ALBERT

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: The Study of Urbanization, edited by Philip M. Hauser and Leo F. Schnore. The Towns of Ghana: The Role of Service Centres in Regional Planning, by David Grove and Laszlo Huszar. The South in Continuity and Change, edited by John C. McKinney and Edgar T. Thompson. Elementary Applied Statistics: for Students in Behavioral Science, by Linton C. Freeman. Minerals and Men, by James F. McDivitt. The Public Library and The City, edited by Ralph W. Conant. Population Dynamics: Causes and Consequences of World Demographic Change, by Ralph Thomlinson. Dilemmas of Urban America, by Robert C. Weaver. Areas of Economic Stress in Canada, edited by W.D. Wood and R.S. Thoman.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: The Federal Bulldozer: A Critical Analysis of Urban Renewal 1949–1962. By Martin Anderson. Housing in Latin America. By Albert G. H. Dietz, Marcia N. Koth and Julio A. Silva.

Notes: It is only within the last two years that the published United Kingdom accounts have been extended to include sector financial accounts; their use for market analysis is, therefore, still in its infancy.The sectors and sub-sectors distinguished in the financial accounts agree very closely with those recommended by the Working Group on Financial Statistics of the Conference of European Statisticians. A major difference is that in the United Kingdom accounts particular emphasis is placed on the distinction between the public sector and the private sector. For this purpose the public sector consists not only of general government but also includes public corporations (that is, public non-financial corporate enterprises). The classification of assets and liabilities is based on a general list which is also similar to that developed by the Conference of European Statisticians.Because of the large capital formation of public corporations and local authorities, the public sector is normally a substantial borrower from the pirvate sector, although its borrowing requirements fluctuate considerably from quarter to quarter because of the uneven incidence of tax receipts. The personal sector provides about one-third of the total saving of the economy, much of which is in the form of contractual saving—through life assurance and superannuation funds and the repayment of house purchase loans. No direct information is available about transactions in stocks and shares by the personal sector, but it is estimated that the sector is a very large seller of securities and in recent years its sales have amounted to £700 million a year.One factor which is important in the analysis of financial accounts and which is not shown specifically as part of the system is the rate of interest. The proportion of personal saving going into the different forms of short term assets has tended to vary according to the relative rate of interest received. The rate of interest also affects the pattern of borrowing by public authorities.The United Kingdom prepares short term forecasts of national income and of the balance of payments, and also forecasts of the borrowing requirement of the public sector and of the central government in particular. For internal purposes, forecasts are made of the various ways in which the government is expected to finance its borrowing requirement. These forecasts provide a useful framework for considering monetary prospects and are particularly important for showing the relation between the forecasts of the balance of payments and of government borrowing from domestic sources, especially from the banks.

Notes: Ľutilisation du SCN actuel pour les besoins de la coopération économique internationale est considérée ci-après à la lumière des expériences accumulées au sein de la Communauté Economique Européenne.Ľexpérience des années récentes prouve que si, dans une première étape, le SCN a pu servir de cadre général ďanalyse économique, ce cadre s'est rapidement révélé insuffisant lorsqu'il s'est agi de confronter des structures et des politiques nationales ou de définir des politiques coordonnées dans les domaines économique, social ou financier. Les travaux menés dans différents domaines ont montré la nécessitéďétendre, de détailler, de modifier et de préciser le système actuel de comptabilité nationale.Une question importante concerne ľintérêt de faire apparaître ou ďéliminer du système comptable les différences institutionnelles existant entre pays. Bien qu'à cet égard ľavis des utilisateurs ne soit pas toujours unanime, ľexpérience plaide en faveur ďun système reflétant pleinement les différences réelles de structure entre pays, mais suffisamment détaillé afin de permettre les regroupements fonctionnels nécessaires à certaines analyses.Ľarticle se termine par un bref rappel des principales critiques adressées au SCN actuel par ceux qui, dans le cadre de la Communauté Economique Européenne, se servent de la comptabilité nationale, critiques auxquelles la révision du SCN apportera, espérons-le, une réponse satisfaisante.

Notes: The purpose of this paper is to describe and evaluate the quarterly national income and product accounts of the United States (to be referred to henceforth as N.I.P.). The historical development of these accounts is reviewed first. Next, a summary of the statistical methodology underlying them is provided. An analysis of the errors to which they have been subject follows. An attempt is then made to define the area of their usefulness. Finally, suggestions for their improvement are formulated.The most general conclusions are as follows:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1The quarterly N.I.P. estimates were developed in close response to an urgent need for them in economic analysis and policy formulation. Their development was a gradual process covering about two decades in which experience gained at one stage suggested improvements and extensions for the next.2The quarterly figures are based on abundant data sources. To be sure, the information is not as comprehensive as that available for the preparation of the annual estimates, but we are dealing only with differences in degree - there is no sharp contrast.3The series are subject to a considerable margin of error. There is bias in some of them - the initial estimates tend to be too low; and quite apart from bias they differ from the revised figures.4The margin of error attaching to the statistics disqualifies them from serving as precision instruments, but they are indispensable as a systematic framework for the order-of-magnitude analysis of the major forces determining the short-run movements of the economy. At present, the outstanding handicap in such analysis is not statistical error, but the inadequacy of economic theories and of our ability to test them.5The opportunities for mechanizing estimating techniques are assessed; the work on seasonals is discussed in this context; and a thorough investigation is proposed of the problems involved in the synchronization of the various components of the accounts. In addition, proposals for improving the data available for the estimation of specific income and product flows are formulated. Quarterly estimates of the physical volume of national output by industry, and quarterly accounts showing the financial transactions that mediate between saving and tangible investment are considered the two high-priority major extensions of the present accounts. Other, less basic, extensions of these accounts are also proposed.

