in the case of financial objects). It is shown that the system of postulates makes it possible to consider a large number of accounting concepts (flows or stocks) as classes (baskets) of real objects (e.g., exports, real capital) or financial objects (e.g., payments, total debt of a sector). These concepts can be defined without reference to prices, although prices are necessary to measure them. Other concepts cannot be defined in this way in this system of postulates, for example value added, foreign balance, saving, net worth. However, it is possible to define magnitudes of the latter type and measure them in terms of value: for example, value added can be defined as the difference between the value of receipts and the value of outlays of a sector. In this way it is possible to establish algebraic relations among the national accounting concepts. (This article is a summary of certain parts of the doctoral thesis of the author, published in Norwegian in 1955.)

Notes: (1) The primary contribution from the computer's application to the national accounts may well be to erode the line between micro and macro analysis. Key macro totals in the accounts sum individual company reports. The computer permits us to develop distributions of these reports. Such distributions, regularly presented, would permit discovery of the first forerunners of change, would help distinguish, e.g., widespread strength in an export drive or a profits surge, from participation by a few major concerns that dominate the aggregate.(2) The strikingly different parameters in cross section and time series studies (e.g., price elasticity of housing) will in some measure reflect incomparability between the micro data that enter into each. The computer makes possible the use of the wide array of micro data that really underly the accounts to develop consistent analyses of time series (of both aggregates and distributions) and cross section analyses.(3) The inconsistencies now imbedded in the accounts but gilded over by the abilities of the estimators are well-known. Discussions of wage price policy rest on data for wages that have no necessary compatibility with data on profits, etc. But since 1,500 corporations account for at least half of U.S. net income, sales, and investment, the computer can test the consistency of reports made by different units in these firms to different agencies—a process totally out of the question before the computer.(4) The potential that the computer offers for prompt revisions in the accounts; for revisions by systematic rule; for tests of sensitivity of the entire set of accounts to particular tailor-made adjustments, is clear.(5) Company purchase orders and accounts are increasingly recorded on cards or tapes. From these we may derive input-output detail and process detail that are light years better than those now feasible from intermittent survey aggregates.

Notes: This paper examines differentials in output, employment and productivity across seventeen service industries in the United States from 1939 to 1963. Included are 9 retail trades and 8 services mostly from the personal service group. The industries chosen were those for which it was possible to obtain from available data reasonably comparable measures of output and input for selected years since 1939. Also, they are industries for which it is possible to calculate a measure of real output that is not based on labor input.Sixteen of the industries show positive rates of change of real output per man. Thus there appears to be no basis for assuming that productivity cannot or does not increase in industries providing services. However, the rate of increase for the group as a whole was not as rapid as in manufacturing or in goods production as a whole.The data for the seventeen industries give strong support to the hypothesis of a positive correlation between industry rates of growth and rates of change of productivity. The correlations are of the same order of magnitude as those found by other investigators in studies of manufacturing industries.The coefficient of correlation between growth of output per man and growth of output is .93; between growth of output per man and growth of employment it is .54 for 1939–1963. The comparable coefficients for the 1948–1963 period are .70 and .13.The results also parallel those reported for manufacturing in one other respect, namely, the absence of any correlation between changes in output per man and changes in compensation per man.The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems encountered in measuring changes in real output in these industries and presents some alternative estimates based on different concepts and different sources.

Notes: The author believes that the theoretical controversies relating to the two concepts of production have reached a dead end, and that the answer to these questions must be sought in the results of empirical research. It is to this end that he presents the results which he has arrived at in his computation of Yugoslav national income according to the Yugoslav methodology, which shares the material product concept, and the methodology of the United Nations, which is typical of the enlarged concept of production.In comparing the results of the computations according to the two methodologies, the author concludes that in spite of conceptual differences the deviation of the Yugoslav estimates from the values calculated following the system of the UN is relatively modest (4.2%) if domestic product at factor cost is used. The difference relative to aggregates calculated at market price rises to 13.6%. The author explains these differences by the fact that all the Yugoslav aggregates are computed at market prices, and that services financed by budgetary contributions, which amount to 80% of all services, have found their place in the market prices of material production. He finds that the choice of prices used for calculation has a greater weight for the computation of production than conceptual differences in the methodology of the computations.

Notes: After an introduction setting out the general state of work on the national accounts in the Middle East the author considers the principal uses of national accounts statistics in less developed countries. The first group of uses discussed is in connexion with the measurement of growth and the making of international comparisons. The author is of the opinion that in many cases the primary statistical series are so weak that the fact they they are combined together into a series called national income or gross domestic product lends to them a significance which they do not really possess. The real problem is to improve the quality of the primary series.A second use of national accounts statistics is in connexion with fiscal and budgetary policy. In the statistically advanced countries this is one of the most important uses but in the less developed countries budgetary policy has not yet reached a level of sophistication which would call for the use of national accounts data. Moreover, the time factor involved in assembling accurate national accounts estimates militates against their effective use for short term forecasting.The author considers that the most important use for national accounts statistics is to provide a framework for development planning. The United Nations system is not altogether appropriate for this purpose. It grew up primarily as a system for recording income flows but in development planning one is concerned equally with commodity flows with a great deal of attention being focussed upon intermediate products. The proposals of the working group of African Statisticians for an adaptation of the S.N.A. to African countries represents a most important advance in this respect.In the final section of the paper the author advocates a broader definition of capital formation to include developmental expenditure which is not properly defined as fixed capital formation. Education expenditure is cited as an example. It is suggested that in the national accounts it would be desirable to operate with gross concepts. However, the growth of the capital stock is obviously important in less developed countries and it is suggested that statistical techniques be devised to measure it directly wherever possible. Finally, attention is drawn to the ambiguities and weaknesses in the concept of residence as used at present in the S.N.A.

Notes: Cet article examine comment les calculateurs modernes servent ou pourraient servir en comptabilité nationale, soit pour ľutilisation des comptes, soit pour leur préparation.Du premier point de vue ľauteur insiste ďabord sur la complexité croissante des comptes nationaux qui rend difficile leur usage à partir de la forme classique de tableaux imprimés et tend à rendre nécessaire leur transcription sous forme de cartes perforées, cequi permettra de faire à la machine un certain nombre de travaux élémentaires sur les comptes.On peut également penser que les calculateurs permettraient des sondages rapides sur certains éléments des comptes en cours de préparation.Enfin, les utilisations des calculateurs électroniques pour ľanalyse des comptes, ľétude des modèles de projection et leur résolution sont bien connues.En ce qui concerne ľutilisation des calculateurs pour la préparation des comptes ľauteur montre que, étant donné le caractère imparfait du système statistique dans de nombreux pays, les comptes économiques des années passées sont en partie préparés àľaide de véritables modèles qui permettent de passer des données de base aux comptes et qui peuvent dans certains cas être résolus àľaide de calculateurs électroniques.Là oùľinformation statistique est meilleure, des éléments des comptes peuvent être calculés directement par agrégation des données élémentaires. On peut donc penser qu'une époque viendra où la plus grande partie des comptes nationaux sera préparée àľaide de machines électroniques à partir des données de base.On peut alors imaginer un monde où les transactions élémentaires seraient enregistrées au moment où elles seraient réalisées, rendant ainsi entièrement automatique la préparation des comptes nationaux. Mais alors les machines pourraient réunir les modèles de préparation et les modèles ďutilisation des comptes. Ľétape intermédiaire que constitue la préparation et la publication des comptes sous la forme actuelle deviendrait alors inutile.

