ALBERT

Notizen: The decay rate of gamma radiation emitted by a Jamaican mineral spring was measured using portable rate meters. The results of these experiments, supported by auxiliary tests, suggested that the main radioelement causing the radioactivity was radon 222. Fluctuations in the intensity of the radiation were studied in situ. An inverse relation between the intensity and the discharge rate of water was established and the effect of rainfall and of earthquakes was investigated. Some suggestions are made concerning the possible source of radon.

Notizen: The iron ores of the Siegerland-district are found in lodes occurring in schists of Lower Devonian age. In the course of the geophysical exploration for these ores, an attempt was also made to clarify the structure and the tectonics of the substratum of the sedimentary rock formations by seismic reflection measurements from the surface. Reflections were recorded in great numbers from layers of Silurian and Devonian age. The form of the folding of the strata derived therefrom corresponds well with that deduced from geological investigations. Beyond that, correlatable reflections were recorded from horizons down to a depth of nearly 25 000 m. It turned out that the iron ore lodes known from the mine workings occur almost vertically above those places where greater dislocations appear in the deepest substratum, and which geologically could be interpreted as fracture zones. The results so far obtained seem to be indicative of the fact that the tectonics of the deepest substratum and the occurrence of ore deposits are related to each other.

Notizen: Precision calibration tests carried out with a Worden gravimeter in environment conditions as varied as possible have led to the following conclusions. The secular variation curve of the calibration shows that the secular relative variation has been very appreciable in the first year of life of the instrument, precisely of 1.3 × 10−3 in 13 months, while it has been practically zero in the second year. This must be ascribed to the fact that at the beginning of the operations the gravity-meter had just arrived from the factory with its measuring body renewed.On the other side the effect of 24°C of temperature difference between two series of determinations reveals itself in a variation of 0.0022 of the value of the calibration, so that it can be established that the variation of the calibration is I‰ for each 10°C of temperature variation.

Notizen: Due weight must be given to three factors (1) its purpose, (2) the limitations imposed by nature, industry and environment, (3) the effect of errors in auxiliary measurements. Together the last two factors give an estimate of the accuracy which can be achieved. If this is sufficient for the instrument to fulfil its purpose design and construction can proceed. If it is not, a detailed survey of the last two factors is necessary in order to estimate the research effort that will be required when directed into the most effective channels. If the project is considered worth the effort it can proceed. These factors are discussed in relation to a borehole gravimeter. It is shown that the purpose will be served only if the accuracy is comparable with the best surface gravimeters. Borehole versions of some surface instruments are considered and it is concluded that none is suitable without considerable modifications. A successful borehole gravimeter is likely to be a completely new instrument.

Notizen: Recently, quite good determinations of interfaces have been made by means of seismic well surveys. These were carried out for various oil companies in Northwest Germany, especially on salt-domes, and in Southern Germany, and in the area of the Upper Rhine Valley. It was the purpose to determine the configuration and position of salt-flanks and important planes of stratification in the neighbourhood of deep wells, and thus to reduce the risk of expensive wells.For the delineation of the boundary surfaces the method described by Gardner in “Geophysics 1949” was applied.The problems arising and the results obtained are discussed in connection with some interesting examples. From them we see, above all, that a knowledge as precise as possible of the seismic velocities of all media involved in the measurement is very important. A good idea of the general stratification in the area of deep wells seismically surveyed will make possible a rational and adequate planning of the survey program and will facilitate the interpretation.

Notizen: A method is described in which the major part of gravimetric terrain corrections may be estimated by digital computing methods.

Notizen: The electric and magnetic field of a direct-current element, embedded in a space consisting of two halfspaces differing in conductivity and permeability, is given in a form suitable for integration along a cable. From these formulae is obtained the field when one end of a D.C. cable is grounded in a highly conducting, pencilformed ore body, considered as a line electrode with uniform current leakage. Numerical examples are given for a horizontal line electrode. The formulae should be useful as a first approximation to the A.C. case. The validity of this is shortly discussed.