Notes: Both the yearly and the quarterly national accounts of Norway are derived with intensive use of electronic computers, punchcards and magnetic tapes.The introduction of the paper gives a short description of the Norwegian national accounting system. Four aspects are stressed. First, the accounts are built up by the production approach with the main purpose of, on the one hand, showing the domestic product at market prices by industry of origin and, on the other hand, showing a detailed breakdown by categories of expenditure. Second, the main part of the system consists of an input/output matrix of about 1700 commodities, 130 industries, and 150 final demand sectors. The input/output table is thus not made separately but is the main body of the national accounts. Third, this annual input/output table is used as a basis for estimating quarterly accounts. Fourth, an econometric model for analysing and forecasting developed by the Norwegian Central Bureau of Statistics is closely linked to the national accounts.The paper concentrates on how the computers and punchcards are used. It describes how all available information on the supply and use of commodities, prices, etc., is brought together. As far as possible punchcards from the basic statistics are taken over for further processing. As the end result each flow in the national accounts is represented by a punchcard.The paper discusses what has been gained by switching from worksheets to punchcards. There are advantages during the work and there are advantages of having the final results on punchcards.The final sections describe how the punched cards for the yearly accounts data are used as basis for preliminary estimates of quarterly accounts and also in a model for forecasting.

Notes: It is argued that the conventions of an accounting system, such as the S.N.A., are a matter of convenience. The treatment of education as a current expenditure, instead of as a form of capital formation, derives from the Keynesian system, and is not appropriate for dynamic problems of developing countries, where weaknesses in education are often the main “bottleneck” in the process of development. In such countries, expenditure on education clearly yields its benefits mainly in the longer run. To treat this as a consumption item biases policy in the direction of using financial resources for fixed capital rather than human investment, and may cause aid agencies to penalize countries which expand their educational systems. A similar problem arises on other expenditures such as health, but the case for treating them as investment is not so strong.To treat educational expenditure as part of capital formation logically requires two major changes. First education needs to be removed from private and public consumption, and for this purpose a fairly broad definition of what is education should be used. Secondly, the stock of educational capital should be valued. The valuation problems are, however, severe. Variations in cost components make historic cost of little value as a yardstick, and calculations of future returns are fraught with difficulties. Using replacement costs, which seems the best method, involves the construction of education profiles in physical terms which can then be valued by present or by standardised costs. The depreciation of human capital through mortality and retirement can be allowed for by applying national average rates to these physical profiles.Switching educational expenditure from current to capital accounts involves no serious practical problem. However, although there should logically be an allowance for depreciation on human capital, this is not recommended; single monetary measures of educational stock are not very meaningful, and this would involve changing the definition of “net” aggregates. Development of statistics of educational stocks and flows in physical terms—the beginnings of “demographic accounting” fully integrated with the rest of national accounting—is strongly advocated.

Notes: The now urgent problem in the field is to translate into practice the theoretical agreement, slowly reached over the past two decades, on the need for and feasibility of sectorized national balance sheets.The paper discusses the five main uses of national balance sheets, viz. (1) the study of the relations among assets and liabilities at one point of time in one country, particularly the position of financial institutions; (2) the analysis of changes in one country's financial structure between several balance sheet dates; (3) the comparison of balance sheet structure at one date among two or more countries; (4) the comparison of the financial development of several countries for at least two but usually more numerous balance sheet dates; and (5) the use of selected balance sheet items, e.g., reproducible tangible assets or liquid financial assets, in econometric models.Examples are presented of the first three uses, viz. for (1) an eleven sector balance sheet matrix for the U.S. as of the end of 1962; for (2) an unsectored national balance sheet of the U.S. in 1900, 1912, 1929, 1939, 1945 and 1958; and for (3) a comparison of condensed unsectored national balance sheets for a dozen countries (USA, UK, France, Germany, Belgium, Norway, Italy, Japan, Israel, Mexico, India and the USSR) for a date in the neighborhood of 1960.

Notes: The paper discusses national balance sheets in the light of the proposals for their inclusion in the revised SNA. The author uses his own estimated national balance sheet of the United Kingdom as a basis for discussing the problems encountered in the compilation of national balance sheets, and the greater part of the paper is concerned with questions of valuation, classification and statistical source material. The concluding section deals briefly with the structure of the national balance sheet of the United Kingdom and compares its structure with that of the national balance sheet of the United States. Provisional national balance sheets of the United Kingdom for each of the five years 1957 to 1961 are presented.

Notes: This article deals in an axiomatic manner with problems of definition, classification, and measurement in the national accounts. It argues that the elementary units which must be classified in national accounting are economic objects (real and financial), rather than transactions. The article defines briefly a set of postulates, and shows that the structure of a simple system of national accounting can be derived from them. There are twenty postulates—certain of them establishing basic categories such as sector, time, economic object, value (price); others establishing relations between categories (for example the notion of ownership); and others describing operations in which economic objects can be involved, such as production, final consumption, change of ownership, and change of debtor and creditor (in the case of financial objects). It is shown that the system of postulates makes it possible to consider a large number of accounting concepts (flows or stocks) as classes (baskets) of real objects (e.g., exports, real capital) or financial objects (e.g., payments, total debt of a sector). These concepts can be defined without reference to prices, although prices are necessary to measure them. Other concepts cannot be defined in this way in this system of postulates, for example value added, foreign balance, saving, net worth. However, it is possible to define magnitudes of the latter type and measure them in terms of value: for example, value added can be defined as the difference between the value of receipts and the value of outlays of a sector. In this way it is possible to establish algebraic relations among the national accounting concepts. (This article is a summary of certain parts of the doctoral thesis of the author, published in Norwegian in 1955.)

