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  • Articles  (1,379)
  • Blackwell Publishing Ltd  (1,379)
  • American Institute of Physics (AIP)
  • American Physical Society
  • 1985-1989  (1,379)
  • 1935-1939
  • Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering  (1,379)
Collection
  • Articles  (1,379)
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Year
  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The paper reviews the context and contribution of agricultural land drainage in the UK and discusses the design and performance of land drainage improvement and maintenance schemes. The environmental impacts of land drainage are considered, and how drainage activities can be, and are being, modified to meet environmental criteria.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A strategy is described which was adopted to ensure compliance with the EC Directive on Drinking Water, at six rural locations in Northumberland. These areas, plus a more widespread community in the Tyne Valley, are served by Catcleugh reservoir, a typical upland coloured source. Treatment of the smaller locations was carried out by single-stage pressure-filter plants, and for the larger area by a two-stage treatment works.Three of the small pressure-filtration plants have been closed, and the supply has been replaced from the two-stage plant. In the other three cases, two improvements are complete: one a dissolved-air flotation scheme, the other low-rate single-stage pressure filtration. Improvements to the third station are in the planning stage.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A recent survey has suggested that up to 25 000 km of UK sewerage networks may be affected by in-pipe sediment deposits. Field evidence indicates that, typically, up to 90% of the pollution load discharged from storm sewage overflows may be derived from the erosion of accumulated in-system sediment, commonly referred to as silt.A sewer flow quality simulation model is being developed under the aegis of the WRc/Water Industry Collaborative River Basin Management research programme. Such a model will enable sewerage engineers and water quality planners to produce more effective designs for sewerage rehabilitation schemes to control river pollution. In order to produce this model it is necessary to understand the nature, characteristics and controlling mechanisms of in-pipe sediment deposits.Field observations, coupled with sampling and analysis of combined sewer sediment deposits, have produced a five category classification for such sediments. Each category has distinctive characteristics in terms of appearance, composition and polluting potential.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Following adoption of the EC Directive 86/280/EEC, three major point sources of pentachlorophenol (PCP) were identified in the River Forth catchment. At least one of these was known to be causing serious water pollution. While methods to determine low concentrations of PCP in the environment were being developed, discussions were held with the dischargers on ways to eliminate PCP from their effluent. Despite the additional costs involved, agreement was reached on the substitution of alternative, biodegradable fungicides. Although these major polluting discharges of PCP have now been eliminated, background levels of PCP found in rivers in the Forth River Purification Board's area show that other minor sources of PCP remain, indicative of the widespread use of this powerful and persistent fungicide.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: , Selected and edited by Charles Kerr. Published by Intermediate Technology Publications. 1989.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Britain's Poisoned Water, by Frances and Phil Craig. Published by Penguin Books. 1989.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Running Water, by Charles Hall. Published by Robertson McCarta. 1989.〈section xml:id="abs1-4"〉〈title type="main"〉Air Pollution, Acid Rain and the Environment, edited by Kenneth Mellanby. Published on behalf of the Watt Committee on Energy by Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG11 8JU. 1988.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper compares the estimates of percentage land cover derived from airborne thematic mapper data with those from a traditional survey method. The latter include existing Ordnance Survey maps and an on-the-ground survey supplemented by aerial photographs. The thematic mapper data are segmented using two methods: thresholding and classification. Nine catchments are surveyed using the three methods. The different results are discussed, and their implications for the calculation of surface runoff are investigated. Estimates of the relative costs in the traditional and remote-sensing methods are compared, simulated satellite images of the study are analysed, and the potential use of satellite data in this application is discussed.
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: As the debate on the fairness of water metering continues, the Hotwells metering trial has revealed two new contentious issues which could add credibility to the arguments of those who are opposed to a universal system. One could not have predicted that the safety of electrical appliances would make media headlines on the subject of water metering, or that supporters of rateable value should object to being charged by measured floor area when these two systems are so similarThis paper sets out to concentrate on two particular problems which were encountered during the consultative and installation phases of the Hotwells trial. Whilst the author would not claim to be able to provide definitive answers, he can share the approaches taken by the Company on apportionment and electrical earthing, and highlight I-the most important factors.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper reviews operational and experimental disinfection techniques for the removal of pathogens from sewage and secondary effluent prior to marine discharge. Disinfection options considered include chlorine (hypochlorite, chloramines, OSEC), ultraviolet light (UV), ozone, chlorine dioxide, bromine chloride, peracetic acid (PAA) and gamma irradiation. A comparison of alternative systems is made in terms of their inactivation efficiency, safety, environmental impact and cost. Budget costs were obtained from chemical and equipment suppliers for the disinfection of a theoretical case-study, to enable a direct cost-comparison to be made.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper describes a hydrodynamic mathematical-modelling study to investigate the flooding problem and to recommend various flood-alleviation measures for the White Cart Water on the southern side of Glasgow. The mathematical model covers 36 km of the White Cart to the tidal reaches at the confluence with the River Clyde, and includes 7 km of one of the major tributaries where regular flooding is also a problem. A key aspect of the study was the close proximity of the modelling team which permitted a close scrutiny of the river during high-flow events. From these observations the team obtained a thorough appreciation of river behaviour during potential flood situations, which provided a reliable and comprehensive set of data for model calibration over a wide range of conditions. The proposals for flood alleviation have far-reaching implications and require major capital expenditure. At present they are being examined by Strathclyde Regional Council in consultation with the many interested parties.
