ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: Summary In a previous paper it was shown that the computation of the geopotential field from a given vorticity distribution by means of theFjörtoft method of graphical integration of the barotropic model may be improved by the introduction of statistical considerations. The present paper deals with the same subject, however expanded by kinematical considerations which eventually lead to a further simplification of the routine procedure. The application to an actual weather situation indicates that the statistical as well as the statistical-kinematical method render a certain improvement of the results.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary The possible existence of an annual variation of the extension (length) of the four primary types of fronts (warm, cold, occluded, quasistationary) on the northern hemisphere is investigated. The “mixing ratio” of the different types of fronts is determined. The data used were the surface Synoptic Weather Maps, 1951–1956, of the US Weather Buerau.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary The exponentn inO. G. Sutton's formula for the Lagrangian correlation functionR (ξ), used in the statistical theory of turbulence, may be determined from the vertical wind profile provided the latter is given in the form of a power law i. e. ū (z) ~ zm. AfterSutton the relationn=2m/(1+m) must hold. It is shown that this relation has to be put in the formn=m in order to avoid some inconsistencies inSutton's treatment. The theoretical considerations are in good agreement with experimental results obtained by different authors.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary The field of heights of the 850 mb-surface above Central Europe and the North Atlantic is represented in a grid of 45 points by means of orthogonal polynomials (Tchebycheff-polynomials). A general discussion is given which of the possible applications of this kind of representation shall further be investigated, i. e. first of all the objective classification of large scale weather situations (Großwetterlagen), statistical forecasts (especially medium range forecasts), and the application in numerical weather prediction. As an example of this representation, the variations of polynomial coefficients are given for the transition of a pressure field from zonal to meridional and back to zonal.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary The theory ofMie enables the calculation of the visibility in clouds from measurements of the size distribution of cloud elements, whereby the absorption is in general considered negligible. This calculation is carried out in this paper by means of more than 300 spectra of the frequency distribution of visibility determined in clouds and compared with the measured or estimated. The calculated visibilities are in 87 per cent of the cases higher than the measured. This systematic deviation seems to be caused by neglecting the absorption in the theory. The order of magnitude of the absorption coefficients is the same as that of the dispersion coefficients. The theory ofMie should therefore be elaborated with complex refraction exponents for clouds.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary In this paper the author summarizes data, results of evaluations, and experiences in the field of atmospheric electricity, as far as connected with foehn situations. The observations were mainly made in the region of Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Wetterstein Mountains, Northern Alps) and cover a period of five years. Seven recording stations with heights between 675 and 2963 m above sea-level were operated permanently, two further stations were operated on the Zugspitzplatt (2600 m) during two months in 1958. All the nine stations have relatively small distances from each other. At each of the nine stations the atmospheric electrical potential gradient was recorded, at four of the permanent stations and at one of the temporary stations the air-earth current was recorded, too. Further there were recorded or measured positive and negative small ions, positive and negative conductivity, natural and artificial radioactivity of the air, condensation nuclei, air pollution, point discharge current, and sferics. A characteristic of this investigation is that a dense network of stations extending also in the vertical direction yields a synopsis of a small three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere, and that uniformly without interruptions through years. It is pointed out that a foehn situation is not distinguished by a special or extraordinary behaviour of single atmospheric electrical elements, but by a typical accord of the atmospheric electrical and meteorological elements, with typical spatial variations of them within the network. From the point of view of atmospheric electricity two main types of foehn were found: Type I shows lowered and smooth potential gradient curves at all stations, further increased and smooth curves of conduction current, increased concentrations of small ions, etc. Foehn of Type II, amongst other characteristics, shows increased and extremely agitated curves of potential gradient and