Notes: After a short introduction, the first part of this paper (section 3 through 9) provides an outline of the revisions proposed to the System of National Accounts (SNA) of the United Nations which are now under discussion. These proposals were considered by an expert group at the end of 1964 and were accepted by the Statistical Commission of the United Nations in 1965 as the basis for further work on the extension and revision of the SNA. The aim of the revision is to provide a fully integrated system of accounts and balance sheets in which input-output, flows-of-funds and sector balance sheets are incorporated in a generalised accounting framework. Whereas the real side of the economy has been studied analytically in many countries (input-output analysis, demand analysis and so on) much less experience is available on modelling the financial side of the economy, apart from econometric work on saving behaviour, which is fairly widespread. Accordingly, the second part of the paper (sections 10 through 14) contains a discussion of financial model-building in which a number of possibilities are explored. The final topic discussed (section 15) is demographic accounting, by which is meant a framework for recording and analysing human, as opposed to economic, flows and stocks. The development of such a system arose out of the emphasis placed by the expert group on the integration of demographic and economic information.

Notes: This paper is essentially a summary of the book Measuring the Nation's Wealth (Volume 29, Studies in Income and Wealth, New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1964), which is the report of study directed by the author. The purpose o f the study was to assess the problems and possibilities of conducting a national census of real wealth as a basis for continuing wealth and balance sheet estimates for the U.S. economy, by major sector.It is stressed that the balance sheets and wealth estimates should be designed as a consistent part of an integrated system of national income accounts. Thus, valuation (at market prices and/or depreciated replacement costs), sectoring, and type-of-asset detail in the basic data and derived estimates should be compatible with the flow estimates contained in the economic accounts. Consistency of stock and flow estimates facilitates analysis of inter-relationships, and is helpful in the estimation process.It is recommended that in the U.S. asset data by broad categories be collected as part of the recurring economic censuses and other reporting systems, but that detail on fixed reproducible assets (construction and equipment) at cost, by year or period of acquisition, be obtained from a small sample of respondents in each industry. The detail would be useful in its own right, and also permit revaluation of the assets by use of price indexes and depreciation rates to a current depreciated replacement cost basis. Where feasible, respondent estimates of market values would also be obtained.The proposal is thus a compromise between the Japanese 1955 sample survey of assets, and the detailed wealth inventory of the U.S.S.R. which was begun in 1959. Preliminary work is now underway in the U.S. federal statistical agencies to expand collection of asset data, and to prepare comprehensive wealth estimates in the framework of the national income accounts.

Notes: This paper is concerned with the influence of different estimation procedures on the data for real output by industry group of a number of O.E.C.D. countries. The authors have examined the methods and indicators used in preparing sector real output data and have tried to assess the effect of the different methods on the recorded changes of sector real output. The data for real output, employment and productivity are compared for the different sectors and countries. The comparison between sectors lays particular emphasis on the dichotomy between the services and non-service sectors of the economy. In this comparison as well as in inter-country comparison it is seen that the data are influenced to a considerable extent by different methods. The survey of estimation methods also shows the incidence of use of double deflation techniques and other methods in the different countries, and the extent to which quality change, output specification and valuation problems are reflected in the different methods.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. When amoeboid organisms of Naegleria gruberi are treated with acriflavin at concentrations under 70 μg/ml, they still can form flagellates. Acriflavin between 70 μg/ml and 110 μg/ml increasingly inhibits morphogenesis. The effect of acriflavin is specific for the morphogenetic system since amoeboid organisms treated with acriflavin between 110 and 200 μg/ml are not otherwise inhibited and behave like the controls.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tritrichomonas foetus was cultivated in Diamond's medium without phosphates or agar; 10% glycerol was added to the medium and the protozoa were frozen slowly and stored at −28 or −95 C. About half of the trichomonads died within the first day at either temperature. Thereafter, they continued to die off slowly during storage at −28, and none remained alive at or after 1024 days. New cultures could not be initiated with them after 64 days. At −95, almost as many trichomonads were alive after 256 days as after 1 day. Thereafter, however, they decreased in numbers, but 11% were still alive after 2048 days (5.6 years). The survivors appeared in good condition, and new cultures were readily initiated with them.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The 42% incidence of Plasmodium in blood films of English sparrows reported here is the highest on record for surveys of blood parasites of birds in the United States. The only Plasmodium species identified in the sparrows was P. relictum. Adult birds were almost universally infected and tended to experience the highest degree of parasitemia in the spring months, while young birds had a higher blood positivity in the summer months. The lowest incidence of Plasmodium positive blood films occurred in fall and winter in the Galveston area. Overwintering birds had a decrease in parasitemia corresponding to reported minimal gonadal activity in sparrows.The 20% incidence of Lankesterella (avian Toxoplasma) in the blood of these sparrows was also higher than has been reported in other blood film surveys in this country. Incidence of this parasite in blood films was highest in the summer months, corresponding with highest average temperature for the year. Lankesterella could be found in 95% of sparrows whose tissues were examined after autopsy.Ducks and pigeons in the immediate vicinity of the survey sparrows had neither Plasmodium nor Lankesterella in blood films. Resident wild birds from adjacent rural areas, including redwinged blackbirds, boat-tailed grackles, laughing gulls and meadowlarks, had fewer Plasmodium and Lankesterella than the sparrows. A few Lankesterella were found in the liver or spleen of young redwinged blackbirds, and only 2 of 79 wild birds had the organisms in their heart blood. Plasmodium was found only in meadowlarks and included P. hexamerium and elongatum as well as relictum.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Modifications of the silica gel technic of Perkins and Ogata have been successfully used to preserve Acrasis rosea for 6–13 months and Dictyostelium purpureum for 31 months. The technic is simple, reliable and inexpensive and is recommended for its possible application for the general preservation of certain fungi and protozoa.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The sterols of a number of protozoa grown in axenic culture have been examined. Ergosterol is present in Polytoma uvella, Astasia ocellata, Haematococcus pluvialis, Crithidia oncopelti, Prototheca zopfii, Chilomonas paramoecium and Trypanosoma mega, all grown on sterol-free media. Ergosterol is also present in the culture form of Trypanosoma rhodesiense and occurs together with cholesterol and an unidentified sterol in Peranema trichophorum grown in the presence of cholesterol. P. uvella, A. ocellata, H. pluvialis and C. oncopelti also contain a sterol which is either spinasterol or its isomer chondrillasterol. The main sterol of Ochromonas malhamensis is probably poriferasterol, which is also present in C. paramoecium. Cholesterol, probably from the environment, is the only sterol in the blood form of T. rhodesiense. Tetrahymena pyriformis and Hartmannella rhysodes do not synthesize sterols.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The effects of the trypanocidal drug, pentamidine, on the ribosomal fraction of Crithidia oncopelti have been investigated in vivo and in vitro. Addition of the drug to ribosomes isolated from the organisms led to release of magnesium and some protein from the particles. The ribosomes were aggregated when significant release of magnesium had occurred. Loss of magnesium was dependent on density of the ribosomal suspension but not on the magnesium concentration. Spermine, propamidine and stilbamidine had a similar effect in releasing magnesium from the particles. The majority of pentamidine (80%) or stilbamidine (70%) added to suspensions of ribosomes became bound to the particles and could not readily be removed by washing. Stilbamidine was not released in the presence of adenosine triphosphate. Slight stabilisation of 80S particles was observed in the presence of pentamidine and absence of magnesium.Incubation of organisms in the presence of growth-inhibitory concentrations of pentamidine led to no significant change in the ribosomal content of the organisms, even when complete inhibition of the ability to incorporate C14-glycine into nucleic acid and protein had occurred. There was no significant decrease in the magnesium content of ribosomes isolated from organisms incubated in the presence of pentamidine.