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Internationally-funded groundwater projects have recently been completed for the main urban areas of PDR Yemen. The necessary resources to secure potable supplies into the next century have been proved in Cretaceous sandstone, Eocene limestone and Quaternary clastic aquifers, and their investigation has highlighted the importance of comprehensive hydrogeological studies prior to permanent works design and construction. The projects discussed will improve the quantity, quality and accessibility of potable water to nearly one third of the country's population.
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: In recent years a large number of conflicts associated with environmental risks have arisen in Hungary. The case study described here is related to the siting of a hazardous waste incinerator in Dorog. First, the history of the siting procedure is outlined in terms of the multiparty, multiattribute decision framework. Subsequently, the case reveals how stakeholder groups can be identified in the structure of decision-making, how they think about the object causing the conflict, about the conflict itself, and the possibilities of resolving it. In investigating the conflict, a combination of analytical tools were applied. The multiple-perspective model of Linstone and the argumentation analysis of Toulmin provided the frame for analyzing the information collected by interviews in the affected town, Dorog, and two other towns affected to different degrees in environmental problems.
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Many problems arise in connection with the communication of risk information. In this article the content of the information communicated is taken as a starting-point for analyzing the risk communication process. We studied the way in which authorities communicated health risks to local residents in Dutch soil pollution situations and found that communication problems were characterized more by misunderstanding and conflict between parties with different views and interests than by a lack of understanding. Therefore, it is important to look more closely at the way the communicators of information (in our cases, officials) select risk information from risk assessments, and to study the effects that the information selected has on the receivers (in our cases, residents). Both the process of selection by the officials and the process of interpretation by the residents will be shown to be influenced by the different institutional backgrounds. The article presents a new approach to risk communication. Both the risk information presented by the authorities and the public reactions to this risk information are considered to reflect the institutional background of authorities and residents, and can be analyzed in these terms. Such an approach has consequences for the study of risk communication and the manner in which it is practiced.
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  • 16
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Risk communication is seen as an important adjunct to the process of siting locally noxious facilities. To understand how risk communication might function in such a process, one needs to understand the political context that gives rise to public opposition to such facilities in the first place. This analysis draws on a variety of data to describe the decline of deference, a situation in which a hostile and alienated public is mobilized primarily through ad hoc voluntary organizations, and is increasingly reluctant to defer important decisions to institutional elites. Risk communication programs must be designed to offset the trends that result in the decline of deference. This conclusion differs markedly from the conventional wisdom that risk communication is merely a device for providing information to citizens so sthat they may make more rational decisions.
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Any personal or societal activity, besides bringing us benefits, also carries some risk. Energy production and use are no exceptions. In order to judge these risks, they must be quantified, and the risks of all alternative methods of producing this energy must then be compared among each other. These risks originate in many parts of the energy cycle; they are diverse in character and involve different parts of the population. It is therefore necessary to discriminate between many aspects of risk so that only reasonably comparable categories are compared. The results of a critical analysis of the international risk literature are presented, which are applicable to power production plants as they could be built today in central European countries. This review pays special attention to the possibility of severe accidents occurring, which attract so much attention in our modern societies. It turns out that the health risks of routine nuclear energy production are lower than the risks of other energy options, particularly for the general public. The probability of a severe accident occurring is far higher for all conventional energy options. Only the renewable systems utilizing the energy of the sun and the wind are not susceptible to severe accidents.
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  • 19
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 21
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 22
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Although there is a large body of literature on the unwillingness of the insurance industry to offer protection against risks such as environmental pollution, there has been only limited analysis regarding two key actors in the decision process—actuaries and underwriters. However, if actuaries and underwriters feel that a particular type of risk is uninsurable, then it is unlikely to be offered. This paper investigates how ambiguities associated with a risk affect actuary and underwriter decision processes, the paper contends that the decision of the insurance industry to not provide protection against environmental pollution liability is due to ambiguity of the risk. Empirical evidence from controlled laboratory experiments with actuaries and a model of choice in underwriter decision processes support this point.
