ALBERT

Note: Internetausg. ---〉 Weather , Erscheinungsjahr in Vorlageform:1946-

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Overview of climate variability and climate science. - 1.1 Climate dynamics, climate change and climate prediction. - 1.2 The chemical and physical climate system. - 1.2.1 Chemical and physical aspects of the climate system. - 1.2.2 El Niño and global warming. - 1.3 Climate models: a brief overview. - 1.4 Global change in recent history. - 1.4.1 Trace gas concentrations. - 1.4.2 A word on the ozone hole. - 1.4.3 Some history of global warming studies. - 1.4.4 Global temperatures. - 1.5 El Niño: an example of natural climate variability. - 1.5.1 Some history of El Niño studies. - 1.5.2 Observations of El Niño: the 1997-98 event. - 1.5.3 The first El Niño forecast with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. - 1.6 Paleoclimate variability. - Notes. - 2. Basics of global climate. - 2.1 Components and phenomena in the climate system. - 2.1.1 Time and space scales. - 2.1.2 Interactions among scales and the parameterization problem. - 2.2 Basics of radiative forcing. - 2.2.1 Blackbody radiation. - 2.2.2 Solar energy input. - 2.3 Globally averaged energy budget: first glance. - 2.4 Gradients of radiative forcing and energy transports. - 2.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 2.5.1 Vertical structure. - 2.5.2 Latitude structure of the circulation. - 2.5.3 Latitude-Iongitude dependence of atmospheric climate features. - 2.6 Ocean circulation. - 2.6.1 Latitude-longitude dependence of oceanic climate features. - 2.6.2 The ocean vertical structure. - 2.6.3 The ocean thermohaline circulation. - 2.7 Land surface proeesses. - 2.8 The carbon cycle. - Notes. - 3. Physical processes in the climate system. - 3.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.1 Coriolis force. - 3.1.2 Pressure gradient force. - 3.1.3 Velocity equations. - 3.1.4 Application: geostrophic wind. - 3.1.5 Pressure-height relation: hydrostatic balance. - 3.1.6 Application: pressure coordinates. - 3.2 Equation of state. - 3.2.1 Equation of state for the atmosphere: ideal gas law. - 3.2.2 Equation of state for the ocean. - 3.2.3 Application: atmospheric height-pressure-temperature relation. - 3.2.4 Application: thermal circulations. - 3.2.5 Application: sea level rise due to oceanic thermal expansion. - 3.3 Temperature equation. - 3.3.1 Ocean temperature equation. - 3.3.2 Temperature equation for air. - 3.3.3 Application: the dry adiabatic lapse rate near the surface. - 3.3.4 Application: decay of a sea surface temperature anomaly. - 3.3.5 Time derivative following the parcel. - 3.4 Continuity equation. - 3.4.1 Oceanic continuity equation. - 3.4.2 Atmospheric continuity equation. - 3.4.3 Application: coastal upwelling. - 3.4.4 Application: equatorial upwelling. - 3.4.5 Application: conservation of warm water mass in an idealized layer above the thermocline. - 3.5 Conservation of mass applied to moisture. - 3.5.1 Moisture equation for the atmosphere and surface. - 3.5.2 Sources and sinks of moisture, and latent heat. - 3.5.3 Application: surface melting on an ice sheet. - 3.5.4 Salinity equation for the ocean. - 3.6 Moist processes. - 3.6.1 Saturation. - 3.6.2 Saturation in convection; lifting condensation level. - 3.6.3 The moist adiabat and lapse rate in convective regions. - 3.6.4 Moist convection. - 3.7 Wave processes in the atmosphere and ocean. - 3.7.1 Gravity waves. - 3.7.2 Kelvin waves. - 3.7.3 Rossby waves. - 3.8 Overview. - Notes. - 4. El Niño and year-to-year climate prediction. - 4.1 Recap of El Niño basics. - 4.1.1 The Bjerknes hypothesis. - 4.2 