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A description is given of the interphase nuclear apparatus of Urostyla grandis, which has many macronuclei and a few micronuclei. The macronucleus is bounded by a typical double envelope. Chromatinic material in the macronucleus forms a large, irregular network composed of threads up to 500 mμ in thickness which are thicker than those in the macronuclei of most ciliates. The nucleoli are round bodies about 1–2 μ in diameter and are embedded in the matrix enclosed in chromatin threads. The micronucleus is bounded by a double, porous envelope similar to that of the macronucleus. Chromatinic material in the micronucleus forms a small network of comparatively thin threads, 60–80 mμ thick. At high magnifications, both the chromatin threads in the macronucleus and in the micronucleus appear to be composed of fine twisted fibrils about 10 mμ thick. The reorganization band which traverses each macronucleus in the late interphase is divided into two zones: the forward zone consists of fine, twisted fibrils 30 mμ thick formed by pairs of parallel fibrils each 10 mμ thick. The rear zone consists of small chromatin bodies and thin threads, both 80 mμ in diameter, consisting of fine fibrils 10 mμ thick. Reorganized chromatin threads appear to be thin spiral threads 80–130 mμ thick in striking contrast to the thick threads of 100–500 mμ diameter composing the large, irregular network observed in the early interphase macronucleus.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Two new species of the simple mycetozoan genus Schizoplasmodium—S. ovatum and S. gracile—are described, the former having ovate spores and the latter spherical ones. All stages of the life cycle are multinucleate. At sporulation the holozoic plasmodium segments into prespore cells which develop directly into long-stalked, single-spored sporocarps. Sexual reproduction was not observed. A new order—the PROTOSTELIDA—is proposed for this and related genera, which are believed to comprise a phylogenetically linked series, beginning with the amoebo-flagellate genus Cavostelium and evolving through Schizoplasmodium to Protostelium. The two families Cavostelidae (Cavostelium) and Protostelidae (Schizoplasmodium, Protostelium) are recognized.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Histriculus vorax (Stokes) Corliss, a hypotrichous ciliate, has been separated from activated sludge and cultured monoxenically in the laboratory. The asexual life cycle has been observed and the stages of development photographed. There are large variations in shape and size of cells within clonal cultures. Both large (190–250 μ long) and small (70–140 μ long) cells are capable of normal asexual binary fission but only the large cells are able to grow endogenous buds, which, when mature, are extruded through the body wall of the mother cell. Newly deposited buds can either develop directly into an embryonic form, or, if unfavorable conditions prevail, first encyst. Similar embryonic stages bearing caudal and frontal cirri are produced both by direct development and by excystment of the encysted bud. Embryos develop rapidly into trophic forms which finally grow into small adults capable of asexual binary fission. During binary fission the nuclei behave as described previously for other members of the Oxytrichidae. A reorganization band forms at the outer end of each macronucleus, and these bands move along the macronuclei towards each other, finally disappearing at the inner ends. A fusion nucleus is then formed which splits into 4 pieces, 2 of which pass to the proter and 2 to the opisthe. During bud formation the reorganisation bands form and move as in binary fission. No fusion nucleus is formed, but the macronuclei divide immediately after reorganization, and the anterior macronucleus of each pair so produced migrates to the budding region. The infraciliature of H. vorax resembles that of Opisthotricha monspessulana.‘Erratic’ kinetosomes, which are present in the adult, divide during binary fission and so produce the infraciliature of the proter and opisthe. During bud formation the budding region receives a number of these ‘erratic’ kinetosomes from the mother cell, and these divide to form the infraciliature of the bud.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Polysphondylium pallidum WS-320 grows indefinitely as vegetative amebae in a liquid medium where (a) substrates comprise sucrose, glycerol, acetate, lactate, citrate, and glutamate; (b) essential nutrients (riboflavin, lysine, glycine, and possibly several other amino acids that may be essential) are supplied. The growth thus supported (2 × 106 cells/ml) is more than doubled by provision of a mixture of crude fatty acids, an acid hydrolysate of casein supplemented with B vitamins, purines, pyrimidines, and fat-soluble antioxidants.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The present study has been directed to a serological comparison of three closely similar species of Entamoeba: E. histolytica, E. invadens and E. moshkovskii, and two free-living soil amoebae: Hartmannella rhysodes and Mayorella palestinensis. Except for E. histolytica and E. moshkovskii, the other amoebae used here were grown axenically; this is the first report of the use of antigenic extracts from axenic cultures of parasitic amoebae.The method described here provides a potent antigen that elicits a good antibody titer and is generally applicable to both parasitic and free-living amoebae. Amoebae pooled from well-grown cultures were thoroughly washed, sonicated and mixed with Freund's Adjuvant; this antigenic preparation was injected into rabbits. Two subcutaneous injections were given at three-week intervals, and 2-3 weeks thereafter blood was withdrawn to obtain antiserum. Agar-gel diffusion, cellulose acetate paper and fluorescent antibody technics were used to test the antigen-antibody (Ag-Ab) reactions.Results of the Ag-Ab reactions can be summarized as follows: 1) The homologous Ag-Ab reaction was obtained in all cases tested. 2) There was no serological reaction between the parasitic and free-living amoebae tested. 3) There was a definite serological reaction between H. rhysodes and M. palestinensis. 4) Multiple antigens were found in E. invadens (PZ strain) and E. histolytica (DKB strain) when they were tested against anti-PZ serum and anti-DKB serum, respectively, and no reaction was found when the other test antigens were exposed to these two antisera in gel-diffusion tests. 5) With the fluorescent antibody technic, E. histolytica (Laredo strain), E. moshkovskii (DSR strain) and E. histolytica (DKB strain) showed some degree of serological reaction in descending order when they were stained with conjugated anti-E. invadens serum.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Induction of the resistant stage in the Amoebidiales appears to be dependent upon a morphogenetic factor derived from the host animal. This triggering substance is released either at death or ecdysis of the host arthropod. Growth of the epizoon, Amoebidium parasiticum, in both complex and defined media, follows a sporangiospore sporangium pattern. The amoeba-cyst phase, however, was only noted after crushed host material (Cladocera) was added to the axenically grown thalli. Subsequent tests, evaluated with a quantitative assay, indicate that amoebagenesis is influenced by pH, temperature, condition of the protist, and concentration of the active principle. Commercial “dried daphnia” has consistently yielded an active extract. A large number of complex and simple materials has been screened for activity, and only extracts of ground crab show promise as an alternate source. The amoebagenic factor is heat stable, relatively small, and not soluble in ether, acetone or chloroform. Paper chromatography with polar solvent systems yields a single active band, and this is the best evidence that amoebagenesis is induced by a single, rather than a multiple factor. Paramoebidium, the second genus in this obscure order, undergoes amoebagenesis at ecdysis of the host. The possibility that Amoebidium and Paramoebidium are simply different growth forms of the same protist is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cysts of Sarcocystis sp. are described from a dog. They are spherical to elongate, 110–250 μ in diameter, and contain numerous crescentic trophozoites measuring 4–5 × 1.5 μ. No septa were seen. This is the first report of Sarcocystis from a domestic carnivore.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cytoplasmic inclusions appear rapidly in Leishmania enriettii exposed to 37 C. The staining of these droplets with oil red O, their extraction in non-polar solvents, and their fine structure by electron microscopy establish their identity as lipid droplets. Fatty acid profiles of these organisms show alterations concomitant with the development of these inclusions. Oleic acid increases while linolenic acid is depressed in cells exposed to elevated temperature. A greater incorporation of exogenous radioactive stearic acid occurs, with depressed specific activities of linoleic and linolenic acids compared to values obtained with control organisms. The isolated lipids of L. enriettii have temperature-dependent changes consistent with a physical interpretation of events which occur with temperature inactivation. The temperature lability of fatty acid metabolism is discussed in terms of the synthesis and stability of cellular membranes and organelles.