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  • 23
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: One of the more critical environmental risk areas involves the financing of cleanup costs associated with past improper disposal of hazardous wastes. These costs will run into the tens of billions of dollars. The federal Superfund program and related state programs are the driving forces for cleaning up hazardous waste. Under Superfund, the government collects taxes and coordinates cleanup strategies, and searches for potentially responsible parties (generators, disposers, transporters) to assist in financing the cleanup. To lessen the financial impact, responsible parties are looking to their liability insurers to provide coverage under old general liability insurance policies. Insurance companies contend that Superfund liabilities are not covered under liability policies. The paper examines the various financing methods and liabilities produced by Superfund. Particular emphasis is placed on developments in the courts which are resulting in a significant shift in the financial responsibilities to the insurance industry. Broad estimates of the financial impact of Superfund liabilities are developed. Finally, several public policy issues, which are raised by the topics exmained in this paper, are discussed.
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  • 24
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A mathematical model to aid in assessment of human environmental exposure to volatile organic substances is presented. The model simulates the convective and diffusive transport of gas from the ambient environment into the human body by way of the respiratory and circulatory systems. Data required include easily obtained physical and chemical properties of substances as well as several estimated or measured physiological parameters. Transient and steady-state tissue concentrations resulting from an input atmospheric partial pressure are predicted. From these concentrations, an effective dose may be calculated, allowing for the determination of an exposure-response relationship based upon independently obtained dose-response data. The model's results compare favorably to experimental data on oxygen and halothane. Steady-state conditions are reached very rapidly. These results suggest that uptake of these substances is limited by both ventilation and perfusion. The sensitivities of steady-state concentrations to changes in the ventilation and perfusion rates are demonstrated to be essentially linear within the current neighborhoods. Conditions in which the primary processes of ventilation, diffusion, perfusion, and elimination limit uptake of gases are considered. Expressions describing the conditions necessary for a single process to limit gas uptake are derived. Accompanying equations for estimating tissue concentrations under these limiting conditions are presented.
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  • 25
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Some decisions made today have far-reaching consequences as exemplified by those concerning nuclear power and spent nuclear fuel. The investigation presented here uses a decision theoretic framework in which time horizons and the discounting of negative consequences play significant roles. The results indicated wide variations in the lengths of the planning horizons judged to be adequate not only across a number of activities, including nuclear waste management, but also across groups of subjects (e.g., engineering students, retired people, and nuclear fuel experts). The paper reports typical judgments and correlations between different variables for different groups of subjects. The differences across groups reflect potential sources of conflict, depending in part on different values and different perceptions of more or less uncertain facts. Discounting functions for negative consequences in the future were also established. A range in differences in the speed of discounting were found and illustrated. Furthermore, it was found that substantial proportions in all groups regarded negative consequences related to nuclear waste as nondiscountable. When asked about the effect of time until outcome on acceptable probability of a negative outcome, many subjects used the probability concept in an incoherent way, illustrating the great difficulty in communicating small probabilities in a long-term risk context.
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  • 26
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Five years of the annual Health Interview Survey, conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics, are used to estimate the effects of air pollution, smoking, and environmental tobacco smoke on respiratory restrictions in activity for adults, and bed disability for children. After adjusting for several socioeconomic factors, the multiple regression estimates indicate that an independent and statistically significant association exists between these three forms of air pollution and respiratory morbidity. The comparative risks of these exposures are computed and the plausibility of the relative risks is examined by comparing the equivalent doses with actual measurements of exposure taken in the homes of smokers. The results indicate that: (1) smokers will have a 55–75% excess in days with respiratory conditions severe enough to cause reductions in normal activity; (2) a 1 μg increase in fine particulate matter air pollution is associated with a 3% excess in acute respiratory disease; and (3) a pack-a-day smoker will increase respiratory restricted days for a nonsmoking spouse by 20% and increase the number of bed disability days for young children living in the household by 20%. The results also indicate that the estimates of the effects of secondhand smoking on children are improved when the mother's work status is known and incorporated into the exposure estimate.
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  • 27
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 28
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 29
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The following situation has been considered: during an accident sequence, a crew has to do a proper set of actions within a finite time window in order to achieve a specific goal. The operator actions are considered independent, they are lined up in series, and a single failure leads to mission failure. This paper proposes a general methodology for assessing the crew response (or success) probability, through a convolution integral formulation. This method is general and can be applied to any response probability model; an application to the Human Cognitive Reliability model is given.