Notizen: An analogy is established between the propagation of an electromagnetic field in a horizontally stratified conductive medium and that of currents in a linear electric network. This analogy will allow us to know in which case measurements executed at the surface of the ground can provide information about the properties of deeper layers. The situation is the same as when one tries, by means of impedance measurements at the input terminals, to know the properties of electric lines or lumped networks.A symmetrical linear network establishes between:Voltages V1 and V2 (respectively at input and output terminals)Currents I1 and I2 (respectively at input and output terminals), the relationship 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu1"/〉 is called the “phase constant” and Z the characteristic impedance The table 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu2" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu2"/〉 is called “characteristic matrix”If one then takes the horizontal components of an electromagnetic field, one can compare the voltage V with the horizontal electric field E (in volts m-1) and the current I with the horizontal magnetic field H (in Amp m−1)For plane waves in vacuum, one gets (Schelkunoff) Z=C (velocity of light)A layer whose thickness is D has a phase constant⌈= 2 πD/λ (λ= wavelength)For plane waves in a conductive, non magnetic medium whose conductivity is δ, one gets 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu3" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu3"/〉 For the system of waves created by a point-source one expresses the solution, since it is classical, as a sum or integral of different modes. For each of these modes, one can still write a bilinear relationship similar to (1), and calculate Z and ⌈.A generalization of this result is given.Boundary conditions that exist at the surfaces of separation are met by writing the continuity of E and H. This condition exactly corresponds to the fact that there one V and one I at the junctions of various sections of lines, or networks.The characteristic matrix of a cascade of networks-or here that of a horizontally stratified ground– is the product of the matrixes of each network. If, in addition, one knows the end impedance–here the conductivity λn of the last layer, supposed to be infinite–one can compute the input impedance Re of the whole system. In electromagnetic prospecting, it is Re that conditions the observable field.Inversely, if measurements were infinitely accurate, the. knowledge of the surface field would give all the thicknesses D and conductivities δ of intermediate layers, in the same way that impedance measurements at the input terminals of a cable would allow to locate any failure. The imperfection of measurements causes the elements located too far away (from the point of view of wave attenuation) to escape detection.

Notizen: The iron ores of the Siegerland district are found in lodes occurring in schists of Lower Devonian age. These lodes, normally dipping almost perpendicularly, could be traced only by seismic reflection measurements underground, up to distances of approximately 500 m. The geophones were attached to the walls of the galleries. The frequencies of the recorded longitudinal and transverse waves ranged from 200 to 500 c.p.s. By this method a new siderite lode was discovered.

Notizen: Book Reviewed in this article:Lehrbuch der angewandten Geophysik, Teil II, H. Haalck.

Notizen: A series of repeat observations during a period of 5 years reveal a variation with time of the Worden gravimeter No. 142 small dial spring system. A possible change in the gravity difference concerned is ruled out. It is shown that the small dial scale factor has diminished by about 0.25 % within the last two years against about 0.5 % four to five years ago. The ratio of L.D. to S.D. has been analysed and the results obtained show confirmation of the change in the small dial system and prove a consistency in the large dial system.

Notizen: A study is made of the possibility of calculating electric potentials, and therefore of interpreting apparent resistivity measurements, when the ground presents structural conditions more complicated than plane, parallel stratification.For this work a schematic type of structure has been chosen, in which the discontinuity planes for electric resistivity are both parallel and perpendicular to the level of the ground.The problem has been examinated in its general aspect, and then some criteria for the numerical calculation have been indicated.Some calculated examples are presented, relevant to vertical electric soundings accomplished by conventional technique, for particular types of structure.

Notizen: The elastic impulse-from an explosion is propagated through the earth as an expanding shell bounded by the wavefront. This wavefront and its motion are a physical reality while rays or trajectories are much less sharply defined and cannot actually be observed because the wavelengths involved in seismic processes are too long. This means that the visualization and the interpretation of seismic processes can be carried out in a more satisfactory, simple and comprehensible way with wavefronts than with rays.H. R. Thornburgh (1930) introduced the very lucid and simple method of interpreting seismic refraction sections, using Huygen's principle to construct wavefronts from two symmetrical shotpoints by working back from their observed arrival times at the surface. The depths are found first with only a knowledge of the velocities down to the refractor and after that the velocities in the refractor can be determined.The pattern of the two wavefronts at equal time intervals, obtained when carrying out Thornburgh's construction, leads to the very simple, approximative “Plus-Minus” method. The additions of the travel times from two symmetrical shotpoints to-each geophone give the relative depths and their subtractions give the velocities of the refractor. The method extrapolates exact quantities from the refractor boundary up to the surface by the “Plus”- and “Minus” lines. This extrapolation introduces errors that can, more or less, be corrected for. A number of hypothetical cases are presented to give an insight into the applicability and reliability of the “Plus-Minus” method. Its main applications are for fairly shallow refraction investigations and for determining weathering corrections for refraction and reflection work.