conduction current at the valley stations. Type II is observed when there is drifting snow at the mountain ridges south of the recording stations and mainly in cases where the foehn current does not reach the bottom of the valley. Both types are illustrated here by examples. Beyond this, the data obtained at the seven permanent stations during four years were reduced to “average foehn days” of both types. The observations made during foehn, however, have interest not only for our knowledge of this weather situation itself but give results which are also important for studies on cloud physics (experience on charge separations caused by breaking and impact in drifting snow), on atmospheric electric and electromagnetic waves (records of stations just being in the boundary layer between foehn current and positively charged upper surface of an inversion), for the investigation of the ionization equilibrium and of the relations between the concentrations of small ions and condensation nuclei (there are special conditions because of the low concentrations of condensation nuclei in the foehn current and because of the increased natural radioactivity of air during foehn in our region), etc. Bioclimatological points of view are mentioned, only.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. The „scraping-ceremony“ in males of the genusFicedula is derived from a nest building movement which, in the course of its ritualization, has become sexually motivated. Thealbicollis male uses this movement as a preliminary to copulation and also when threatening a rival male. Thesemitorquata male shows the same movement at least during the phase in which copulations take place. Thehypoleuca male, finally, only uses the scraping-ceremony in threatening a rival. In all three species only the female builds the nest. 2. Juvenilehypoleuca males perform the first intention movements of the scrapingceremony, correctly orientated, at the age of 26 days, at the earliest. By the age of 33 days the complete motor pattern occurs “spontaneously“, i. e. without being agonistically motivated. Only when day length increases, do young males use the movement as adults do, that is, in defending their cage against others by performing the scraping, uttering aggressively motivated calls, and by fluffing their contour feathers. During development the young bird passes through the phylogenetically older state of motivation of scraping. Later the hostile motivation, observed in adults, comes into play as well. This supports the hypothesis, that the pre-copulatory ceremony of the adulthypoleuca-male is secondarily impoverished. 3. The Spotted Flycatcher(Muscicapa striata) instead of singing like other flycatchers(Ficedula) utters different calls which belong partly to other functional contexts. The juvenile subsong, which occurs at the earliest at the age of 14 days, resembles closely the subsong of theFicedula species which is sung without any recognizable function between breeding-seasons. Only when the bird reaches an age of 12 weeks does the subsong accompany the premature ceremony by which the adultstriata male courts the unpaired female. While the subsong of the other flycatcher species, as in many songbirds, develops into the species-specific territory-song, the subsong of the Spotted Flycatcher remains relatively unchanged and is used later in courtship. The passing through an apparently functionless phase in the development of thestriata subsong strengthens the hypothesis that the suggested evolutionary step has taken place recently. 4. The premature courtship and nest building patterns in young birds in general appear during a restricted period of their early development. The gonads do not change in size before, during or just after this period. Therefore these activities are more likely to result from developmental processes in the nervous system, than from hormonal changes.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. The rate of oxygen consumption ofMytilus edulis was measured at the constant temperature of 15° C in the course of a year. The values of the factor a and of the power b of the allometric equation y=a · xb are determined. In this equation y represents the oxygen consumption and x the weight of the soft parts of the mussels. 2. The rate of oxygen consumption shows great seasonal variations, the maximum to be found in spring (March), the minimum in summer (July). The values recorded in table 3 demonstrate the seasonal variations of a (rate of oxygen consumption of a mussel of 1 gram body weight, i. e. the soft parts). 3. The values of the power b, marking the specific form of the relationship body size and respiration, vary between 0,70 and 0,93. These values occur within the limits of a respiration proportional to surface area (0,67) and body weight (1,0). 4. The seasonal variations of the respiration rate correspond to the variations of the protein contents of the soft parts determined byHenschel for mussels from the same location. The relationship to the other constituents of the soft parts of the mussel is less distinct. 5. The methods of respiration measurement described include some technical improvements.