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  • 30
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper analyzes quantitatively the design of the Ocean Ranger off-shore oil drilling rig that capsized and sank on February 15, 1982 off the coast of Canada. A review of the actual disaster is also included based on evidence gathered by the Canadian Royal Commission. The risk analysis includes the construction of a failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) table, a fault tree, and a quantitative evaluation including common cause failure of the rig components. In the case of the Ocean Ranger ballast control system, it was shown that the analysis was able both to successfully model the catastrophic system failure of the portholes, the actual system failure mode, and identify a common cause failure mode of the pump system. This study represents an application of reliability and risk techniques to the oil services industry.
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  • 31
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Using group totals, young drivers, male drivers, and especially young male drivers are substantially over-represented in terms of both traffic accidents and traffic-related convictions. On the other hand, when accidents and convictions are considered in terms of their rates while the person is actually driving, older drivers and female drivers gain in importance, with the female drivers' traffic accident rate and rates for some convictions exceeding the male drivers' rates. Similarly, the older drivers' accident rate and rates on some convictions exceeded the younger drivers' rates when considered in terms of driving exposure. In addition, these findings lead one to speculate that recent driving exposure more than driver age is the central factor in traffic accident involvement. The implications for policy makers and educators are clear. Although young male drivers are undeniably a legitimate focus for traffic accident countermeasures, they should not be targeted at the expense of drivers who drive less but have as high or higher accident rates—female and older drivers.
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  • 32
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: In light of the Armitage-Doll multistage carcinogenesis theory, this paper examines the assumption that an additive relative risk relationship is indicative of two carcinogens that affect the same stage in the cancer process. We present formulas to compute excess cancer risks for a variety of patterns for limited exposure durations to two carcinogens that affect the first and penultimate stages; and using an index of synergy proposed by Thomas (1982), we find a number of these patterns to produce additive, or nearly additive, relative risk relationships. The consistent feature of these patterns is that the two exposure periods are of short duration and occur close together.
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  • 33
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 34
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Book Reviewed in this Article: Engineering Risk and Hazard Assessment Edited by Abraham Kandel and Eitan Avni Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. Applied Decision Support By Michael W. Davis Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Health Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields: Research, Communication, Regulation International Utility Symposium Toronto, Canada: Electric Power Research Institute, Canadian Electrical Association, Edison Electric Institute, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, Bonneville, Power Administration Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Restoration The Association of Ground Water Scientists and Engineers Dublin, OH: National Water Well Association Fault Detection and Reliability: Knowledge Based and Other Approaches Edited by M. G. Singh, K. S. Hindi, G. Schmidt, and S. Tzafestas Oxford: Pergamon Press Air Pollution, the Automobile, and Public Health Edited by Ann Y. Watson, Richard R. Bates, and Donald Kennedy Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press Pollution Threat of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Environments By Geoffrey Mance London: Elsevier Applied Science
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  • 35
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
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  • 36
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
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    Notes: A probabilistic risk assessment study has been undertaken in the French city of Lyons. The issue was to know whether it was justified to forbid hazardous material lorries in the city center and to divert them through the suburbs. Therefore, two routes, the City Center route and the Suburban route were compared. This paper describes the analysis and shows how the results were used in the decision-making process. It also lists the difficulties that are encountered when trying to incorporate formal risk analysis into actual decision-making processes. The risk analysis showed that rerouting is an effective option with respect to all criteria. The mathematical expectation of the number of deaths is divided by three, the reduction on the annual frequency of catastrophic accidents is even more important (about one order of magnitude for accidents involving more than 50 deaths). The spatial analysis proved that the risk was more evenly distributed along the Suburban route. However, the annual expected number of death is low: 0.5 in the worst case. So traditional decision-making approaches do not indicate the necessity of rerouting. Such a situation is believed to be typical for risk management of major hazards. In Lyons, the use of a very small risk aversion factor is sufficient to justify the rerouting option on a formal decision-aiding basis. This is rather unusual, but it is thought that the recognition of the importance of risk aversion by the decision-makers themselves is a very positive outcome from this study.
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    Notes: The main impetus to the development of information about major industrial hazards in the European Community comes from the so-called Seveso Directive, which defines an information network and requires the generation and transmission of information as the basis for accident prevention and risk management. This important policy development, which calls for the formal identification and analysis of major hazards and the communication of risk information to members of the public, presents new opportunities and challenges to risk analysis and research in Europe. This paper briefly reviews the accidents that gave rise to the Directive and shaped its content, and then summarizes its requirements. The status of its implementation in the EC Member States is discussed, with special emphasis given to the comparison of safety analysis practices, the Major Accident Reporting System (MARS), and risk communication. Some new research directions stimulated by the Directive are identified.