Notes: (1) The primary contribution from the computer's application to the national accounts may well be to erode the line between micro and macro analysis. Key macro totals in the accounts sum individual company reports. The computer permits us to develop distributions of these reports. Such distributions, regularly presented, would permit discovery of the first forerunners of change, would help distinguish, e.g., widespread strength in an export drive or a profits surge, from participation by a few major concerns that dominate the aggregate.(2) The strikingly different parameters in cross section and time series studies (e.g., price elasticity of housing) will in some measure reflect incomparability between the micro data that enter into each. The computer makes possible the use of the wide array of micro data that really underly the accounts to develop consistent analyses of time series (of both aggregates and distributions) and cross section analyses.(3) The inconsistencies now imbedded in the accounts but gilded over by the abilities of the estimators are well-known. Discussions of wage price policy rest on data for wages that have no necessary compatibility with data on profits, etc. But since 1,500 corporations account for at least half of U.S. net income, sales, and investment, the computer can test the consistency of reports made by different units in these firms to different agencies—a process totally out of the question before the computer.(4) The potential that the computer offers for prompt revisions in the accounts; for revisions by systematic rule; for tests of sensitivity of the entire set of accounts to particular tailor-made adjustments, is clear.(5) Company purchase orders and accounts are increasingly recorded on cards or tapes. From these we may derive input-output detail and process detail that are light years better than those now feasible from intermittent survey aggregates.

Notes: This paper examines differentials in output, employment and productivity across seventeen service industries in the United States from 1939 to 1963. Included are 9 retail trades and 8 services mostly from the personal service group. The industries chosen were those for which it was possible to obtain from available data reasonably comparable measures of output and input for selected years since 1939. Also, they are industries for which it is possible to calculate a measure of real output that is not based on labor input.Sixteen of the industries show positive rates of change of real output per man. Thus there appears to be no basis for assuming that productivity cannot or does not increase in industries providing services. However, the rate of increase for the group as a whole was not as rapid as in manufacturing or in goods production as a whole.The data for the seventeen industries give strong support to the hypothesis of a positive correlation between industry rates of growth and rates of change of productivity. The correlations are of the same order of magnitude as those found by other investigators in studies of manufacturing industries.The coefficient of correlation between growth of output per man and growth of output is .93; between growth of output per man and growth of employment it is .54 for 1939–1963. The comparable coefficients for the 1948–1963 period are .70 and .13.The results also parallel those reported for manufacturing in one other respect, namely, the absence of any correlation between changes in output per man and changes in compensation per man.The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems encountered in measuring changes in real output in these industries and presents some alternative estimates based on different concepts and different sources.

Notes: The author believes that the theoretical controversies relating to the two concepts of production have reached a dead end, and that the answer to these questions must be sought in the results of empirical research. It is to this end that he presents the results which he has arrived at in his computation of Yugoslav national income according to the Yugoslav methodology, which shares the material product concept, and the methodology of the United Nations, which is typical of the enlarged concept of production.In comparing the results of the computations according to the two methodologies, the author concludes that in spite of conceptual differences the deviation of the Yugoslav estimates from the values calculated following the system of the UN is relatively modest (4.2%) if domestic product at factor cost is used. The difference relative to aggregates calculated at market price rises to 13.6%. The author explains these differences by the fact that all the Yugoslav aggregates are computed at market prices, and that services financed by budgetary contributions, which amount to 80% of all services, have found their place in the market prices of material production. He finds that the choice of prices used for calculation has a greater weight for the computation of production than conceptual differences in the methodology of the computations.

Notes: After an introduction setting out the general state of work on the national accounts in the Middle East the author considers the principal uses of national accounts statistics in less developed countries. The first group of uses discussed is in connexion with the measurement of growth and the making of international comparisons. The author is of the opinion that in many cases the primary statistical series are so weak that the fact they they are combined together into a series called national income or gross domestic product lends to them a significance which they do not really possess. The real problem is to improve the quality of the primary series.A second use of national accounts statistics is in connexion with fiscal and budgetary policy. In the statistically advanced countries this is one of the most important uses but in the less developed countries budgetary policy has not yet reached a level of sophistication which would call for the use of national accounts data. Moreover, the time factor involved in assembling accurate national accounts estimates militates against their effective use for short term forecasting.The author considers that the most important use for national accounts statistics is to provide a framework for development planning. The United Nations system is not altogether appropriate for this purpose. It grew up primarily as a system for recording income flows but in development planning one is concerned equally with commodity flows with a great deal of attention being focussed upon intermediate products. The proposals of the working group of African Statisticians for an adaptation of the S.N.A. to African countries represents a most important advance in this respect.In the final section of the paper the author advocates a broader definition of capital formation to include developmental expenditure which is not properly defined as fixed capital formation. Education expenditure is cited as an example. It is suggested that in the national accounts it would be desirable to operate with gross concepts. However, the growth of the capital stock is obviously important in less developed countries and it is suggested that statistical techniques be devised to measure it directly wherever possible. Finally, attention is drawn to the ambiguities and weaknesses in the concept of residence as used at present in the S.N.A.

Notes: Cet article examine comment les calculateurs modernes servent ou pourraient servir en comptabilité nationale, soit pour ľutilisation des comptes, soit pour leur préparation.Du premier point de vue ľauteur insiste ďabord sur la complexité croissante des comptes nationaux qui rend difficile leur usage à partir de la forme classique de tableaux imprimés et tend à rendre nécessaire leur transcription sous forme de cartes perforées, cequi permettra de faire à la machine un certain nombre de travaux élémentaires sur les comptes.On peut également penser que les calculateurs permettraient des sondages rapides sur certains éléments des comptes en cours de préparation.Enfin, les utilisations des calculateurs électroniques pour ľanalyse des comptes, ľétude des modèles de projection et leur résolution sont bien connues.En ce qui concerne ľutilisation des calculateurs pour la préparation des comptes ľauteur montre que, étant donné le caractère imparfait du système statistique dans de nombreux pays, les comptes économiques des années passées sont en partie préparés àľaide de véritables modèles qui permettent de passer des données de base aux comptes et qui peuvent dans certains cas être résolus àľaide de calculateurs électroniques.Là oùľinformation statistique est meilleure, des éléments des comptes peuvent être calculés directement par agrégation des données élémentaires. On peut donc penser qu'une époque viendra où la plus grande partie des comptes nationaux sera préparée àľaide de machines électroniques à partir des données de base.On peut alors imaginer un monde où les transactions élémentaires seraient enregistrées au moment où elles seraient réalisées, rendant ainsi entièrement automatique la préparation des comptes nationaux. Mais alors les machines pourraient réunir les modèles de préparation et les modèles ďutilisation des comptes. Ľétape intermédiaire que constitue la préparation et la publication des comptes sous la forme actuelle deviendrait alors inutile.