Notizen: Major savings for operators of seismic parties have been achieved by the use of prilled ammonium nitrate as a substitute for gelatin dynamite in areas where shot holes are dry. Pound for pound, the prills appear to have the same energy yield as 60% gelatin dynamite, and some improvement of records has been noted where prills are used. Safety problems are less with ammonium nitrate than with dynamite, and the development of efficient field handling techniques prevents the loss of production.

Notizen: Some mathematical inequalities are proved and their relevance to the interpretation of local magnetic and gravity anomalies is discussed. They can be applied to the readings of either a vertical magnetometer or a total field magnetometer or a gravimeter and yield a maximum possible value for the depth below the earth's surface of the top surface of the body producing the anomaly.

Notizen: A new logging method, which makes use of specific chemical reactions to locate petroleum or other minerals has been developed. The method has been named “Differential Electric Log” (CED).In this paper the application to the CED method of redox (reduction/oxidation) reactions is discussed. A series of organic oxidants was found, capable of undergoing reaction with crude oil, sulphur, mineral sulphides, lignite. A small amount of an oxidant of this type is added to the drilling fluid and pumped into the borehole where reaction takes place in correspondence with layers containing oxidizable minerals. Two SP logs, recorded before and after the oxidation, are compared and the presence of such minerals is thus detected.A theoretical hypothesis explaining the mechanism of the potential change due to the chemical reaction is proposed both in the case of electronically conducting and non conducting minerals. The influence of redox potential on SP is discussed.The results of laboratory experiments on several different oxidizable ores and those of field tests performed on pyrite, lignite, and oil wells are reported on and discussed on the basis of the theoretical hypothesis proposed.

Notizen: Anisotropy measurements were carried out in two wells 300 km apart in the Northern Sahara, in order to improve the interpretation of seismic refraction surveys.These measurements were based on; the shortening of experimental oblique travel-times with respect to theoretical, travel-times computed by disregarding anisotropy. A perfect knowledge of the velocity distribution is required in order to eliminate all influence of refraction; therefore a continuous velocity log is indispensable.The results in the two wells are in agreement, and show that anisotropy is essentially a function of lithology. The following values were obtained: 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR202:GPR_202_mu1"/〉 Consequences pertaining to seismic refraction are as follows:— Depths computed without anisotropy are too small by 8 % to 9 %, i.e. about 300 meters.— The error on offsets reaches 70 %.— Depth computations carried out by assigning anisotropy factors at the sight of lithology gave very satisfactory results.— High velocity, highly anisotropic formations such as anhydrite play a very important part in the propagation of refracted waves and in interpretation.Consequences pertaining to seismic reflection are as follows:— Velocity profiles yield velocities closer to horizontal velocities than to vertical velocities.— Depth and migration computations are significantly influenced by high velocity, highly anisotropic formations such as anhydrite.

Notizen: Book Reviewed in this article:Handbuch der Physik. Herausgegeben von S. Flügge.Der geologische Bau des Untergrundes von Schleswig-Holstein und seine Erdöllager-stätten.

Notizen: Conventional or continuous velocity logging generally fail to solve the problem of velocities in the whole area of a seismic survey. Surface measurements often bring a large amount of additional information: effect of shallow layers, change of facies, correlations. The authors present a theoretical view on the physical meaning of interval velocities. After a short synthesis of the diverse formulae formerly proposed (Faust, West), the practical manner of using these formulae and the accurate interpretation obtained with the help of geological and geophysical data are shown. Several characteristical examples are finally explained and commented on.