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    Notes: Risk Management and Hazardous Waste By Brian Wynne Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987 459 pp., $59.50 hb. Hazard Assessment of Chemicals, Vol. 5 Edited by Jitendra Saxena Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1987 440 pp., $59.50 hb. Pesticides: Minimizing the Risks Edited by Nancy N. Ragsdale and Ronald J. Kuhr Washington, D. C.: American Chemical Society, 1987 185 pp., $34.95 hb. Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: 10th Volume Edited by William J. Adams, Gary A. Chapman, and Wayne G. Landis Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication, 1988 580 pp., $64.00 hb. Silent Spring Revisited Edited by Gino J. Marco, Robert M. Hollingworth, and William Durham Washington, D. C.: American Chemical Society, 1987 214 pp., $29.95 hb. The Dilemma of Toxic Substance Regulation: How Overregulation Causes Underregulation at OSHA By John M. Mendelhoff Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1988 321 pp., $35.00 hb. Hazardous Materials Disposal: Siting and Management Edited by Manas Chatterji Brookfield, Vermont: Gower Publishing Co., 1987 331 pp., $59.50 hb. Guide to State Environmental Programs Edited by Deborah Hitchcock Jessup Washington, D. C.: The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1988 578 pp., $40.00 pb. Environmental Biotechnology: Reducing Risks from Environmental Chemicals through Biotechnology Edited by Gilbert S. Omenn; associate eds., Rita Colwell, A. M. Chakrabarty, Morris Levin, and Perry McCarty New York: Plenum Press, 1988 505 pp., $89.50 hg. Radioactivity and Nuclear Waste Disposal By Foo-Sun Lau New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987 615 pp., $144.00 hg. Managerial Decision Analysis By Danny Samson Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1988 745 pp., $43.95 hb.
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    Notes: Parodi et al.(1) and Zeise et al.(2) found a surprising statistical correlation (or association) between acute toxicity and carcinogenic potency. In order to shed light on the questions of whether or not it is a causal correlation, and whether or not it is a statistical or tautological artifact, we have compared the correlations for the NCI/NTP data set with those for chemicals not in this set. Carcinogenic potencies were taken from the Gold et al. database. We find a weak correlation with an average value of TD50/LD50= 0.04 for the non-NCI data set, compared with TD50/LD50= 0.15 for the NCI data set. We conclude that it is not easy to distinguish types of carcinogens on the basis of whether or not they are acutely toxic.
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    Notes: Bayesian methods can be very useful in modeling applications used in risk assessments. For example, a Bayesian analysis can be used to provide a probabilistic comparison of different probability models relative to a set of data, as well as to provide uncertainty bounds on the predictions from the various models. For more complex models or composite models, the Bayesian methods easily adapt to include the uncertainty on the weights associated with each of the models that comprise the composite model. Industry data representing the time to recovery of loss of off-site power at nuclear power plants are used within this paper to demonstrate these aspects of Bayesian analysis.〈section xml:id="abs1-1"〉〈title type="main"〉SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSThe Bayesian based method presented in Section 3 for the calculation of posterior odds provides the analyst with a way of quantifying the adequacy of different probability models for a set of data, and thus replaces the subjectivity with an objective criterion. The methods presented in Sections 4 and 5 provide a basis for constructing uncertainty bounds for recovery/probability curves. These uncertainty bounds are useful in risk assessments. The bounds capture parametric uncertainties and uncertainties about relative frequencies of various initiators of events. The methods presented in Section 6 demonstrate how to modify a model to incorporate specific information about the site under study.
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    Notes: Decision analysis is used to examine whether residential smoke detectors should be required by law. Statistics pertaining to fire incidence, fire death, smoke detector efficacy, and the consequences of fire are examined for accuracy and availability and combined in a decision model. A sensitivity analysis is performed on the model inputs. Included in the analysis is the idea that homes with detectors may have lower death rates due to the characteristics of those who purchase detectors rather than the detectors themselves. Results from the base case estimate show an expected cost of $65,000 per life saved when a law is enacted. This value lies well below the value implied by spending on other public safety programs.
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    Notes: Agency representatives often believe that if they could only find ways to explain risk data more clearly, communities would accept risk that scientists see as minimal, and take seriously risks scientists see as serious. While explaining the data effectively is important, agencies and industries need to place a greater priority on understanding community concerns, involving communities in risk decisions, and developing trust and credibility.