Tropical Pacific climatology. - 4.3 ENSO mechanisms I: extreme phases. - 4.4 Pressure gradients in an idealized upper layer. - 4.4.1 Subsurface temperature anomalies in an idealized upper layer. - 4.5 Transition into the 1997-98 El Niño. - 4.5.1 Subsurface temperature measurements. - 4.5.2 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the onset of El Niño. - 4.5.3 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the transition to La Niña. - 4.6 El Niño mechanisms II: dynamics of transition phases. - 4.6.1 Equatorial jets and the Kelvin wave. - 4.6.2 The Kelvin wave speed. - 4.6.3 What sets the width of the Kelvin wave and equatorial jet?. - 4.6.4 Response of the ocean to a wind anomaly. - 4.6.5 The delayed oscillator model and the recharge oscillator model. - 4.6.6 ENSO transition mechanism in brief. - 4.7 El Niño prediction. - 4.7.1 Limits to skill in ENSO forecasts. - 4.8 El Niño remote impacts: teleconnections. - 4.9 Other interannual climate phenomena. - 4.9.1 Hurricane season forecasts. - 4.9.2 Sahel drought. - 4.9.3 North Atlantic oscillation and annular modes. - Notes. - 5. Climate models. - 5.1 Constructing a climate model. - 5.1.1 An atmospheric model. - 5.1.2 Treatment of sub-grid-scale processes. - 5.1.3 Resolution and computational cost. - 5.1.4 An ocean model and ocean-atmosphere coupling. - 5.1.5 Land surface, snow, ice and vegetation. - 5.1.6 Summary of principal climate model equations. - 5.1.7 Climate system modeling. - 5.2 Numerical representation of atmospheric and oceanic equations. - 5.2.1 Finite-difference versus spectral models. - 5.2.2 Time-stepping and numerical stability. - 5.2.3 Staggered grids and other grids. - 5.2.4 Parallel computer architecture. - 5.3 Parameterization of small-scale processes. - 5.3.1 Mixing and surface fluxes. - 5.3.2 Dry convection. - 5.3.3 Moist convection. - 5.3.4 Land surface processes and soil moisture. - 5.3.5 Sea ice and snow. - 5.4 The hierarchy of climate models. - 5.5 Climate simulations and climate drift. - 5.6 Evaluation of climate model simulations for present-day climate. - 5.6.1 Atmospheric model climatology from specified SST. - 5.6.2 Climate model simulation of climatology. - 5.6.3 Simulation of ENSO response. - Notes. - 6. The greenhouse effect and climate feedbacks. - 6.1 The greenhouse effect in Earth's current climate. - 6.1.1 Global energy balance. - 6.1.2 A global-average energy balance model with a one-layer atmosphere. - 6.1.3 Infrared emissions from a layer. - 6.1.4 The greenhouse effect: example with a completely IR-absorbing atmosphere. - 6.1.5 The greenhouse effect in a one-layer atmosphere, global-average model. - 6.1.6 Temperatures from the one-layer energy balance model. - 6.2 Global warming I: example in the global-average energy balance model. - 6.2.1 Increases in the basic greenhouse effect. - 6.2.2 Climate feedback parameter in the one-layer global-average model. - 6.3 Climate feedbacks. - 6.3.1 Climate feedback parameter. - 6.3.2 Contributions of climate feedbacks to global-average temperature response. - 6.3.3 Climate sensitivity. - 6.4 The water vapor feedback. - 6.5 Snow/ice feedback. - 6.6 Cloud feedbacks. - 6.7 Other feedbacks in the physical climate system. - 6.7.1 Stratospheric cooling. - 6.7.2 Lapse rate feedback. - 6.8 Climate response time in transient climate change. - 6.8.1 Transient climate change versus equilibrium response experiments. - 6.8.2 A doubled-CO2 equilibrium response experiment. - 6.8.3 The role of the oceans in slowing warming. - 6.8.4 Climate sensitivity in transient climate change. - Notes. - 7. Climate model scenarios for global warming. - 7.1 Greenhouse