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. A method for the electrophysiological investigation of the isolated retina from the eye of crustacea is described. 2. A physiological salt solution forEupagurus and other marine crustaceans is proved and given. 3. The retinal action potential (RAP)of Eupagurus bernhardus is a photoreceptor cell potential of simple shape (the distal side of the retina being negative with respect to the proximal side, Fig. 5). The changes of the RAP are examined with regard to its being dependent on duration and intensity of the light stimulus and on the state of adaptation. To describe the RAP quantitatively various magnitudes are measured (Fig. 8). The relative changes of these magnitudes with the changing stimulus conditions are plotted in the graphs. 4. For reasons of comparison the response to illumination of the whole eye stalk separated from the animal is investigated by the same method (Fig. 9). 5. The RAP ofEupagurus with its variations and changing stimulus conditions is very similar to the retinogram of the eye ofLimulus and that of insects of the „slow“(Dixippus-) type. 6. The resting potential of the whole eye stalk is ca. 0,5 mV corneapositive. The resting potential of the isolated retina is smaller and positive or negative. 7. The impedance of the retina decreases during illumination. 8. During anodal polarisation (the distal side of the retina being positive with respect to the proximal side) the amplitude and the duration of the recorded RAP increase. During high positive polarisation the recorded response is smaller than without polarisation (Fig. 23). 9. During weak cathodal polarisation the amplitude and the duration of the recorded RAP decrease. During high cathodal polarisation the RAP is measured inverse (Fig. 24). In Fig. 25 the magnitudes of the RAP are plotted as a function of the polarizing current. 10. During positive or negative polarisation in the dark oszillations, more or less regular, are observed in some instances (Fig. 22). The amplitudes of the oszillations depend on the polarizing current in a similar way as the amplitude of the RAP. 11. Discussed is the influence of the orientation of the retinulas and the change of impedance of the retina during illumination on the shape of the recorded mass response of the retina to illumination. 12. It is assumed that the RAP of theEupagurus eye is a membrane potential of the photoreceptor cells. 13. The decrease in the impedance of the retina during illumination is interpreted as a decrease of the resistance of the membranes of the retinula cells. 14. The shape of the RAP may be interpreted as being a consequence of the kinetics of the membrane processes and of the kinetics of the reactions of the photosensitive substances. 15. Two components (K I and K II) can be distinguished in the RAP. They probably correspond to the components R and S of the retinogram ofDytiscus (Bernhard, 1942). As compared with the isolated retina the sign of K II will be inverse, when taken from the total eye stalk. 16. The changes of the recorded RAP caused by polarisation are chiefly a consequence of the changes in impedance in the retina during illumination. High anodal (probably also cathodal) polarisation, however, is also influencing the properties of the irritable membrane. 17. The oszillations during polarisation are probably caused by electrically induced changes of resistance in the retina. 18. It is suggested that besides the decrease of the concentration of the photosensitive substance the component K II is to be made responsible for the changes of the shape of the RAP in the course of adaptation.

Description / Table of Contents: Summary The modes of wing-moult. — A peculiar way of moulting the ten primaries was shown to be shared by all members of the familyFalconidae (V. Stresemann, 1958), as opposed to theAccipitridae. In the present investigation the authors studied the rest of the order Accipitres (= Falconiformes) by the same method. In the familyAccipitridae, the moult of the primaries starts either with the innermost (= first) one, to end with the distal one, or the moult fails to follow any regular sequence. The former mode, called byHeinroth the descending moult, has been termed “mode 2” in this paper; the other (irregular) mode has received the sign “mode 3 b”. With a number of species, the moult follows mode 2 in the juvenile wing and mode 3 b in the adult wing. This is “mode 3 a” of the authors. Not a single member of theAccipitridae moults the wing after the manner of theFalconidae, i. e. by starting with the fourth primary (“mode 1”). The descending moult is considered by the authors to be primitive, and the irregular moult to be derived from the former; both stages are still connected by mode 3 a, which recapitulates in ontogeny the phylogenetic process. Mode 3 a and mode 3 b are most frequently found in large species, mode 2 almost only in smaller species ofAccipitridae. This may be explained by the following consideration: It takes more time replace the longest (and most effective) primaries of the larger species than of the smaller ones. Therefore any wing containing large sized primaries would become considerably less effective if moulted quickly in a regular descending way. The same result can be achieved in the same time