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    Notes: The use of random elements in accident analyses is practical in that it avoids the need to enumerate all possible failure paths and allows the application of probability analyses to some elements of a complex system. Sometimes, however, the concept of randomness is used only as a residual category to label unexplained features of accident analysis. When common cause failures or system interactions are involved, such an approach can be misleading. Analyses focusing upon nonrandom elements can thus be important in understanding failures of both technical and organizational systems, and some of the problems of such an approach are explored. A detailed analysis of a fatal fire in a railway sleeping car at Taunton, England, in 1978, demonstrates how initial errors can interact with an existing sociotechnical structure to produce new orderly patterns as an accident develops. A simple model to understand this nonrandom error propagation requires a description of the initial system structure in social and technical terms, specifying features such as the task and the sentient boundaries of subsystems. When an error or a set of errors is introduced into this system, the consequent system interventions are structured by the constraints of the preexisting system which they do not destroy. Rather than offering randomness as an account of such phenomena, the analysis encourages a search for regularities in the apparently unstructured events surrounding large-scale accidents or system failures.
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    Notes: Nuclear power production in France, as the domain of one national utility and one reactor builder, has a standardized profile of technical installations, safety procedures, and personnel qualifications. Despite this relative homogeneity, discrepancies are observed from one production unit to another, notably in the area of worker-safety performance. There is a strong implication for risk analysis: varying performance cannot be attributed solely to the technical dimensions of equipment, procedures, and human skills. The authors retain as a working hypothesis that safety performance is an outcome of interactions between technical and organizational factors. Traditional risk analysis appears to be underequipped to represent such interactions. The notion of decentralized risk analysis (DRA) is introduced as a means of achieving this goal. A program of applied research carried out in a NPP facility is presented. It aims at increasing, across plant work structure, knowledge and control of these interactions specific to the given context. Systematic measurements and feedback of social representations are performed, using a three-dimensional factor space of individual and organizational values. Direct involvement of the total plant population, transfer of analytic tools, methodological continuity, interactive elaboration of data, coordination of different levels of findings with operations, follow-up and feedback of measured change, are the main features of this DRA process. In the case cited, improvement observed in safety performance parallels changes in measured social representations. The value of DRA for articulating technical and organizational dimensions of risk, and for integrating information into decision-making, is argued.
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    Notes: Risk analyses in The Netherlands have been optimized so that they now express risks in a numerical form suitable for comparison to national safety standards. This factor is more important to national government than to local authorities; other factors relevant for local authorities are given less emphasis or even completely omitted from the results of the analysis. From a comparison of 16 risk analyses carried out during the last decade, it became clear that in the last 5 years the methods of risk analyses related to external safety have become unified. Results are now presented in terms of individual risk contours and in terms of F-N curves (accident frequency vs. exceeded number of fatalities). This unification seems to be a result of government policy. First, the implementation of the post-Seveso-directive (501/82/EC) in The Netherlands obliges a number of industries to provide the authorities with a quantitative risk assessment. Second, the government has set standards for the maximum permissible risk in residential areas. A unified type of risk analysis is a tool to achieve both these policies. From interviews with local government authorities, however, it has become clear that they need and use some quantitative risk information that is not provided by the unified analysis. They feel they need figures that provide insight into the effects of incidents and into the way effects may change as a result of safety measures. Ultimately, government policy may mean that local officials receive less information than before.
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    Notes: Workplace exposures to airborne chemicals are regulated in the U.S. by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) via the promulgation of permissible exposure limits (PELs). These limits, usually defined as eight-hour time-weighted average values, are enforced as concentrations never to be exceeded. In the case of chronic or delayed toxicants, the PEL is determined from epidemiological evidence and/or quantitative risk assessments based on long-term mean exposures or, equivalently, cumulative lifetime exposures. A statistical model was used to investigate the relation between the compliance strategy, the PEL as a limit never to be exceeded, and the health risk as measured by the probability that an individual's long-term mean exposure concentration is above the PEL. The model incorporates within-worker and between-worker variability in exposure, and assumes the relevant distributions to be log-normal. When data are inadequate to estimate the parameters of the full model, as it is in compliance inspections, it is argued that the probability of a random measurement being above the PEL must be regarded as a lower bound on the probability that a randomly selected worker's long-term mean exposure concentration will exceed the PEL. It is concluded that OSHA's compliance strategy is a reasonable, as well as a practical, means of limiting health risk for chronic or delayed toxicants.
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    Notes: So, we can argue that the lay public are not fools in their attitudes about risk. That nonexperts should show more concern over hazardous waste facilities in their neighborhoods than radon levels in their homes is not a sign of irrationality (because aggregate and individual risks are greater from the radon), but simply a sign that nonexperts are working from a different set of criteria. These criteria are incorporated in what I call the democratic model. The democratic model evaluates risk based on its social and political consequences, such as possible disruption in the social fabric or a loss of communality. Lay criteria for assessing the impact of risk decisions are not explicit, like the those of the risk analyst, but are embedded in cultural values. Similarly, lay evaluations of risk incorporate substantive and procedural democratic values, such as the acceptability of processes for making decisions, the ethics of the distribution of risk, and the capacity to control a source of risk in the community's interests. Finally, the democratic model relates judgments about risks to the competence (Can we trust them?) and the legitimacy (Should we trust them?) of the social institutions that impose and control those risks. The public's judgments about risk are not inferior, but different, and arguably richer than those of the experts.