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Total counts of Eimeria vilasi and E. wisconsinensis oocysts in 0.05 g fecal samples from the eastern chipmunk over a 2-year period indicated that the 2 species had respective occurrences of 100% and 11% and an actual abundance ratio of 35 to 1. In the red squirrel similar counts of E. tamiasciuri and E. toddi over a 3-year period indicated occurrences of 98% and 6% and an actual abundance ratio of 26 to 1, respectively. These results parallel a similar dichotomy in percent occurrence of 7 Eimeria in the sciurid genera Cynomys and Marmota.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. By means of precipitation with protamine sulfate, a soluble antigen (PS) was obtained from erythrocytes of horses with acute babesiosis due to Babesia caballi and B. equi. This antigen reacted in gel diffusion tests with sera from horses recovered from acute babesiosis. The PS antigen was found to be muco-protein, susceptible to destruction by trypsin and taka-diastase. Analysis of the antigen by paper electrophoresis revealed 2 components which were not present in similar preparations made from erythrocytes of Babesia-free horses.When the PS antigen was heated in boiling water for 30 minutes, a serologically inactive precipitate was formed; however, the supernate remained serologically active and was termed boiled PS (BPS) antigen. This antigen was polysaccharide in nature; its serologic activity was destroyed by taka-diastase.In gel diffusion tests with sera of recovered horses, the PS antigen formed 2 lines of precipitation which coalesced in a single line formed between these sera and the BPS antigen. Both PS and BPS antigens reacted with sera of horses recovered from acute babesiosis in the gel-diffusion test, but not with sera of dogs and rats recovered from acute infection with Babesia canis and Babesia rodhaini, respectively. The serologic specificity of these antigens suggests that they might have application in the serodiagnosis of inapparent Babesia infections of equine animals.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Euglena gracilis (bacillaris variety, strain SM-L1, streptomycin-bleached) used the following amino adds (10−3 M) as sole nitrogen source for growth on a defined medium: glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, threonine, and glutamic acid. Aspartic acid was used at 10−2 M. Glutamine and asparagine were used at 10−3 M and were better N sources than their parent dicarboxylic amino acids. Not used as sole N source for growth were phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, cysteine, cystine, methionine, proline, hydroxyproline, histidine, arginine, lysine, and taurine. Astasia longa (Jahn strain) was more restricted than Euglena and used only asparagine and glutamine as N sources for growth.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Gigantomonas usually exists in the multinucleate stage. Hence, multiple fission is more common than binary fission. In its flagellate as well as its aflagellate state it is always an amoeboid cell which possesses from one to several large, clear pseudopodia. Fairly often in the multinucleate, as well as the uninucleate, stage no extranuclear organelles are present except large plain centrioles, two of which are always closely associated with each nucleus. During nuclear reproduction four centrioles, two old ones and two new ones, are always present with each nucleus. During all nuclear reproductions, regardless of the number of nuclei present, extranuclear organelles, such as flagella, axostyle, undulating membrane, and costa when present are discarded. If they are renewed, it is by the new centrioles at the same time that the old ones produce new central spindles, two always cooperating in the process. Thus, Gigantomonas, like other genera of the Devescovinidae, the family to which it belongs, never has for each nucleus present more than one set of extranuclear organelles, a characteristic which Devescovinidae and Lophomonadidae have in common. It is the only genus of Devescovinidae without a parabasal body.Owing to the liquidness of the cytoplasm, the central spindle, which becomes very long indeed, often extends beyond the cytoplasm and thus pushes the nucleus fastened to this end of it completely out of the cell. Mainly because of this situation, multinucleate forms with an odd number of nuclei occur often; otherwise the nuclear numbers would be 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., because, no matter how many nuclei are present, they all reproduce simultaneously or nearly so.An unusual situation occurs in which Gigantomonas ingests and digests a small species of Holomastigotoides, while several hundred individuals of the latter become attached to and destroy Gigantomonas.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A new species of coccidium is described: Eimeria urosauris n. sp., in the gall bladder of the lizard Urosaurus graciosus Hollowell, from the Mojave Desert in California. The oocyst of E. urosauris is smooth, bilaminar, nearly cylindrical, with long borders only slightly convex, ends rounded and very nearly hemispherical. It is usually 32 × 20 μ, and its length/width ratio is 1.6. It contains 4 ellipsoid sporocysts, each 10.5 × 9 μ, for which 1/w is 1.17. Each sporocyst contains 2 tapered bent sporozoites with rounded ends, 11 μ long, 4 μ in diameter at the larger end, and 1.5 μ in diameter at the smaller end. Each sporocyst also contains a central granular sporocyst residuum 3.5 μ in diameter. The oocyst lacks a micropyle and oocyst residuum, and there is no Stieda body on the sporocyst. Sporulation time is 6–10 hr. Endogenous development, with reinfection by liberated sporozoites, occurs in the epithelial lining of the gall bladder. E. urosauris is compared to other morphologically similar lacertilian eimerias with which it might be confused.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. In rats infected with T. lewisi, 2 morphologically distinct forms of the trypanosome occur. By means of the immunodiffusion technic several antigenic differences between the 2 forms were observed. The time course in the antigenic and morphologic changes is somewhat different. The antigenic change from young to adult forms is gradual. It starts 12 days after infection and is complete in 14 days, 3 to 5 days after the morphologic appearance of the trypanosomes is that of adult forms. In addition, there appear to be 2 separate stages of young forms when they are analyzed for antigenic composition.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Nucleic acid hybridisation involving DNA samples was used to study relationships between various protozoa. The most hybridisation or nucleic acid homology was always in the homologous reaction between 2 DNA samples from the same source. It was concluded that all the protozoa tested have nucleotide sequences or genes in common with Paramecium aurelia. The ciliates could be placed in a sequence of decreasing homology relative to Paramecium: Tetrahymena, Colpidium, Stentor, Didinium, Dileptus, Blepharisma. Actinosphaerium had fewer sequences than any of the ciliates and the flagellate Euglena had the fewest sequences in common. The bacterium Aerobacter had none. Similar relationships were inferred from competitive hybridisation experiments; these relationships were also in general mirrored by morphologic relationships and overall G + C base compositions which ranged from 46% for Euglena to 32% for P. aurelia. These experiments, it is hoped, will contribute to studies on origins of the metazoa.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) linked isocitrate dehydrogenase and NADP linked alcohol dehydrogenase have been detected in Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris.The NADP isocitrate dehydrogenase showed half-maximal activity at a concentration of 3 × 10−5 M DL-isocitrate, but did not follow simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics with respect to substrate concentration. The optimal NADP concentration was about 0.06 mM, and activity fell off sharply on either side of this optimum. Fresh preparations of the enzyme migrated as single bands in disc electrophoresis, but two enzymatically active bands were present after frozen storage.The NAD isocitrate dehydrogenase followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics with respect to substrate. In crude extracts, no requirement for adenosine monophosphate, adenosine diphosphate, or sulfhydryl compounds could be found.NADP alcohol dehydrogenase activity could be found with either ethanol or propanol as substrate. Low concentrations of coenzyme A were moderately inhibitory.In tris(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane buffer (tris buffer), Euglena extracts reduced NAD slowly in the absence of exogenous substrate. In the absence of tris, no such reduction occurred. A similar phenomenon was observed with NADP.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Hepatocystis has been found extremely common in a number of species of Formosan mammals, notably the large leafnosed bat (Hipposideros armiger terasensis), the Formosan macaque (Macaca cyclopis), and various subspecies of the red-bellied tree squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus). Less often infected were the long-winged bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) and the Formosan giant flying squirrel (Petaurista grandis). The species occurring in H. a. terasensis is believed to be new, and is named Hepatocystis hipposideri. It causes considerable enlargement (but not other changes) of the host cell, is often amoeboid, and usually has numerous fine pigment granules.