gases, aerosols and other climate forcings. - 7.1.1 Scenarios, forcings and feedbacks. - 7.1.2 Forcing by sulfate aerosols. - 7.1.3 Commonly used scenarios. - 7.2 Global-average response to greenhouse warming scenarios. - 7.3 Spatial patterns of warming for time-dependent scenarios. - 7.3.1 Comparing projections of different climate models. - 7.3.2 Multi-model ensemble averages. - 7.3.3 Polar amplification of warming. - 7.3.4 Summary of spatial patterns of the response. - 7.4 Ice, sea level, extreme events. - 7.4.1 Sea ice and snow. - 7.4.2 Land ice. - 7.4.3 Extreme events. - 7.5 Summary: the best-estimate prognosis. - 7.6 Climate change observed to date. - 7.6.1 Temperature trends and natural variability: scale dependence. - 7.6.2 Is the observed trend consistent with natural variability or anthropogenic forcing?. - 7.6.3 Sea ice, land ice, ocean heat storage and sea level rise. - 7.7 Emissions

Note: Contents: 1 The origins of ACSYS / Victor Savtchenko. - PART I OBSERVATIONS: 2 Advances in Arctic atmospheric research / James E. Overland and Mark C. Serreze. - 3 Sea-ice observation: advances and challenges / Humfrey Melling. - 4 Observations in the ocean / Bert Rudels, Leif Anderson, Patrick Eriksson, Eberhard Fahrbach, Martin Jakobsson, E. Peter Jones, Humfrey Melling, Simon Prinsenberg, Ursula Schauer, and Tom Yao. - 5 Observed hydrological cycle / Hermann Mächel, Bruno Rudolf, Thomas Maurer, Stefan Hagemann, Reinhard Hagenbrock, Lev Kitaev, Eirik J. Førland, Vjacheslav Rasuvaev, and Ole Einar Tveito. - 6 Interaction with the global climate system / T. A. McClimans, G. V. Alekseev, O. M. Johannessen, and M. W. Miles. - PART II MODELLING: 7 Mesoscale modelling of the Arctic atmospheric boundary layer and its interaction with sea ice / Christof Lüpkes, Timo Vihma, Gerit Birnbaum, Silke Dierer, Thomas Garbrecht, Vladimir M. Gryanik, Micha Gryschka, Jörg Hartmann, Günther Heinemann, Lars Kaleschke, Siegfried Raasch, Hannu Savijärvi, K. Heinke Schlünzen, and Ulrike Wacker. - 8 Arctic regional climate models / K. Dethloff, A. Rinke, A. Lynch, W. Dorn, S. Saha, and D. Handorf. - 9 Progress in hydrological modeling over high latitudes: under arctic climate system study (ACSYS) / Dennis P. Lettenmaier and Fengge Su. - 10 Sea-ice-ocean modelling / Rüdiger Gerdes and Peter Lemke. - 11 Global climate models and 20th and 21st century Arctic climate change / Cecilia M. Bitz, Jeff K. Ridley, Marika Holland, and Howard Cattle. - 12 ACSYS: Scientific foundation for the climate and cryosphere (CliC) project / Konrad Steffen, Daqing Yang, Vladimir Ryabinin, and Ghassem Asrar.

Note: Zugl.: Hannover, Univ., Diss., 2012

Note: Zugl.: Berlin, Techn. Univ., Diss., 2012

Note: Erscheinungsjahr in Vorlageform:2012

Note: Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1. Location of Objects 2. Radio Means of Locating Objects 3. Definition of Radar A. DETECTION BY RADIO ECHOES 4. Frequency-Modulation Systems 5. Frequency-Shift Systems 6. Pulse Systems 7. Types of Data Presentation 8. Pulse Shape, Duration, and Repetition Frequency; Peak and Average Power B. OBJECTS 9. Aircraft as Objects 10. Ships as Objects 11. Land and Coastal Objects 12. Projectiles as Objects C. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION AND RANGE 13. Determination of Range 14. Determination of Direction D. RECOGNIZING THE CHARACTERS OF OBJECTS E. EMPLOYING THE DATA Chapter II TIMING CIRCUITS A. CLIPPING CIRCUITS 1. Clipping wlth Diodes 2. Clipping with Amplifiers 3. Clipping with Cathode Followers B. R-C CIRCUITS 4. Transients in R-C Circuits 5. Saw-Tooth Generator 6. Decoupling Filters and Bias Circuits 7. R-C Peaker 8. Sloping Wavefront Applied to Peaker 9. R-C Coupling Circuits 10. Signal Bias and Clampers 11. Effect of Grid Return 12. Tube and Wiring Capacitances 13. Free-Running Plate-Coupled Multivibrator 14. Driven Plate-Coupled Multivibrator 15. Cathode-Coupled Multivibrator 16. Phantastron Delay Circuit C. R-L-C CIRCUITS 17. Transients in Parallel R-L-C Circuits 18. Ringing Circuit 19. Pulse Transformer 20. Blocking Oscillator 21. Traveling Waves on Artificial Transmission Lines 22. Reflections at Line Terminals 23. Applications of Artificial Transmission Lines Chapter III INDICATORS A. CATHODE-RAY TUBES 1. Electrostatic Cathode-Ray Tubes 2. Magnetic Cathode-Ray Tubes 3. Designations and Ratings of Cathode-Ray Tubes B. SWEEP-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS 4. Basic Type A Indicator Circuit 5. Methods of Improving the Linearity of Sweep Voltages 6. Phase-Inverter Circuits 7 Delayed Sweeps and Expanded Sweeps 8. Indicators Used with Lobe Switching 9. Type J Presentation C. SWEEP-CURRENT CIRCUITS 10. Range-Sweep Current from Initial Part of Exponential Rise 11. Range-Sweep Current from a Trapezoidal Voltage 12. R-C Trapezoidal-Voltage Generator 13. Feedback-Amplifier Sweep Circuit 14. Effect of Distributed Capacitance 15. Azimuth-Sweep Circuit for Type B Presentation 16. Requirements for Plan Position Indication 17. Rotating-Coil PPI 18. Electrical Azimuth Sweep for PPI Chapter IV RECEIVERS A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR RECEIVERS 1. Over-all Requirements and Limitations 2. Block Diagram B. RECEIVER NOISE 3. Nature of Noise 4. Sources of Noise 5. Receiver Input Stages 6. Receiver Noise Figure C. BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS 7 The Problem of Pulse Amplification 8 Analysis of Rectangular Pulses 9 Signal Frequencies in the Receiver 10 Bandwidth in Search-Type Systems 11 Bandwidth in FIre-Control Systems D. AMPLIFIERS 12. Equivalent Circuits 13. Symbols 14. Video Amplifiers 15. I-F Amplifiers 16. R-P Amplifiers E. MIXERS 17. Single-Input Mixers 18. Mixer Circuits 19. Crystal Mixers 20. Noise and Gain of Input Stages P. DETECTORS 21. Diode Detectors 22. Plate-Circuit Detectors G. LOCAL OSCILLATORS 23. Requirements 24. Triodes 25. Reflex Velocity-Modulated Tubes H. AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL 26. The Discriminator 27. Utilization of Discriminator Output for Frequency Control J. OPERATION AND TESTING 28. Alignment 29. R-F Tuning Adjustments 30. Testing Chapter V MAGNETRONS 1. Motion of an Electron in an Electric Field Alone 2. Motion of an Electron in a Magnetic Field Alone 3. Motion of Electrons In Uniform, Mutually Perpendicular Electric and Magnetic Fields 4. Introduction to Magnetron Oscillators 5. Split-Anode Electron-Resonance Magnetron Oscillator, Plane Form 6. Multi-Anode Electron-Resonance Magnetron Oscillator, Cylindrical Form 7. Lumped-Constant Equivalent Circuit of Magnetron Tank Circuit 8. Characteristics of Magnetrons 9. Care of the Magnetron and Magnets 10. Checking the Proper Operation of the Magnetron Chapter VI MODULATORS A. PULSE FORMATION BY NETWORKS AND SWITCHES 1. Charging an Open-End Line 2. Pulse Formation by Discharge of an Open-End Line 3. Pulse Formation by a Shorted-End Line 4. Pulse-Forming Networks 5. Switching Devices for Discharging Pulse-Forming Networks B. LINE-PULSING MODULATORS 6. Charging Methods 7. Rotary-Spark-Gap Modulator 8. Modulator with Saturable-Core Reactor and Inductive-Impulse Charging C. DRIVER-POWER-AMPLIFIER MODULATORS 9. R-C-Coupled Power Amplifier 10. Transformer-Coupled Power Amplifier 11. Bootstrap Driver 12. Line-Controlled Blocking-Oscillator