Notes: After a short introduction, the first part of this paper (section 3 through 9) provides an outline of the revisions proposed to the System of National Accounts (SNA) of the United Nations which are now under discussion. These proposals were considered by an expert group at the end of 1964 and were accepted by the Statistical Commission of the United Nations in 1965 as the basis for further work on the extension and revision of the SNA. The aim of the revision is to provide a fully integrated system of accounts and balance sheets in which input-output, flows-of-funds and sector balance sheets are incorporated in a generalised accounting framework. Whereas the real side of the economy has been studied analytically in many countries (input-output analysis, demand analysis and so on) much less experience is available on modelling the financial side of the economy, apart from econometric work on saving behaviour, which is fairly widespread. Accordingly, the second part of the paper (sections 10 through 14) contains a discussion of financial model-building in which a number of possibilities are explored. The final topic discussed (section 15) is demographic accounting, by which is meant a framework for recording and analysing human, as opposed to economic, flows and stocks. The development of such a system arose out of the emphasis placed by the expert group on the integration of demographic and economic information.

Notes: This paper is essentially a summary of the book Measuring the Nation's Wealth (Volume 29, Studies in Income and Wealth, New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1964), which is the report of study directed by the author. The purpose o f the study was to assess the problems and possibilities of conducting a national census of real wealth as a basis for continuing wealth and balance sheet estimates for the U.S. economy, by major sector.It is stressed that the balance sheets and wealth estimates should be designed as a consistent part of an integrated system of national income accounts. Thus, valuation (at market prices and/or depreciated replacement costs), sectoring, and type-of-asset detail in the basic data and derived estimates should be compatible with the flow estimates contained in the economic accounts. Consistency of stock and flow estimates facilitates analysis of inter-relationships, and is helpful in the estimation process.It is recommended that in the U.S. asset data by broad categories be collected as part of the recurring economic censuses and other reporting systems, but that detail on fixed reproducible assets (construction and equipment) at cost, by year or period of acquisition, be obtained from a small sample of respondents in each industry. The detail would be useful in its own right, and also permit revaluation of the assets by use of price indexes and depreciation rates to a current depreciated replacement cost basis. Where feasible, respondent estimates of market values would also be obtained.The proposal is thus a compromise between the Japanese 1955 sample survey of assets, and the detailed wealth inventory of the U.S.S.R. which was begun in 1959. Preliminary work is now underway in the U.S. federal statistical agencies to expand collection of asset data, and to prepare comprehensive wealth estimates in the framework of the national income accounts.