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tracer technic has proved to be an excellent tool in the study of predator-prey relationships among the foraminifera. More than fifty axenic species of protists including diatoms, dinoflagellates, chlorophytes, chrysophytes, cyanophytes, bacteria and yeasts were tested as potential food for Allogromia sp (NF), A. laticollaris, Am. monia beccarii, Quinqueloculina spp, Rosalina floridana, Anomalina sp, Elphidium sp, Spiroloculina hyalina, Globigerina bulloides, and Globorotalia truncatulinoides. Although many types of potential food are present in the environment, foraminifera select only certain organisms. The yeasts, cyanophytes, dinoflagellates, chrysophytes and most bacteria tested were not eaten. Selected species of diatoms, chlorophytes and bacteria were eaten in large quantity. Three additional factors affect feeding: the “age” of the food organism, the “age” of the foraminifer or its position in the life cycle, and the concentration of the food. Feeding by foraminifera on most food is erratic below a concentration of 103 organisms and is approximately directly proportional to concentration within a range of 103-106 organisms per 10 ml experimental tube. A natural bloom of Protelphidium tisburyensis was analyzed. A high concentration of 6 species of diatoms characterized the community. A “bloom”-feeder hypothesis for foraminiferal nutrition is presented.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The reorganization in resting cysts which produce a single emerging individual was followed in 5 species of Colpodidae forming a possible evolutionary series with increasing numbers of kineties. Stomatogenesis in Colpoda maupasi and C. inflata was studied for the first time; that in C. steinii, C. cucullus and Tillina magna was reinvestigated with new observations. In all, the oral primordium is double and originates from segments of certain somatic kineties, constant for each species. The larger mouthparts in the larger ciliates are produced from a correspondingly greater number of kineties. Morphogenetic and evolutionary implications of this series of observations are discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. When the structures involved in digestive events in T. pyriformis are examined at the electron microscope level, some information is added to that long known from light microscopy. The food trapping mechanism consists of the three membranelles, undulating membrane, oral ribs, and a “valve” apparently closing the opening to the cytopharynx. Both of the latter structures are supported by microtubules. Fibers extend internally from the cytopharynx and are closely associated with the food vacuole as it forms.Clear vacuoles resembling pinocytic vacuoles appear to arise from differentiated areas of the pellicle and plasma membrane. These vacuoles may fuse with primary lysosomes. Hydrolases are thus contributed to the pinocytic vacuoles which may then fuse with food vacuoles. When first formed food vacuoles contain no hydrolases but may acquire them directly, from primary lysosomes or from pinocytic vacuoles. Digestion proceeds to completion in the food vacuole, at which time soluble food products are released to the cytoplasm. Undigested materials are lost through the cytopyge. In stationary growth phase cells autophagic vacuoles form containing mitochondria and other cellular particulates. Such vacuoles probably contain hydrolases when formed and they may receive others by fusion with primary lysosomes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The mechanism of Prymnesium parvum ichthyotoxicity was studied in immersed minnows (Gambusia affinis) in the presence of various synergists (especially polyamines and invert soaps) and under varying conditions of pH and salinity. The effect of immersion in toxin-synergist solution on permeability of gill tissues to trypan blue and to radioactive substances, e.g., I125 and radio-iodinated albumin, was established. Fish sensitivity to various toxic substances was increased after immersion for short periods in suitable toxinsynergist solutions. This sensitivity, as well as the increased permeability of gill tissue, was transient and disappeared when fish were stored in tap water for several hours after the toxin-synergist treatment. Good correlation was found between the conditions (synergist quality and concentration, pH, salinity) leading to P. parvum ichthyotoxicity and conditions instrumental in increased gill permeability and toxin sensitivity. The primary site of damage is concluded to be the gill membrane.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Monolayers of cells of coverslips were produced by culturing known numbers of trypsinized chick cells in growth medium (solution 199 plus 20% calf serum) at 37 C for 2 days. The fluid was then replaced with maintenance medium (solution 199 plus 5% calf serum) containing various known numbers of T. cruzi and the preparations were incubated at 33 C for 5 days; fresh maintenance medium was substituted on the 2nd or 3rd day. The inocula of parasites were obtained from T. cruzi-cell cultures, supplemented with 2% sterile NNN overlay, or from NNN cultures.The numbers of extracellular parasites, proportions of infected cells, and percentage distribution of infected cells relative to the number of intracellular leishmanial bodies were determined on days 2 or 3 and 5 of parasite cultivation in many experiments. Analyses of the data gave the following results. Extracellular parasites increased 2- to 14-fold during the first 2 or 3 days, depending upon the source and size of the inocula, and 10- to 20-fold during the last 2 or 3 days. Cell infection continued throughout incubation at daily rates of 1.4-4.5%; 8-22% of the cells became infected during the 5 days of incubation. Intracellular growth was reflected most clearly by increases in the proportion of cells having 〉10 leishmanial bodies. This increase was about 5% daily during the last 2 or 3 days of incubation.A useful test procedure for assessing the antiparasitic action and chick embryo cell toxicity of drugs is illustrated by data obtained with furazolidone and tris (p-aminophenyl)carbonium chloride.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tetrahymena pyriformis strains E, A-136 31C and IMT II survived freezing in 10% dimethylsulfoxide when the temperature was lowered to freezing at 4.5 C/min. Survival was then obtained for at least 128 days by lowering the temperature rapidly to 95°C. Of the 3 strains, T. pyriformis IMT II was most resistant to the effects of freezing. Its volume averaged about half that of either of the other strains and may have contributed to the differences in survival. In addition to differences among strains, a medium relatively low in the concentration of nutrients, a culture nearing peak population, and a rate of cooling of 4.5 C/min, all gave best survival. Paramecium aurelia regained motility after being frozen in 6 to 7.5% dimethylsulfoxide for as long as 7 days at either –27 or –196 C, but cultures were obtained only after storage for 20 min at –27 C. A concentration of 6 to 7.5% dimethyl-sulfoxide, cooling at 4.5 C/min, and culture media containing Aerobacter aerogenes or composed of a commercially available composition were all required for survival of P. aurelia.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Kinetosomal changes, as indicative of cytoplasmic reorganization in binary fission and during and after conjugation, were followed in a zoochlorellae-bearing species of Euplotes. The preconjugant peristome, designated the first generation peristome, breaks down partially after the conjugants have paired; the basal section, comprising the shorter adoral membranelles and the undulating, membrane, is resorbed. A new peristome, the second generation peristome, arises as a small pit near the left ventral margin, in midline, at the time when the micronuclei are in the first meiotic prophase. By the time of the second meiotic division a single set of new cirri, the second generation cirri, has formed in each conjugant. This second set is not perfect, lacking one of the frontals. Neither the second generation peristome nor cirri develop very far, or migrate, until after separation of the conjugants. Then the new peristome replaces the old one and the new cirri become functional. However, the new peristome lacks an undulating membrane and does not complete its development, bearing only a fraction of the normal number of membranelles. At its posterior termination, at the time of condensation of the macronuclear anlage, another peristome, the third generation peristome, is formed and develops as a granular, and later striated, invagination extending posteriorly. It appears to integrate with its predecessor and, as its constituent membranelles develop, a third generation single set of new cirri arises. These replace the imperfect previous set, all of the cirri being represented. In anticipation of the first postconjugant fission, all of the cirral apparatus is discarded again and two new sets (fourth generation cirri) originate; the old (combination second and third generation) peristome is retained by the proter while a new one is provided for the opisthe. It is evident, therefore, that a rather far-reaching cytoplasmic reorganization accompanies the nuclear changes of conjugation, seeming, for the most part, to follow the nuclear changes. The old macronuclear fragments have been found not to fuse with the macronuclear anlage.