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    Notes: Historically, mice have served a routine and useful purpose in the research, development, and testing of biologicals, chemicals, and drugs for efficacy, toxicity, and carcinogenic risk. The literature is replete with examples using mice to study organic compounds both in short-term tests involving tumor initiation and promotion and in long-term experiments dealing with fertility, reproduction, and teratology. During the past two decades, a virtual explosion of advances has occurred in modern biology that includes the discoveries of retroviruses, oncogenes, DNA restriction enzymes, nucleotide sequence analyses, and microinjection techniques. Fusion of these milestones in genetic, molecular, and cell biology with recent developments in mouse embryology has opened novel avenues and methods of experimentation as significant additions to the risk assessment armamentarium that currently uses both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Some promising directions afforded by transgenic mice as powerful future tools in risk assessment will be summarized below.
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    Notes: A recent comprehensive review of the literature identified a number of facts and principles governing risk communication. This paper evaluates several of these propositions using recent evidence from a field experiment in communicating the risks from radon in homes. At this point in the research, data relates primarily to the response of risk perceptions to different information treatments and different personal characteristics. The effect of various causal factors is sensitive to the particular test of risk perception applied. No information treatment was clearly superior for all tasks. An important implication of these findings is that risk communicators must determine what specific task or tasks the information program should enable people to do.
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    Notes: In this article quantitative analyses of CANDU nuclear generating stations are evaluated using an explicit set of criteria derived from a decision-analytic framework. A systematic search was made for relevant analyses, including both risk assessments and economic analyses. Only a small number of scientifically sound quantitative analyses that are being used to make decisions about specific safety measures or projects were located. The availability of scientifically sound quantitative data for making major energy policy decisions is even more limited, and what is available has major shortcomings. The province of Ontario is now heavily dependent on nuclear energy. Given the uncertainties surrounding the health, environmental, economic, and social consequences of nuclear energy, there is a need to assemble the information that is available within a comprehensive decision-making framework, and to decide future energy policies for the province in a public forum from a societal perspective.
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    Notes: This paper discusses the following key issues concerning human exposure to dioxins and furans emitted from typical, modern MSW incinerators: (1) Are MSW incinerators the major source of PCDD/PCDF input into the environment? (2) Are environmental concentrations around MSW incinerators substantially elevated relative to background levels? And (3) are MSW incinerators the major source of human exposure to PCDDs and PCDFs? Current scientific evidence indicates that (1) combustion sources in general (including steel mills, copper smelting plants, motor vehicles, pulp and paper mills, and MSW incinerators) are major sources of PCDD/PCDF input in the environment; (2) environmental concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs around operating MSW incinerators are not substantially elevated; and (3) 99% of human exposure to PCDDs and PCDFs is from background contamination, even for individuals living near a modern MSW incinerator.
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    Notes: Eight major factors of risk comparisons are presented, and the conventional reduction of the risk concept to a unidimensional format is challenged. The similarities between risk issues and other issues of the social decision process are stressed. It is concluded that risk decisions are part of the general political process, and cannot be isolated from this. Expert assessments should be presented in a way that reflects the complexity of the subject matter, instead of repressing it.
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    Notes: ABC, CBS, and NBC's carefully crafted and expensively produced evening news broadcasts devoted 1.7% of their air time to 564 stories about man-made environmental risks during the period from January 1984 to February 1986. Little relationship was found between amount of coverage and public health risk. Instead, the networks appeared to be using traditional journalistic determinants of news (timeliness, proximity, prominence, consequence, and human interest) plus the broadcast criterion of visual impact to determine the degree of coverage of risk issues. Government, industry, and citizens accounted for two-thirds of the sources cited by the networks. Experts and spokespersons for environmental advocacy groups were sparsely used as sources. Given the media's need for news pegs, acute and chronic risk stories were covered differently. Acute risk stories were reported in a clearly defined cycle, peaking on the second day with on-the-scene reports and film-clips of devastation. In keeping with a decrease in visual drama, later reports were shorter and emphasized legal and political considerations. Chronic risk coverage followed the release of new scientific, legal, or political information.
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    Notes: Mathematical expressions are derived, under different dosing patterns, for the number and size of premalignant clones within the framework of a two-mutation model for carcinogenesis, which has previously been shown to be consistent with a large body of epidemiologic and experimental data.