Notes: This paper is concerned with the influence of different estimation procedures on the data for real output by industry group of a number of O.E.C.D. countries. The authors have examined the methods and indicators used in preparing sector real output data and have tried to assess the effect of the different methods on the recorded changes of sector real output. The data for real output, employment and productivity are compared for the different sectors and countries. The comparison between sectors lays particular emphasis on the dichotomy between the services and non-service sectors of the economy. In this comparison as well as in inter-country comparison it is seen that the data are influenced to a considerable extent by different methods. The survey of estimation methods also shows the incidence of use of double deflation techniques and other methods in the different countries, and the extent to which quality change, output specification and valuation problems are reflected in the different methods.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. When amoeboid organisms of Naegleria gruberi are treated with acriflavin at concentrations under 70 μg/ml, they still can form flagellates. Acriflavin between 70 μg/ml and 110 μg/ml increasingly inhibits morphogenesis. The effect of acriflavin is specific for the morphogenetic system since amoeboid organisms treated with acriflavin between 110 and 200 μg/ml are not otherwise inhibited and behave like the controls.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tritrichomonas foetus was cultivated in Diamond's medium without phosphates or agar; 10% glycerol was added to the medium and the protozoa were frozen slowly and stored at −28 or −95 C. About half of the trichomonads died within the first day at either temperature. Thereafter, they continued to die off slowly during storage at −28, and none remained alive at or after 1024 days. New cultures could not be initiated with them after 64 days. At −95, almost as many trichomonads were alive after 256 days as after 1 day. Thereafter, however, they decreased in numbers, but 11% were still alive after 2048 days (5.6 years). The survivors appeared in good condition, and new cultures were readily initiated with them.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The 42% incidence of Plasmodium in blood films of English sparrows reported here is the highest on record for surveys of blood parasites of birds in the United States. The only Plasmodium species identified in the sparrows was P. relictum. Adult birds were almost universally infected and tended to experience the highest degree of parasitemia in the spring months, while young birds had a higher blood positivity in the summer months. The lowest incidence of Plasmodium positive blood films occurred in fall and winter in the Galveston area. Overwintering birds had a decrease in parasitemia corresponding to reported minimal gonadal activity in sparrows.The 20% incidence of Lankesterella (avian Toxoplasma) in the blood of these sparrows was also higher than has been reported in other blood film surveys in this country. Incidence of this parasite in blood films was highest in the summer months, corresponding with highest average temperature for the year. Lankesterella could be found in 95% of sparrows whose tissues were examined after autopsy.Ducks and pigeons in the immediate vicinity of the survey sparrows had neither Plasmodium nor Lankesterella in blood films. Resident wild birds from adjacent rural areas, including redwinged blackbirds, boat-tailed grackles, laughing gulls and meadowlarks, had fewer Plasmodium and Lankesterella than the sparrows. A few Lankesterella were found in the liver or spleen of young redwinged blackbirds, and only 2 of 79 wild birds had the organisms in their heart blood. Plasmodium was found only in meadowlarks and included P. hexamerium and elongatum as well as relictum.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Modifications of the silica gel technic of Perkins and Ogata have been successfully used to preserve Acrasis rosea for 6–13 months and Dictyostelium purpureum for 31 months. The technic is simple, reliable and inexpensive and is recommended for its possible application for the general preservation of certain fungi and protozoa.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The sterols of a number of protozoa grown in axenic culture have been examined. Ergosterol is present in Polytoma uvella, Astasia ocellata, Haematococcus pluvialis, Crithidia oncopelti, Prototheca zopfii, Chilomonas paramoecium and Trypanosoma mega, all grown on sterol-free media. Ergosterol is also present in the culture form of Trypanosoma rhodesiense and occurs together with cholesterol and an unidentified sterol in Peranema trichophorum grown in the presence of cholesterol. P. uvella, A. ocellata, H. pluvialis and C. oncopelti also contain a sterol which is either spinasterol or its isomer chondrillasterol. The main sterol of Ochromonas malhamensis is probably poriferasterol, which is also present in C. paramoecium. Cholesterol, probably from the environment, is the only sterol in the blood form of T. rhodesiense. Tetrahymena pyriformis and Hartmannella rhysodes do not synthesize sterols.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The effects of the trypanocidal drug, pentamidine, on the ribosomal fraction of Crithidia oncopelti have been investigated in vivo and in vitro. Addition of the drug to ribosomes isolated from the organisms led to release of magnesium and some protein from the particles. The ribosomes were aggregated when significant release of magnesium had occurred. Loss of magnesium was dependent on density of the ribosomal suspension but not on the magnesium concentration. Spermine, propamidine and stilbamidine had a similar effect in releasing magnesium from the particles. The majority of pentamidine (80%) or stilbamidine (70%) added to suspensions of ribosomes became bound to the particles and could not readily be removed by washing. Stilbamidine was not released in the presence of adenosine triphosphate. Slight stabilisation of 80S particles was observed in the presence of pentamidine and absence of magnesium.Incubation of organisms in the presence of growth-inhibitory concentrations of pentamidine led to no significant change in the ribosomal content of the organisms, even when complete inhibition of the ability to incorporate C14-glycine into nucleic acid and protein had occurred. There was no significant decrease in the magnesium content of ribosomes isolated from organisms incubated in the presence of pentamidine.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A description is given of the interphase nuclear apparatus of Urostyla grandis, which has many macronuclei and a few micronuclei. The macronucleus is bounded by a typical double envelope. Chromatinic material in the macronucleus forms a large, irregular network composed of threads up to 500 mμ in thickness which are thicker than those in the macronuclei of most ciliates. The nucleoli are round bodies about 1–2 μ in diameter and are embedded in the matrix enclosed in chromatin threads. The micronucleus is bounded by a double, porous envelope similar to that of the macronucleus. Chromatinic material in the micronucleus forms a small network of comparatively thin threads, 60–80 mμ thick. At high magnifications, both the chromatin threads in the macronucleus and in the micronucleus appear to be composed of fine twisted fibrils about 10 mμ thick. The reorganization band which traverses each macronucleus in the late interphase is divided into two zones: the forward zone consists of fine, twisted fibrils 30 mμ thick formed by pairs of parallel fibrils each 10 mμ thick. The rear zone consists of small chromatin bodies and thin threads, both 80 mμ in diameter, consisting of fine fibrils 10 mμ thick. Reorganized chromatin threads appear to be thin spiral threads 80–130 mμ thick in striking contrast to the thick threads of 100–500 mμ diameter composing the large, irregular network observed in the early interphase macronucleus.