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. An electron microscope study of Colpoda maupasi Enriques, isolated from the intestine of the blue-tongued skink Tiliqua nigrolutea, showed that the fine structure of this ciliate is similar in all respects to that of free-living ciliates. The correspondence applies particularly to the structure, distribution and number of mitochondria. This organelle has a rich intramitochondrial structure in the form of microvilli; it is found close to the periphery, near the nuclear apparatus and in other parts of the cytoplasm. It was concluded that the association between Colpoda maupasi and Tiliqua nigrolutea was probably accidental and limited to the cyst stage. Thus electron microscopy confirmed a conclusion arrived at by light microscopy.The presence of numerous food vacuoles made it possible to study stages of digestion within this organelle. Four major types of food vacuole were distinguished. Type 1 food vacuoles are characterized by their large size, the presence of intact bacteria and abundance of water. In type 2 the food vacuole is deprived of water, the bacteria are pressed together and the nuclei have lost their structure. Type 3 food vacuoles contain only bacterial ghosts, cytoplasmic and nuclear material having been digested. Food vacuoles of this type are found only occasionally, suggesting their short duration. It is of interest that during this transient stage the bulk of digestion takes place. In type 4 nothing reminiscent of bacteria is found; there are only myelin figures and vesicles of different sizes. Evaginations and invagnations of the vacuolar membrane and vesicles of different size and structure inside and outside the food vacuoles of types 1, 3 and 4 suggest that extensive communication exists between the cytoplasm and the food vacuole. It seems likely that enzymes are delivered to the food vacuole and digested materials are released from the food vacuole to the cytoplasm.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Several strains of particle-bearing and particle-free Paramecium aurelia have been cultivated in an axenic medium composed of proteose peptone, trypticase, yeast nucleic acid, MgSO4.7H2O, TEM-4T (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of tallow monoglycerides), stigmasterol and a mixture of vitamins. The “yeast fraction,” an indispensable component of previous media used for the cultivation of these ciliates has been replaced by a mixture of trypticase, yeast nucleic acid and TEM-4T.Particle-bearing animals of stock 299 lambda, 138 mu, and 139 pi maintain their particles when cultivated in the medium, whereas particle-bearing animals of stock 51 kappa, 225 kappa and 114 signia do not. With the exception of stock 92 (syngen 3) the medium appears to be selective in its ability to support the growth of animals of the even- but not odd-numbered syngens of P. aurelia.Maintenance of the particles was dependent only to a small degree upon environmental conditions brought about by changes in pH and temperature. Division of the particles was found to be comparable with the division of the protozoan. Methods for the growth, maintenance and mass cultivation of particle-bearing P. aurelia are given in detail.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The ability of Plasmodium berghei to convert folate and dihydrofolate to folinate in vitro was investigated. Neither parasitized mouse erythrocytes nor free parasites synthesized more than trace amounts of folinate from folate under a wide variety of experimental conditions. Since disrupted cell preparations were no more efficient than whole cells, permeability barriers did not seem to be involved. However, dihydrofolate was a good substrate for the synthesis of folinate by uninfected and parasitized erythrocytes, and by free parasites. The reaction by parasitized erythrocytes required NADPH and dihydrofolate, and was inhibited by pyrimethamine, indicating the presence of dihydrofolate reductase in P. bergkei. It was postulated that P. berghei cannot utilize folate directly, since these experiments indicate that the cells lack a folate reductase. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that plasmodia synthesize folate cofactors de novo, and do not utilize exogenous folates.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Extracts of Tetrahymena pyriformis S in 50% glycerol contain an unstable enzyme capable of catalyzing the incorporation of ATP† or CTP into soluble RNA. Prior treatment of the sRNA with snake venom diesterase greatly enhances its ability to prime CTP incorporation. The properties of the enzyme suggest that it is an RNA-adenylate (cytidylate) pyrophosphorylase.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A new apostome ciliate was discovered in collections at Friday Harbor, Washington and the San Francisco area. All stages of the life cycle were studied in both living and stained condition.Dormant encysted stages (phoronts) occur on the gills of Pagurus hirsutiusculus. Excystation occurs in synchrony with the molting of the host yielding the trophic stage (trophont), which feeds on the exuvial fluids trapped in the crab's cast-off exoskeleton. The trophont becomes greatly enlarged as a result of feeding, and the cytoplasm and organelles become compressed into a thin cortical layer. Each fully grown trophont encysts (becoming a tomont) as a prelude to repeated binary fission, which results in the release of actively motile offspring (tomites). These disperse and promptly resume the encysted phoront stage on the host's gills.The Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation method revealed that all stages of the life cycle have nine somatic kineties. In the trophont stage they are accompanied by an anterior ventral field of scattered clumps of kinetosomes. During conjugation the partners attach by their ventral surfaces between kineties 1 and 9 and at the left of the ventral field.The tomite stage was stained with Protargol. In addition to the characteristic features of the foettingeriid tomite also revealed by the Chatton-Lwoff method, Protargol revealed the following heretofore undescribed morphological features: a short row of kinetosomes immediately anterior to the ogival field; a line paralleling the left margin of the field; the continuity of kinety 8 with falciform field 8; the entrance of kinety 9 into the mouth and its ending against the rosette (an enigmatic organelle characteristic of Foettingeriinae).Feulgen stains showed that the chromatin in the macronucleus is dispersed in aggregates whose size and number vary with the stage of the life cycle. The major period of chromatin synthesis appears to be during the early tomont stage, when Feulgen-positive material increases visibly in amount and intensity of staining.This apostome ciliate was characterized as a new genus on the basis of the infraciliature of the trophont stage, its conjugation with ventral surfaces appressed, and its life cycle. It is named Hyalophysa (hyalo = glassy, physa = bubble) chattoni.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A strain of Crithidia (Strigomonas) oncopelti has been developed which shows increased resistance to pentamidine. Growth of organisms from the sensitive strain was inhibited by 5.07 × 10−5 M pentamidine while the resistant strain was capable of growth in 5.07 × 10−5 M drug. Resistance developed gradually during 26 subcultures in the presence of sub-inhibitory concentrations of the drug and was markedly reduced after a further 84 subcultures in the absence of pentamidine. The pentamidine-resistant strain was also resistant to stilbamidine and propamidine and showed some cross resistance to an aminoquinaldine drug (antrycide, quinapyramine) and a phenanthridine drug (ethidium, homidium).The binding of pentamidine and stilbamidine by pentamidine-resistant and sensitive strains of the organism was compared. The pentamidine-resistant strain bound very low concentrations of both drugs compared with the sensitive strain. The distribution of pentamidine among those subcellular fractions of disrupted preparations of C. oncopelti, which could be separated by differential centrifugation, was compared in the two strains. The majority of the drug was bound to material sedimenting in 10 min at 700 ×g in both strains.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. When large batches of Paramecium (more than 100,000 cells) are centrifuged in conventional centrifuges, extensive lysis occurs, typically lowering recovery to around 30%. An easily constructed centrifuge with a cylindrical plastic head operated at low accelerations permits centrifugation of large batches of Paramecium with about 90% recovery, even after exhaustive washing. Operation requires only a few minutes, and the system is easily cleaned. The inexpensive heads can be instantly interchanged, and cultures can even be centrifuged in their original low form glass culture vessels. This system, which should be applicable to any large fragile cells, permits timed experiments that are usually impossible because of the need for exhaustive washing or concentration from large initial volumes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Defined media for Leptomonas collosoma, L. mirabilis, and L. sp. from Dysdercus are described. In addition to factors required by Crithidia spp., including a source of Crithidia factor, all 3 organisms require glycine. Leptomonas collosoma and L. sp. from Dysdercus require choline. All trypanosomatids thus far studied require calcium pantothenate but L. collosoma has an especially large requirement. Leptomonas mirabilis but not L. sp. from Dysdercus can synthesize methionine from homocysteine thiolactone during growth. Homocysteine thiolactone is toxic to L. sp. from Dysdercus. Methionine plus vitamin B12 partly annul homocysteine thiolactone toxicity but only if glycine is also present.