Notizen: A uniform field of the normal geomagnetic vertical intensity and its normal dependence on the first and second powers of latitude and longitude are derived for Europe and represented by sketches. The epochs of 1938.5, 1941.5, 1944.5, 1947.5, 1950.5, 1953.5, and 1956.5 have been chosen.It is suggested that anomalies of the vertical intensity should be given according to this field in order to obtain, in course of time, a coherent image of the magnetic effects of the European continent.

Notizen: Solutions for the propagation of elastic waves at the surface of a cylindrical hole of infinite length are derived from the wave equation for a perfectly elastic and isotropic medium. It is found that the phase and group velocities depend on the ratio between the wave length and the circumference of the cylindrical hole. These surface waves can be classified into different orders. They differ in the calculated dispersion curves, in the range of possible wave lengths (cut-off-frequencies), and in the amplitude proportion of the components of the displacement vector. For very short wave lengths these waves converge to normal Rayleigh waves.These results are used to explain some of the multiple onsets and disturbances on seismograms, obtained in practical seismic investigations in the mines of Siegerland.The conformity of theoretical and practical results is limited, because the idealised suppositions on which the computation is based, such as perfect elasticity, homogeneous and isotropic medium, and circular cross section of the mine gallery are met only approximately in practice.

Notizen: Gravity anomalies due to given mass distributions have been determined by model optical experiments, which utilise the fact that both the light intensity and the gravitational field due to point sources obey the Inverse Square law. The technique is somewhat different from that used by Gerrard et al (1957), and the results seem to be more accurate (maximum discrepancy 2 percent). The applicability of the anology for the determination of magnetostatic fields is also pointed out.

Notizen: Book Reviewed in this article: The Earth and its Gravity Field, W. A. Heiskanen and F. A. Vening Meinesz.KRAUS, HUNT and RAMSDELL, Mineralogy.

Notizen: The present paper deals with various causes giving rise to potential differences caused by induced polarization. In order to obtain the induced polarization effect of ore bodies it is necessary to determine the effect of the barren rock and substract it from the total observed effect.Results of field measurements carried out by this method in the mercury mine of Idrija, as well as those in the lead-zinc mine of Mežica and the Kankberg ore district are in good agreement with the geological data. A theoretically calculated profile is compared with an actual field profile.

Notizen: A 3-component flux gate magnetometer has been built for use in 1½ inch drill-holes. It has an accuracy of 1 mgs. It requires 2–3 men to operate it and they can take measurements in up to 3 100 metre holes in one day. The instrument has definitely proved its worth in describing the‘general’ geology of an ore-body, and it is now used on a routine basis.

Notizen: To obtain inferences useful in predicting the overburden velocities, a statistical study of velocity data was undertaken on 46 well velocity surveys confined mainly to Eastern England. Five formations were particularly studied: Keuper, Bunter, Permian, Coal Measures and Millstone Grit. Their interval velocities plotted against the mean depth of the interval below the surface supplied five equations of the form V=k. H1/n, which cover the range of depth explored down to 7000 ft. Comparison of these results shows that the interval velocities increase with depth and in the Keuper and Permian attain a maximum value nearly twice that in the remaining three formations. The interval velocities of these formations are confined within a relatively narrow band of 9000–12000 ft/sec. and the formations cannot be distinguished satisfactorily by their interval velocities alone. More practical results were obtained considering the relation between the vertical time and depth to the top of the Permian, Coal Measures, Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone. For each of these a linear relation T=k. H+ To, was obtained from which the vertical time T can be predicted from the known depth with a probable error of ± 4 millisecs.

Notizen: Using a resonance method, determinations have been made of the longitudinal bar velocity and of Poisson's ratio of thirteen different chemically pure limestones. The relation between the velocity and the density showed far less scatter than in the determinations previously published; this is primarily attributed to the high purity of the specimens used. The measurements further showed a tendency of the values of Poisson's ratio to increase with increasing density.

Notizen: In nine small areas in the Black Forest measurements were made of the CO2 content of ground air, using a method which is based on the difference in heat conductivity between CO2 on one side and N2 and O2 on the other. Measurements during four days yielded four strong CO2 anomalies. At one of these a well was sunk, which gave a considerable discharge of mineral water.

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