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Two new species of the simple mycetozoan genus Schizoplasmodium—S. ovatum and S. gracile—are described, the former having ovate spores and the latter spherical ones. All stages of the life cycle are multinucleate. At sporulation the holozoic plasmodium segments into prespore cells which develop directly into long-stalked, single-spored sporocarps. Sexual reproduction was not observed. A new order—the PROTOSTELIDA—is proposed for this and related genera, which are believed to comprise a phylogenetically linked series, beginning with the amoebo-flagellate genus Cavostelium and evolving through Schizoplasmodium to Protostelium. The two families Cavostelidae (Cavostelium) and Protostelidae (Schizoplasmodium, Protostelium) are recognized.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Histriculus vorax (Stokes) Corliss, a hypotrichous ciliate, has been separated from activated sludge and cultured monoxenically in the laboratory. The asexual life cycle has been observed and the stages of development photographed. There are large variations in shape and size of cells within clonal cultures. Both large (190–250 μ long) and small (70–140 μ long) cells are capable of normal asexual binary fission but only the large cells are able to grow endogenous buds, which, when mature, are extruded through the body wall of the mother cell. Newly deposited buds can either develop directly into an embryonic form, or, if unfavorable conditions prevail, first encyst. Similar embryonic stages bearing caudal and frontal cirri are produced both by direct development and by excystment of the encysted bud. Embryos develop rapidly into trophic forms which finally grow into small adults capable of asexual binary fission. During binary fission the nuclei behave as described previously for other members of the Oxytrichidae. A reorganization band forms at the outer end of each macronucleus, and these bands move along the macronuclei towards each other, finally disappearing at the inner ends. A fusion nucleus is then formed which splits into 4 pieces, 2 of which pass to the proter and 2 to the opisthe. During bud formation the reorganisation bands form and move as in binary fission. No fusion nucleus is formed, but the macronuclei divide immediately after reorganization, and the anterior macronucleus of each pair so produced migrates to the budding region. The infraciliature of H. vorax resembles that of Opisthotricha monspessulana.‘Erratic’ kinetosomes, which are present in the adult, divide during binary fission and so produce the infraciliature of the proter and opisthe. During bud formation the budding region receives a number of these ‘erratic’ kinetosomes from the mother cell, and these divide to form the infraciliature of the bud.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Polysphondylium pallidum WS-320 grows indefinitely as vegetative amebae in a liquid medium where (a) substrates comprise sucrose, glycerol, acetate, lactate, citrate, and glutamate; (b) essential nutrients (riboflavin, lysine, glycine, and possibly several other amino acids that may be essential) are supplied. The growth thus supported (2 × 106 cells/ml) is more than doubled by provision of a mixture of crude fatty acids, an acid hydrolysate of casein supplemented with B vitamins, purines, pyrimidines, and fat-soluble antioxidants.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The present study has been directed to a serological comparison of three closely similar species of Entamoeba: E. histolytica, E. invadens and E. moshkovskii, and two free-living soil amoebae: Hartmannella rhysodes and Mayorella palestinensis. Except for E. histolytica and E. moshkovskii, the other amoebae used here were grown axenically; this is the first report of the use of antigenic extracts from axenic cultures of parasitic amoebae.The method described here provides a potent antigen that elicits a good antibody titer and is generally applicable to both parasitic and free-living amoebae. Amoebae pooled from well-grown cultures were thoroughly washed, sonicated and mixed with Freund's Adjuvant; this antigenic preparation was injected into rabbits. Two subcutaneous injections were given at three-week intervals, and 2-3 weeks thereafter blood was withdrawn to obtain antiserum. Agar-gel diffusion, cellulose acetate paper and fluorescent antibody technics were used to test the antigen-antibody (Ag-Ab) reactions.Results of the Ag-Ab reactions can be summarized as follows: 1) The homologous Ag-Ab reaction was obtained in all cases tested. 2) There was no serological reaction between the parasitic and free-living amoebae tested. 3) There was a definite serological reaction between H. rhysodes and M. palestinensis. 4) Multiple antigens were found in E. invadens (PZ strain) and E. histolytica (DKB strain) when they were tested against anti-PZ serum and anti-DKB serum, respectively, and no reaction was found when the other test antigens were exposed to these two antisera in gel-diffusion tests. 5) With the fluorescent antibody technic, E. histolytica (Laredo strain), E. moshkovskii (DSR strain) and E. histolytica (DKB strain) showed some degree of serological reaction in descending order when they were stained with conjugated anti-E. invadens serum.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Induction of the resistant stage in the Amoebidiales appears to be dependent upon a morphogenetic factor derived from the host animal. This triggering substance is released either at death or ecdysis of the host arthropod. Growth of the epizoon, Amoebidium parasiticum, in both complex and defined media, follows a sporangiospore sporangium pattern. The amoeba-cyst phase, however, was only noted after crushed host material (Cladocera) was added to the axenically grown thalli. Subsequent tests, evaluated with a quantitative assay, indicate that amoebagenesis is influenced by pH, temperature, condition of the protist, and concentration of the active principle. Commercial “dried daphnia” has consistently yielded an active extract. A large number of complex and simple materials has been screened for activity, and only extracts of ground crab show promise as an alternate source. The amoebagenic factor is heat stable, relatively small, and not soluble in ether, acetone or chloroform. Paper chromatography with polar solvent systems yields a single active band, and this is the best evidence that amoebagenesis is induced by a single, rather than a multiple factor. Paramoebidium, the second genus in this obscure order, undergoes amoebagenesis at ecdysis of the host. The possibility that Amoebidium and Paramoebidium are simply different growth forms of the same protist is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Plasmodium fischeri n. sp. is described from the blood of Chamaeleo fischeri taken along the edge of the rain forest at Amani, Tanganyika. This parasite differs from P. acuminatum previously described from this host in the same area. P. fischeri can maintain a parasitemia for over a year in this host. No exoerythrocytic stages were seen. Both plasmodia have a very limited geographical distribution. Attempts to find a possible arthropod vector by exposing chameleons in an insect trap in the endemic area were unsuccessful.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Neustonic choanoflagellates can be found in marine tide pools in the San Juan Islands, Washington, and on the Monterey Peninsula, California. Several marine photo-synthetic Chrysophyceae (in the Pedinellaceae), which also occur in these regions, have a basic structure so similar to choanoflagellates that this family is placed in the Craspedomonadales. In pointing out this relationship, the derivation of the Craspedomonadales from pigmented Chrysophyceae is strongly indicated.In addition to the naked choanoflagellates, which are placed in the Codonosigaceae, these organisms produce loricae of two different types: 1) loricae possibly of cellulose and without visible structure in the light microscope (Salpingoecaceae), 2) loricae composed of silica strands, sometimes forming a mesh with large open spaces (Acanthoecaceae). Members of the latter family seem to be confined to a marine environment and are a prominent part of this investigation. Examination of several species with the electron microscope has revealed interesting details of lorica morphology that are not visible with the light microscope.Several new combinations of taxa are proposed in addition to new taxa, including 4 new species of Salpingoeca, 3 new species of Diploeca and 4 new species of Pleurasiga. Three new genera are described, Ellisiella gen. nov., Acanthoecopsis gen. nov., and Sportelloeca gen. nov.