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Glauconema trihymene n. g., n. sp., a marine hymenostome ciliate, is described from the Virginia coast. Morphologic studies were made on specimens treated with the Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation technic and on animals observed with the phase microscope. Particular attention is given to the buccal ciliature and its importance to generic assignment in the order Hymenostomatida.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Hematozoa were found in 89 (30.6%) of 291 cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), captured for banding purposes. Hepatozoon was found in 73 (25%), Trypanosoma in 13 (4.5%), microfilariae in 9 (3%), and Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon in 1 bird each. Multiple infections were found in only 7 of the swallows.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Earlier experiments suggested that the species of Haemoproteus which infects English wood-pigeons (Columba p. palumbus) and is transmitted by the hippoboscid dipteran fly Ornithomya avicularia, was unable to infect Columba livia domestica, a host of H. columbae. This has now been confirmed by the injection of sporozoites into two pairs of pigeons, one of each species; in both experiments the C. palubus developed parasitemia while the C. livia did not. It has also been shown that this species of Haemoproteus can complete sporogony in a small proportion (2/73) of Pseudolynchla canariensis, the vector of H. columbae.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cilia devoid of their basal granules and isolated from Tetrahymena pyriformis strain W, by the method of Watson et al. (66) have been characterized in terms of physical, chemical and immunologic properties.The general chemical composition of cilia, based on mean values from these determinations is 66.3% protein, 24.3%“lipid,” 3.7 or 4.8% carbohydrate, and 0.4% nucleic acid. The amino acid composition of cilia includes hydroxyproline and is not significantly different from the amino acid composition of whole cells. Chloroformmethanol extracts of ciliary material contain free amino acids as well as neutral lipids and phospholipids. The lipid composition of cilia also is not significantly different from that of whole cells. Pentose, hexose and small but significant amounts of adenine nucleotide and ribonucleic acid are present.Cilia are a greater stimulus for the production of antibody than an equivalent amount of cellular antigen, and the ciliary antigen is strain specific.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. This member of the Holostichidae differs from its five congenors in the possession of transverse cirri, the way in which its frontal cirri are arranged, and its estuarine habitat. Like other valid members of the genus Paraholosticha, this species has some of the frontal cirri arranged in a corona parallel with the anterior part of the zone of membranelles. This unique character, despite the possession of transverse cirri, places this ciliate in the genus Paraholosticha. Diagnostic characters of all valid members of this genus are presented, and the need for careful descriptions and taxonomic revisions within the suborder Stichotrichina is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Macrophages were infected in vivo with the intracellular form of Leishmania donovani (LDs), harvested from the previously saline-stimulated peritoneal cavities of hamsters and explanted into Leighton tubes containing removable coverslips. Serum from either rabbit, chicken, human, calf, hamster or cotton rat blood was used as the 40% component of a Hanks' BSS60 serum40 medium used to maintain these Leighton tube cultures at 37 C. After varying lengths of time coverslips were removed from tubes, stained with Giemsa, and the parasites per infected macrophage, total number of hamster cells and total number of parasites on each coverslip were counted.Maerophages constituted more than 90% of the explanted cells on the coverslips. When cotton rat serum was used as a component of the medium, fibroblastic overgrowth of the coverslips followed. Some similarities and differences in the numbers of macrophages, fibroblasts and parasites were noted with regard to the serum used as part of the medium. Except for cotton rat serum, the serum component of the medium used apparently did not influence, to any great degree, the morphology of either the macrophages or parasites therein. Thus, vacuolarization and granularization of macrophages did not appear to be very distinctly correlated with the time of sampling or the type of serum in the medium used for maintenance nor could any morphologic variations of the LDs be ascribed to these factors.When cotton rat serum, but not any of the other sera, was the serum component of the medium, leptomonads were noted in the overlay fluid of the cultures after 6 days.Under these conditions of cell culture, fibroblasts could not be infected with LDs although macrophages on the same coverslip were heavily parasitized.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Spirostomum ambiguum equilibrated with 45Ca in the external medium after about 14 days under normal conditions. As the external Ca concentration was increased, uptake was increased but only until the internal concentration was ∼ 60 mM. Changing the Ca/K ratio or increasing the K or Mg concentrations had no effect on uptake of the isotope; this was taken as an indication that most of the uptake reflected Ca binding as apatite. Increasing and decreasing the temperature increased and decreased Ca uptake, but Ca bound at higher temperatures remained in the animal at lower temperatures. Feeding caused a marked increase in uptake of isotope, probably due to the availability of a large number of binding sites on the products of digestion perhaps accompanied by increased permeability of the cell membrane. It is argued that most of the 45Ca taken up is incorporated into Ca phosphate deposits, although it is likely that there will be a certain amount of free or weakly bound Ca.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Some neutral carbonyl compounds synthesized by Cryptomonas, ovata var. palustris were identified as methanal, ethanal, 2-propanone, pentanal, and heptanal by means of thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tetrahymena vorax is a small polymorphic holotrichous ciliate capable of transforming to macrostomes when microstomes are washed and suspended with prey in distilled water.Extrinsic factors having an effect on this transformation were examined; maximum yields of macrostomes (in excess of 90%) were obtained under the following conditions: populations of both prey, T. pyriformis, and potential predator, T. vorax microstomes, were grown on Loefer's medium for 48 hours prior to washing in distilled water. The density of the prey was adjusted to 300,000 cells/ml and the predator density to 2,000–3,000 cells/ml. Five ml of prey suspension and 5 ml of T. vorax microstome suspension were mixed together in a large petri dish because a high surface-volume ratio is important for high yields of macrostomes. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 and the petri dish was placed at 20 C for 12 hr. Macrostomes then appeared about 6 hr after addition of the prey.A dialyzable, heat stable substance released by the prey which can induce the microstome-macrostome transformation was isolated. This material was effective after being stored for weeks in the cold; its activity was not affected by the protein digesting enzymes pepsin or trypsin. This factor was called stomatin because its first visible effect in producing microstome-macrostome transformation appeared to be to incite reorganization of the oral structures.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Plasmodium hegneri n. sp. is described from the European teal duck, Anas c. crecca, from Taiwan. The blood stages, so far the only ones seen, are distinguished mainly by the elongate character of the gametocytes, which closely resemble Haemoproteus (though the pigment tends to be finer and less abundant), and the failure of both asexual and sexual forms to displace the nucleus or otherwise alter the host cell. Merozoites average 13.4 ± 2.2 (range 10–19) per segmenter. Trophozoites often adhere to the host cell nucleus, and may have a large vacuole and a remarkable long, slender pseudopodium. The species so far has been seen only in the European teal, although blood films from 194 species and over 1200 birds have been examined.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Potomacus pottsi n. g., n. sp., a brackish water hymenostome ciliate, is described from the Potomac River. Morphologic studies were made on specimens treated with the Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation technic. Polymorphism, with the formation of large macrostome forms, was noted. Particular attention is given to the buccal ciliature and its importance to generic assignment in the order Hymenostomatida.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Pseudocohnilembus marinus n. sp., a marine ciliate, is described from the Virginia coast. Morphologic studies were made on specimens treated by the Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation technic. Particular attention is given to the infraciliature of the buccal apparatus and its importance to the systematics of the order Hymenostomatida. The buccal infraciliature of the new species differs from that of all other species of Pseudocohnilembus by the presence of a lateral bar of argentophilic granules at the posterior end of the inner membrane.