Driver 13. Delay-Line Controlled Driver 14. Driver Using Shorted-End Line 15. Saturable-Core-Reactor Driver 16. Blocking-Oscillator Modulator Chapter VII TRIODE TRANSMITTERS A. TRANSMITTER COMPONENTS 1. Tubes 2. Tuning Elements 3. Parasitic Suppressors 4. Power Supplies B. SINGLE-TUBE OSCILLATORS 5. Ultra-Audion Oscillator 6. Lighthouse-Tube Oscillator C. PUSH-PULL OSCILLATORS 7. Tuned-Plate Tuned-Grid Oscillator 8. Timed-Grid Tuned-Cathode Oscillator 9. Tuned-Plate Tuned-Grid Tuned-Cathode Oscillator D. RING OSCILLATORS 10. Tuned-Grid Tuned-Cathode Oscillator 11. Tuned-Plate Tuned-Cathode Oscillator 12. Tuned-Plate Tuned-Grid Tuned-Cathode Oscillator E. OUTPUT COUPLING 13. Direct Coupling 14. Balanced-to-Unbalanced Transformers 15. Coupling Loop as Resonant Transformer 16. Coupling Loop with Series Tuning 17. Coupling Loop with Parallel Tuning l6. Capacitive Coupling F. PULSING OF TRIODE OSCILLATORS 19 Grid-Leak Bias in Oscillators 20 Modulators for Triode Oscillators 21 Self-Pulsed Oscillators 22 Synchronization of Self-Pulsed Oscillators 23 Line-Controlled Self-Pulsed Oscillators 24 Tuning and Adjusting of Oscillators Chapter VIII RADIO-FREQUENCY LINES A. INTRODUCTION 1. Functions of Radio-Frequency Lines in Radar 2. Types of Radio-Frequency Lines 3. Losses 4. Open-Wire Lines 5. Coaxial Lines 6. Two-Conductor Shielded Cable 7. Hollow Wave Guides 8. Radio-Frequency Components B. THE LONG-LINE EQUATIONS 9. Distributed Constants 10. Representation of Steady-State Alternating Quantities by Complex Numbers 11. Notation 12. The Differential Equations and Their Solution 13. Interpretation of the Equations as Traveling Waves 14. Attenuation 15. Line with Negligible Losses 16. Characteristic Impedance 17. Reflection Coefficient 18. Vector Diagrams of Terminal Voltages fluid Currents 19. Standing Waves—Complete Reflection 20. Standing Waves--Partial Reflection 21. Standing-Wave Ratio 22. Practical Importance of Low Standing-Wave Ratio 23. Power 24. Efficiency 25. Impedance and Admittance 26. Impedance Circle Diagram 27. Examples of the Use of the Circle Diagram 28. Proof of the Circle Diagram 29. The Smith Chart C. IMPEDANCE MATCHING 30. Matching Requirements During Transmission 31. Types of Matching Devices 32. Methods of Matching an Antenna to the Characteristic Resistance of a Transmission Line 33. Methods of Matching a Transmission Line to a Transmitter 34. Matching Requirements During Reception 35. Prevention of Absorption of Received Power by Transmitter 36. Methods of Matching Receiver to Transmission Line 37. Effect of R-P Loading on Magnetrons 38. Practical Tuning Procedure 39. Fixed Versus Adjustable Matching D. R-F COMPONENTS OF TYPICAL RADAR SETS 40 Typical 100-Mcps Ground Set 41 Typical 500-Mcps Air-Borne Set 42 Typical 5000-Mcps Air-Borne Set 43 Constants of Coaxial and Open-Wire Lines 44 Some Coaxial-Line Accessories Chapter IX RADAR ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION RADAR ANTENNAS 1. Reciprocity 2. Terms 3. The Half-Wave Antenna 4. Means of Exciting Half-Wave Antennas 5. Input Impedances of Center-Fed Antennas of Arbitrary Length 6. Adjustment of Antenna Impedance 7. Means of Supporting Half-Wave Antennas 8. The Quarter-Wave Antenna 9. Mechanism of Radiation from a Half-Wave Antenna 10. Fields Around a Half-Wave Antenna When the Radial Distance is Large 11. Polarization 12. Patterns of a Half-Wave Antenna; Pattern Interpretation 13. Vector Diagram for a Half-Wave Antenna 14. A Justifiable Approximation in Computing r 15. Sample Calculation Using Vector Diagram 16. A Principle of Vector Addition 17. Resultant Field of a Simple Array of Half-Wave Anten