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. One-day-old chicks were less susceptible to experimental infection with E. acervidina than were 3-day-old chicks. Chicks fed intact oocysts when 3 days old produced 5.3, 6.7, and 42.7 times as many oocysts and had more extensive lesions than did those fed a similar number of oocysts when 1 day old. When oocyst suspensions that contained both liberated sporocysts and intact oocysts were administered, chicks infected when 3 days old produced only 1.8, 1.3, and 2.6 times as many oocysts as did those infected when 1 day old.Examination of gizzard and intestinal contents of chicks killed 2–1½ hr after receiving massive numbers of intact oocysts showed that only a few sporocysts were liberated from oocysts in the gizzard of 1-day-old chicks, whereas more were liberated in the gizzard of 3-day-old chicks. Very few sporozoites were found in the duodenum of the 1-day-old chicks. but there was a linear increase in the percentages in samples from lower levels of the small intestine. In 3-day-old chicks, excystation in the duodenum was high and, instead of increasing, remained at about the same level in the jejunum.The far smaller number of liberated sporocysts in the gizzards of 1-day-old chicks is attributed to less musculature and an incompletely developed grinding surface The delayed excystation of sporozoites in the intestine of 1-day-old chicks is thought to be due to suboptimal concentrations of trypsin and/or other pancreatic enzymes effecting excystation.The lighter infections observed in 1-day-old chicks, as compared to those in chicks 3 days old, are attributed to (a) a smaller number of liberated sporocysts leaving the gizzard, (b) delayed excystation in the intestine, and (c) less opportunity for sporozoites to penetrate epithelial cells.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Regeneration of different stocks of Blepharisma representing several species is retarded to different degrees by identical doses of UV radiation (2654 Å). UV susceptibility of regeneration is greater in some small-sized stocks than in some large-sized stocks and in stocks with a lesser amount of pigment than in the more deeply pigmented ones. For the same dose regeneration is retarded more by low-intensity than by high-intensity short wavelength UV radiation. The UV action spectrum for regeneration delay in the Rao A stock, determined with UV of similar intensity at various short UV wavelengths, resembles absorption by nucleoprotein more than ahsorption by other cell constituents. Post-regeneration division is also retarded by UV, and the aotion spectrum for division delay resembles that for regeneration delay, except that 2801 A is relatively more effective in retarding division than regeneration. Possible explanations for the results are considered.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Sporozoans belonging to the genus Babesiosorna were found in the erythrocytes of a young Catostomus collected in northern California. This is the first record of these parasites in a North American teleost. All stages of the schizogonic cycle and also the “gametocytes” were observed in the erythrocytes of the host Descriptions and measurements of these stages are given, and comparisons with the four known species of Babesiosoma are made. This parasite represents a new species, for which the name, Babesiosoma tetragonis, is proposed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The relationship between Astasia longa and a streptomycin-bleached strain of Euglena grocilis has been examined by several criteria. The organisms differ in their sensitivity to actinomycin D and 8-azaguanine in their ability to incorporate C14-labeled leucine, and in their sensitivity to a new antibiotic called primycin. Euglena forms an induced acid phosphatase when grown in phosphate-deficient medium, but Astasia does not. On the basis of these and other differences, it is suggested that these two organisms are separate genera. Understanding of cell division in these cells has been increased by discovery of an array of tubular fibrils corresponding to a spindle apparatus in the nucleus of a dividing Astasia. This finding, plus the observation that presumptive pellicle complexes are formed during prophase, clarify the fission mechanisms in these organisms.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Antibodies to purified chloroplast preparations from Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris were prepared in rabbits. Success was achieved only after removal of lipids by forming acetone powders af chloroplasts. Ouchterlony agar-diffusion procedures showed that light-grown cells (containing chloroplasts) have at least 3 antigens reacting with these antibodies and not detectable in the dark-grown cells (which contained proplastids but no chloroplasts), The antigens uniquely associated with the chloroplast appear sequentially during the development of the proplastid into the chloroplast on light induction of the dark-grown cells. The first of these antigens appears at about 10 hr of development. Mutants of the parent strain showed varying numbers of antigens which were cor-related with their capacities to form plastid structures. Cells developing abnormal chloroplasts at low light intensities did not reveal any antigenic differences from cells developing normal chloroplasts. Various antigenic bands were also found which were common to all cell types studied. These can be ascribed either to non-chloroplast contaminants in the original preparation used to immunize the rabbits or to antigens which, although not in the chloroplasts, are cross-reacting with chloroplast materials. In the case of the dark-grown cells, it is likely that portions of the proplastids are cross-reacting with chloroplast materials.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Although the Haemosporidina are a large group, few of them arc well known. Those considered here are called the “lesser Haemosporidina” because they have, on the whole, much less impovtance than the malaria parasites of man. They are, nevertheleq far from insignificant because some cause serious disease in the lower animals and probably play an important role in the maintenance of biological balances. Their use as research tools has also often led to very useful discoveries directly applicable to human malaria.Only four species of the 60 or so now known in the genus plasmodium parasitize man; we are still ignorant of many of the most elemental facts relating to the biology of the rest. The rectors of many remain undiscovered and, partly as a result, their exoerythrocytic stages have never been observed. Even when such knowledge cxists. there are many lacunae in what we know of thcir physioloey. A really practical method of cultivating the various stapes would be of great help.We also need much more knowledge of the close relatives of the malaria parasites, comprising the genera Hueinoprofeits, Hepatocystis, and Lertcocytoroon. There are close parallels in their host occurrence which undoubtedly have evolutionary significance. Yet such facts are difficult to interpret, although it seems likely that Haenzoproteus may be the oldest of the four.Whether Babesia and Dactylosoma should be included in the Harniosporidimz has been questioned. It is the author's opinion that it would be better to retain them. Despite important differences there are basic similarities. Much remains unknown about Babesia and very little of importance is known about Dactylosoma. This genus is known from Anura all over the world, and seems usually to occur in frogs and toads, in which the species is usually thought to be D. Ranarum. Other species have been occasionally reported from other amphibia and even from fish. Nothing at all is known of its transmission or life cycle. Its occurrence in frogs in very widely separated areas may have the same significance which Metcalf many years ago attached to the similar occurrence of the opalinids: it may be evidence for the existence in remote times of land bridges connecting land masses now remote from one another.