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The fine structure of the tomite stage of Hyalophysa chattoni was examined with particular attention to its kinetal apparatus.The pellicle, thick and dense compared with that of other ciliates, is formed of three layers. The inner layer is composed of short fibrils oriented perpendicular to the surface.The cytoplasm around the oral passage and beneath falciform field 8 is crowded with dense inclusion bodies of unknown function. Dorsal to the oral passage is the rosette, a disc-shaped organelle subdivided by septa in the form of incomplete radii about a central chamber containing a tuft of cilia. The septa are composed of 3 membranes enclosing a fine layer of cytoplasm. At their inner ends 20 mμ fibers run dorsally and ventrally. Dense clumps of fibrous material line the luminal surface of the septa.Rows of fusiform trichocysts parallel the kineties. The trichocysts are composed of a finely periodic, moderately electron-dense material surrounded by 20 mμ fibrils oriented along the long axis of the trichocyst. Between and below the kinetosomes and the rows of trichocysts are electron-dense vesicles 300 mμ in diameter and bounded by a loose membrane. The large “trichocysts,” the “gros trichocystes” of Chatton and Lwoff, whose appearance heralds the beginnings of trichocystogenesis, prove to be canaliculi opening to the surface.Four separate ciliary membrane systems—the oral ciliature (XYZ), falciform field 8, falciform field 9, and the ogival field—are located on the ventral surface of the tomite. Each differs from the others and from the somatic kineties in the fibrillar organization around its kinetosomes.In the somatic kineties the kinetodesmos is a dense, periodic fiber which is formed of stacks of up to 18 subfibers, each arising from the base of a kinetosome. The kinetosomes are short (300 mμ) and contain dense central granules. In some kineties, alternating between the kinetosomes, are elliptical kinetosome-like structures which do not bear cilia and perhaps provide a reservoir of kinetosomes for future growth of the kinety.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The life cycle of the true slime mold Physarum polycephalum includes 2 vegetative stages: the multinucleate coenocytic plasmodium and the uninucleate amoeba. A clone of amoebae established from a single spore does not normally yield plasmodia. Plasmodia are formed when amoebae from particular clones are mixed; thus plasmodium formation is said to be controlled by a ‘mating-type’ system.Previous work by the author with a sample of P. polycephalum derived from a single source revealed that 2 mating types were present and were determined by a pair of alleles at 1 locus. The present paper reveals the presence of 2 more mating types in a sample of P. polycephalum derived from a different source and provides evidence that these are determined by 2 alleles at the same locus as the other 2.Evidence for the presence of other inherited factors affecting plasmodium formation, the mode of action of these factors and possible explanations for the occurrence of plasmodia in single-spore cultures are also discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Transection and regeneration of Blepharisma intermedium initiate complex macronuclear activity and micronuclear division. Reversible condensation of the macronucleus is achieved by contraction which involves primary and secondary coiling. Primary coiling, evident in vegetative cells, is enhanced by pronounced constriction of the macronuclear extremities during regeneration. Secondary coiling is restricted to the period of contraction and is initiated at the ends of the mauonucleus. Condensation terminates the coiling processes and gives rise to an amorphous structure. Re-elongation of the macronucleus is not followed immediately by coiling. Micronuclear division begins early in regeneration, but the peak of visible activity is not reached until the 3rd through 5th hours.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Lipids in aging cultures of Tetrakymena pyriformis were extracted at various times after inoculation, purified, and weighed or chromatographed on thin layers of silica gel. The total cellular lipid increased throughout logarithmic and early stationary phases but decreased sharply after 72 hr. The amount of one lipid class, probably the triglycerides, followed the same trends. It may be a cellular reserve.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Rearing of cockroaches without sporozoan parasites of the Malpighian tubules permitted the 1st experimental infections reported for these organisms as well as study of the intracellular early stages of infection. Infectivity tests show that the route of invasion is peroral rather than transovarian; that fresh spores obtained from either the Malpighian tubules or the hindgut are infective; that fresh spores held in aqueous suspension for 36 hr are not infective; that all ages and both sexes of cockroaches are susceptible, although older cockroaches are more readily infected experimentally; that a single peroral dose of a few hundred spores is sufficient to produce infection; that the earliest signs of progressive infection in the Malpighian tubules appear 15 days after ingestion of spores; and that the infection, spread mainly by schizogony, is well established by 23 days. Spores are acid-fast. The PAS-positive spore membrane is not dissolved by 20-min treatment with hot KOH, but tests for chitin were inconclusive. The life history of the parasite is described. “Encapsulation” of the parasite has been observed. Electron microscope studies, the first reported for the class Haplosporea, show similarities of the cytoplasmic structure of this haplosporidian with that of some members of the sporozoan class Telosporea, though no specialized structures were seen. Finding of intracellular stages together with failure of interspecific infection attempts suggest that the microorganism should be placed in the genus Nephridiophaga Ivanic, 1937 with the specific name blattellae Crawley, 1905.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A centrifugation procedure for removing Tetrahymena from mass cultures is described. This method offers the following advantages: (a) inexpensive apparatus, (b) the short period of time required for harvesting large numbers of cells, (c) lack of cellular damage, (d) the ability to obtain proven dilution with regard to the culture fluid, (e) nearly quantitative recovery of the cells, and (f) the ease of assembling and disassembling the apparatus for cleaning.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Monocercomonas molae from the hindgut of the sunfish Mola mola is described. The host was taken from southern California coastal waters in October, 1964. The body of the flagellate is 8.0 × 10.7 microns. A single basal granule complex gives rise to 4 flagella, one of which is recurrent. The axostyle is relatively stout, with argentophilic granules, and possesses a periaxostylar ring. The capitulum of the axostyle continues into the sickle-shaped pelta, and the parabasal body is rod-shaped or lobed and roughly triangular in cross-section.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The complete life history of a homothallic, dioecious strain of Volvox aureus was studied in axenic culture. Asexual reproduction occurs by repeated division of specialized reproductive cells (gonidia), inversion of the resultant mass of cells to form daughter colonies, and subsequent morphologic differentiation of new gonidia in these daughters. Male colonies lack gonidia; however, the posterior 2/3 of the cells in a colony function as male initials each of which enlarges, divides, and undergoes rudimentary inversion to form a packet of 32 biflagellate sperm. Evidence was presented for the homology of eggs and undivided gonidia. The penetration of young vegetative colonies by sperm and the subsequent formation of apparent zygotes in these colonies was described and figured. Zygote germination, including division and inversion of the germling, was described; the cytological nature of the zygote divisions was not determined.A substance, MIS, in filtrates of sexual cultures induced differentiation of male colonies; a bioassay for it was perfected. Bioassay colonies show a differential susceptibility to male induction by MIS which is a function of the particular stage of development; colonies 48 hr after release from parentals are optimally susceptible. MIS was reasonably stable to heat, non-dialyzable, and Sephadex gel filtration indicated a molecular weight 〉 200,000. MIS activity is destroyed by trypsin and pronase but is unaffected by chymotrypsin. MIS was successfully concentrated ∼37-fold by the Carbowax method. The patterns of differentiation in other species of Volvox are described and possibilities discussed for studies of cellular differentiation in the genus as a whole.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Haemogregarina faiyumensis n. sp., a parasite of toads, Bufo regularis, in Faiyuni Province, Egypt, U.A.R., is described. In a survey of 689 toads from various localities in Cairo, Giza and Faiyurn provinces, only 3 out of 13 toads from Kom O Shim near Faiyum were infected. This species, known only by blood forms (most probably gametocytes) of two different staining reactions, is 13-17 μ long and 4-5 μ wide, with an average of 15.5 × 4.5 μ. The nucleus is typically subcircular and 3-5 × 3–5 μ, with an average of 4.5 × 3.9 μ.