and with far less weakening of the wingstroke, if the quills which drop consecutively (or even at the same time) are separated by full-grown ones, instead of being immediate neighbours. The irregular moult generally starts from 3 (or even 4) “centres”, the position of which is subject to considerable variation. From these isolated centress the process of moult proceeds towards neighbouring feathers in the outward or (and) the inward direction, or the neighbours remain unaffected. Considerable disturbances of symmetry between right and left wing are of frequent occurence. The mode of moult depends not only on body size or wing load, for there are well defined genera in which all species, large and small, belong to the same category of moult. In certain other natural groups there is no uniformity in the mode of moulting.Gypohierax, for instance, differs in this respect from the rest of the vulturs. Chronology of moult. — The start of wing-moult is determined by other biological requirements than the time of egg-laying. The latter has been adjusted to the needs of the species (i. e. to the benefit of the prospective offspring), while the former provides for the needs of the individual itself. The primary moult takes place in some holarcticAccipitres a considerable time after the breeding period; all the species in question evade the hardships of the northern winter by migrating to the tropics, and, therefore, can afford a winter moult. Other holarctic species start dropping the primaries during the egg-laying period or even earlier; most of these species spend the unfavorable time of the year within, or not far from, the breeding area, and are therefore moulting during the fine season. These two extremes are connected by intermediate links. The female starts to moult her primaries before her mate inAccipiter nisus, Accipiter gentilis and apparently some other species. This sexual difference is obviously the consequence of the fact that it is the task of the male to provide the incubating female with prey hunted on the wing. During this period his flying power has to be at its best. The duration of a complete wing moult differs according to species. With small and medium-sized species this process takes six months at the most (up to 171 days inAccipiter gentilis). It seems probable, but has not yet been definetely proved, that the great eagles and vulturs extend the moult of the ten primaries over a period of more than one year. The rate of growth of a primary depends not only on its length (long feathers usually grow faster than short ones), but also on season (i. e. on periodic changes of thyroxine level?). Taxonomic applications. — To the traditional tests of relationship a new criterion, that of “mode of wing-moult”, has been added by the authors. In most cases, the results were in agreement withPeters' (1931) arrangement of the accipitrine genera (one important exception:Gampsonyx). The isolated position ofPolyboroides andMachaerhamphus is strongly supported by their mode of moult. Consideration of the same character induces the authors to restore the generaMicronisus, Rupornis, Asturina andGeranoaëtus.

Description / Table of Contents: Résumé Aujourd'hui, un siècle après l'apparition de l'Originedes Espèces, la conviction est presque générale que la sélection naturelle dirige le procès de l'évolution. Néanmoins, les publications zoologiques actuelles révèlent souvent une compréhension insuffisante de ce qui en résulte. Ceci doit en partie être considéré comme réaction contre une téléologie simpliste et contre le Lamarckisme. En rejetant la thèse de Lamarck, que les activités d'un animal ont une influence directe sur ses caractéristiques héréditaires, on admet fréquemment que de pareilles activités n'ont rien à voir avec l'étude le l'évolution. Cependant, une telle conclusion n'est pas justifiée, car les activités peuvent influer sur l'évolution non pas directement, par la voie de l'hérédité, mais indirectement en agissant sur la direction des forces sélectives que l'organisme rencontre. Des raisons ont été données qui mènent à conclure que des changements dans les habitudes et dans le comportement précèdent maintes fois le changement structural et même déterminent la direction de celui-ci. Comme exemple d'un concept qui mérite un traitement plus évolutionniste qu'il ne reçoive en général, la néoténie a été examinée. Il paraît que l'on a fait beaucoup d'erreurs en ne tenant pas compte des forces sélectives engagées. Une analyse au pointde-vue de la fonction a été appliquée à la théorie que les chordées ne sont que des ascidies néoténiques transfigurées par après, et il s'ensuit que cette idée n'est probablement pas correcte. Aussi les caractéristiques de l'homme généralement regardées comme neoténiques ont été discutées. Il en résulte que, en désignant légèrement et sans analyse plusieurs changements évolutionnaires comme néoténie, on a plutôt obsurci qu'éclairci leur signification. Ce ne sont pas les traits néoteniques de l'homme qui ont joué le rôle principal dans l'évolution humaine; au contraire, ils n'apparaissent qu'après l'acquisition de quelques nouvelles caractéristiques qui ne se trouvent ni dans l'adulte ni dans les phases plus jeunes des autres primates.