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Electron-microscopic observations of Spirostomum ambiguum have demonstrated additional details of superficial and deep tubular connections with peristomial and somatic kinetosomes. The superficial peristomial tubules appear to connect adjacent rows of kinetosomes. Anatomically, they course distally from the proximal kinetosomal plate. The deep tubules run proximally from the kinetosomal plate. Those in the somatic region appear to enter the endoplasm; those in the peristomial region leave the kinetosome as bundles of either 10 or 11 tubules which steadily converge to form 2 compact rows of 10 tubular bundles. These tubules connect to 2 of the 3 rows of 10 cilia each, the rows of 3 being separated by membranous folds protruding perpendicular to the peristomial groove. The rows of bundles converge further, enter the endoplasm and fan out again into tubular sheets, some of which appear to course in an antero-posterior direction. Another set of tubules arises from each of the kinetosomes in the 3rd row of 10 kinetosomes and courses proximally at a different angle from those arising from the 2 other kinetosome rows. Terminations have not been observed for the deep somatic or peristomial tubules. Their possible role in producing the forceful longitudinal contraction of Spirostomum is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cysts of Sarcocystis sp. are described from a dog. They are spherical to elongate, 110–250 μ in diameter, and contain numerous crescentic trophozoites measuring 4–5 × 1.5 μ. No septa were seen. This is the first report of Sarcocystis from a domestic carnivore.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cytoplasmic inclusions appear rapidly in Leishmania enriettii exposed to 37 C. The staining of these droplets with oil red O, their extraction in non-polar solvents, and their fine structure by electron microscopy establish their identity as lipid droplets. Fatty acid profiles of these organisms show alterations concomitant with the development of these inclusions. Oleic acid increases while linolenic acid is depressed in cells exposed to elevated temperature. A greater incorporation of exogenous radioactive stearic acid occurs, with depressed specific activities of linoleic and linolenic acids compared to values obtained with control organisms. The isolated lipids of L. enriettii have temperature-dependent changes consistent with a physical interpretation of events which occur with temperature inactivation. The temperature lability of fatty acid metabolism is discussed in terms of the synthesis and stability of cellular membranes and organelles.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Total counts of Eimeria vilasi and E. wisconsinensis oocysts in 0.05 g fecal samples from the eastern chipmunk over a 2-year period indicated that the 2 species had respective occurrences of 100% and 11% and an actual abundance ratio of 35 to 1. In the red squirrel similar counts of E. tamiasciuri and E. toddi over a 3-year period indicated occurrences of 98% and 6% and an actual abundance ratio of 26 to 1, respectively. These results parallel a similar dichotomy in percent occurrence of 7 Eimeria in the sciurid genera Cynomys and Marmota.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. By means of precipitation with protamine sulfate, a soluble antigen (PS) was obtained from erythrocytes of horses with acute babesiosis due to Babesia caballi and B. equi. This antigen reacted in gel diffusion tests with sera from horses recovered from acute babesiosis. The PS antigen was found to be muco-protein, susceptible to destruction by trypsin and taka-diastase. Analysis of the antigen by paper electrophoresis revealed 2 components which were not present in similar preparations made from erythrocytes of Babesia-free horses.When the PS antigen was heated in boiling water for 30 minutes, a serologically inactive precipitate was formed; however, the supernate remained serologically active and was termed boiled PS (BPS) antigen. This antigen was polysaccharide in nature; its serologic activity was destroyed by taka-diastase.In gel diffusion tests with sera of recovered horses, the PS antigen formed 2 lines of precipitation which coalesced in a single line formed between these sera and the BPS antigen. Both PS and BPS antigens reacted with sera of horses recovered from acute babesiosis in the gel-diffusion test, but not with sera of dogs and rats recovered from acute infection with Babesia canis and Babesia rodhaini, respectively. The serologic specificity of these antigens suggests that they might have application in the serodiagnosis of inapparent Babesia infections of equine animals.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Euglena gracilis (bacillaris variety, strain SM-L1, streptomycin-bleached) used the following amino adds (10−3 M) as sole nitrogen source for growth on a defined medium: glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, threonine, and glutamic acid. Aspartic acid was used at 10−2 M. Glutamine and asparagine were used at 10−3 M and were better N sources than their parent dicarboxylic amino acids. Not used as sole N source for growth were phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, cysteine, cystine, methionine, proline, hydroxyproline, histidine, arginine, lysine, and taurine. Astasia longa (Jahn strain) was more restricted than Euglena and used only asparagine and glutamine as N sources for growth.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Gigantomonas usually exists in the multinucleate stage. Hence, multiple fission is more common than binary fission. In its flagellate as well as its aflagellate state it is always an amoeboid cell which possesses from one to several large, clear pseudopodia. Fairly often in the multinucleate, as well as the uninucleate, stage no extranuclear organelles are present except large plain centrioles, two of which are always closely associated with each nucleus. During nuclear reproduction four centrioles, two old ones and two new ones, are always present with each nucleus. During all nuclear reproductions, regardless of the number of nuclei present, extranuclear organelles, such as flagella, axostyle, undulating membrane, and costa when present are discarded. If they are renewed, it is by the new centrioles at the same time that the old ones produce new central spindles, two always cooperating in the process. Thus, Gigantomonas, like other genera of the Devescovinidae, the family to which it belongs, never has for each nucleus present more than one set of extranuclear organelles, a characteristic which Devescovinidae and Lophomonadidae have in common. It is the only genus of Devescovinidae without a parabasal body.Owing to the liquidness of the cytoplasm, the central spindle, which becomes very long indeed, often extends beyond the cytoplasm and thus pushes the nucleus fastened to this end of it completely out of the cell. Mainly because of this situation, multinucleate forms with an odd number of nuclei occur often; otherwise the nuclear numbers would be 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., because, no matter how many nuclei are present, they all reproduce simultaneously or nearly so.An unusual situation occurs in which Gigantomonas ingests and digests a small species of Holomastigotoides, while several hundred individuals of the latter become attached to and destroy Gigantomonas.