Description / Table of Contents: Résumé On fait un effort d'imaginer des mécanismes utiles à favoriser la survie dans des systèmes de populations. La considération d'un schéma extrêmement simplifié nous mène à dresser la conception de la „densité fixante de nourriture“. Cette conception nous donne la clef à l'analyse de la relation entre le consument et la nourriture et de son réglage stabilisant. Ce réglage peut être plus ou moins modifié par l'inconvénient que la densité d'une population peut produire. Les mêmes principes sont alors appliqués à la chaîne de nourriture. Ensuite le système doit encore être étendu par l'introduction des composants parallèles. Tant que les populations parallèles ne sont pas susceptibles à leurs propres densités, leur co-existence ne peut être que non-assurée ou même impossible. Cependant, la susceptibilité de leurs densités peut conduire à un réglage stabilisant quand les populations sont avant tout influencées par leur propres densités et légèrement par la densité commune de l'ensemble des composants parallèles; cet état sera réalisé le plus facilement dans un milieu hétérogène. Mais hors de ce réglage, il y a encore une toute autre possibilité que pourrait assurer la survie de parallèles menacés, c'est à dire de catastrophes (soit accidentelles, soit régulières) toujours revenantes et favorisant ces composants. Alors on arrive à la conclusion générale, que la diversité continue du monde vivant peut être favorisée par l'irrégularité des circonstances, soit de l'espace, soit du temps.

Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Wirtspflanzenpräferenz des Sojabohnenbohrers, eine wichtige Erscheinung hinsichtlich der Resistenz der Sojabohnenpflanze, wurde im Freiland unter Benutzung von je zwei Varietäten behaarter und unbehaarter Sojabohnen untersucht. Es zeigte sich, daß sowohl hinsichtlich der Anzahl als auch der Lokalisation der abgelegten Eier zwischen den haarigen und unbehaarten Varietäten der Bohnen ein beträchtlicher Unterschied besteht. Diese beiden Unterschiede wurden auch dann festgestellt, wenn die haarigen Varietäten im Wechsel mit den haarlosen gepflanzt worden waren. Als jedoch sämtliche Schoten aller Sojabohnenpflanzen künstlich entfernt wurden, konnte kein Unterschied in der Anzahl der abgelegten Eier mehr gefunden werden. Diese Behandlung verursachte bei den haarigen Varietäten eine übermäßige. Verminderung der Eizahl, während dies bei den haarlosen nicht der Fall was. Diese Beobachtungen zeigen offenbar, daß es hinsichtlich dieses Gegenstandes zwei Haupterscheinungen gibt, nähmlich Inter-und Intravarietätenpräferenz, und daß die erstere stark von der Anwesenheit der „haarigen Hülse” beeinflußt wird, dieals die anziehendste Eiablagestelle zu gelten hat.

Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Wahl von verschieden hellen Stoffschirmen durch sich setzende Tsetsefliegen wurde in Freien beobachtet. Schwarze, dunkelgraue, hellgraue und weisse Schirme wurden verglichen; in allen Fällen wurde der dunklere Schirm vorgezogen. In ähnlicher Weise setzte sich eine grössere Anzahl von Fliegen auf einen schwarzen Schirm statt auf einen weissen desselben Formats, während ein schwarz-weiss gestreifter Schirm an Anziehungskraft um so mehr einbüsste, je breiter die weissen Streifen gemacht wurden. Fast alle Fliegen setzten sich auf die schwarzen Teile eines schwarz-weiss gestreiften Schirmes. Ein weisser Streifen neben einem schwarzen Schirm konnte jedoch die Anziehungskraft des letzteren nicht vermindern. Gegen alle Erwartungen zogen die sich setzenden Fliegen aber die sonnige Seite des Schirmes der schattigen vor. Es wird auf frühere Experimente hingewiesen, die Tsetsefliegen wie auch andere stechende Fliegen betreffen. Die Frage, warum Tsetsefliegen sich an Schirme setzen, wird erörtert und die Resultate der Arbeiten, über die hier berichtet wird, werden besprochen.

Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Wenn einem Stubenfliegen-Homogenisat Phosphorsäure-Ester zugesetzt werden, dann werden mehrere Esterasen in wechselseitiger Konkurrenz mit diesen Substanzen zu reagieren versuchen. Die wichtigsten sind die Cholinesterase und eine Aliesterase, die zur Hydrolyse des Methyl- und Phenylbutyrats und mehrerer anderen Ester befähigt ist. Nach Zusatz geringer Mengen von Phosphorsäure-Ester wird das Endergebnis dieses Wettbewerbes von den Quantitäten der Esterasen und ihren Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten abhängig sein. Tabelle I zeigt die bimolekularen Geschwindigkeitskonstanten für die Reaktionen zwischen der Cholinesterase und der Aliesterase und den fünf untersuchten Estern: DDVP, Paraoxon, Diazoxon, Tetram und QAT (die quaternären Phosphonothiolat-Analoge von Tetram). Aus diesen Daten wird geschlossen, daß die Aliesterase ein wichtiger Konkurrent der Cholinesterase für DDVP, Paraoxon und Diazoxon darstellt. Dementsprechend wurde gefunden, daß ach Beseitigung der Aliesterase mittels einer Denaturierung (AD-Verfahren) die Hemmung der Cholinesterase durch diese drei Substanzen bedeutend höher ist (Tabelle II, III und IV; Fig. 1, 2 und 3), nicht aber jene durch Tetram und QAT. In Homogenisaten von Phosphorester-resistenten Fliegen, die — wie früher gezeigt wurde — viel weniger Aliesterase enthalten, war die Hemmung der Cholinesterase meistens viel stärker als in „empfindlichen Homogenisaten” (Tabelle IV; Fig. 1, 2 und 3). Es erschien schwer, diese Befunde mit dem früheren in Einklang zu bringen, daß niedrige Aliesterase-Aktivität und Resistenz eng verbunden seien. Weitere Versuche aber zeigten, daß resistente Fliegen eine modifizierte Aliesterase enthalten, die keine oder eine nur geringe Aktivität gegenüber Methyl- und Phanylbutyrat aufweist, aber die Fähigkeit besitzt, die Phosphorsäure-Ester, gegen welche Resistenz besteht, abzubauen. Die Substrat-Spezifizität und Aktivität wiesen eine deutliche Korrelation mit der Art und Höhe der Resistenz auf. Die Umwandlung der Aliesterase (in empfindlichen Fliegen) in eine „Phosphatase” (das modifizierte Enzym in resistenten Fliegen) wird durch eine einzige Gen-Mutation verursacht. Diese ist in den zwei untersuchten Stämmen auch für die Resistenz verantwortlich. Die Phosphatasen haben eine hohe Affinität für ihre Substrate, Paraoxon und Diazoxon. Die Abbau-Geschwindigkeit in vitro (0.01–0.04 μg/St/Fliege) ist aber niedrig im Vergleich mit den gefundenen LD50-Werten. Da ihre Bedeutung für den Mechanismus der Resistenz feststeht, muß entweder angenommen werden, daß der Abbau in vivo schneller verläuft oder daß strukturelle Faktoren in der lebenden Fliege einen wichtigen Einfluß ausüben. Weitere Betrachtungen ermöglichten die Berechnung der wahrscheinlichen Aliesterase- und Phosphatase-Konzentration und der Umsatzzahlen für Diazoxon in Homogenisaten.