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    Notes: The authors present results of a February 1987 survey on judged frequency of mortality causes and risk perception of technologies in a representative sample of the French population. Although the French context is very different, and the impact of public controversies have been very limited on technological choices such as the nuclear energy program, strong similarities in risk perception of technologies are observed with results from U.S. surveys. Results, which could be worthwhile for other countries, suggest that risk perception is influenced by two different types of components. The first influence is the global feeling of “security” that society procures to its members. Such feeling depends on the individual's socioeconomic status, subjective state of health, and personal discomfort in daily life, and explains individual aversion to risk independently of the mortality causes or technologies involved. The second influence is the degree of perceived social legitimization of the activities involving risks. Risks of medical and transportation activities are strongly opposed to illegitimate risky behaviors (smoking, drugs, alcohol); technologies which have been an object of public debate (nuclear plants, the chemical industry, lead in gasoline) have an intermediate position reflecting the remaining uncertainties of public opinion about their risk–benefit balancing. Tentative conclusions for risk communication are proposed.
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    Notes: Books Reviewed in this Article: How to Manage Workplace Derived Hazards and Avoid Liability Charleston C.K. Wang Science for Public Policy Edited by Harvey Brooks and Chester L. Cooper How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates: The Lauriston S. Taylor Lecture Series in Radiation Protection and Measurements, Lecture No. 11 Seymour Jablon Where There's Smoke: Problems and Policies Concerning Smoking in the Workplace Bureau of National Affairs Special Report Rockville, MD: Bureau of National Affairs Indoor Air Pollution: The Complete Resource Guide Bureau of National Affairs Special Report Rockville, MD: Bureau of National Affairs Combining Facts and Values in Environmental Impact Assessment: Theories and Techniques Eric L. Hyman and Bruce Stiften (with contributions by David H. Moreau and Robert C. Nichols)
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    Notes: Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) is now regarded as an essential component in the analysis of risks arising from installations classified as major hazards. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the value of the results in decision-making in practical situations. The use made of QRA in three contrasting cases which came to extensive public attention in the U.K. is examined. The first concerned an extension of domestic development near a chemical factory; the second an extension to a large petrochemical complex; and the third to a proposal to build a pressurized water reactor. The two public inquiries concerned with the chemical industry accepted standards of individual risk which were comparable to the risks from everyday accidents; the evidence of societal risk that could arise from major accidents at the petrochemical complex was compared with that of a local natural hazard — flooding. Higher standards of individual safety were set in the inquiry into the PWR proposal, and the definition of societal risk was debated at length. The QRA results were analyzed to show that risks arising from accidents were lower than those from normal operations, but they were used explicitly as a check on the overall safety of the design and of the operational and licensing organization. Such qualitative examination will always be required in addition to QRA. All these inquiries were faced with considerable technical argument. There is a need for the full details of risk calculations to be clear. The usefulness of QRA as an input to decision-making would be much enhanced if the technical points at issue could be clarified outside a formal public inquiry. In addition, there are some technical questions which apply to many installations. There should be better mechanisms of technical debate to achieve a measure of agreement on the optimum methods of calculation in these cases, and some possibilities are explored.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Government actions to reduce risks to health have varied greatly in their cost per death prevented, frequently by 10-fold or even 100-fold. This research asks whether disparities of this magnitude are justified by citizens’preferences abut the relative value of reducing deaths from different hazards. Four samples were asked to rank the relative priority of preventing deaths through 8 realistic programs, each addressed to a different hazard, and then to rate how large the differences in spending should be. Subjects were not asked to give absolute values on preventing deaths and were asked only for their relative valuation of the benefits of preventing a death, not to weigh the benefits and costs or to determine an optimal spending level. We found that in all samples the median respondent valued his top-rated program 5 to 6 times more than his bottom-rated program. However, because individuals disagreed upon the relative priority for different programs, the aggregated rankings barely showed more than a 2-fold difference in the amounts that should be spent. Thus, for the important programs considered by these samples, a large variation in spending does not appear to be justified on the basis of differentials in the values placed on preventing different types of deaths. A more deliberative methodology like the one used here appears fruitful for providing insights to policymakers about preferences in this sensitive area.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The research described here is part of a larger risk assessment project to aid the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its review of the primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard for lead. The methodology can be applied to many situations in which a policy decision about a toxic substance is required in the face of incomplete data. Numerical results are presented for three potentially adverse lead-induced effects of interest to EPA: elevated erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP), hemoglobin (Hb) decrement, and intelligence quotient (IQ) decrement.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: In the partitioned multiobjective risk method (PMRM) the probability axis is typically partitioned into three regimes: high-exceedance low-consequence, intermediate-exceedance intermediate-consequence, and low-exceedance high-consequence (LE/HC). For each regime, the PMRM generates a conditional expected risk-function given that the damage lies within the regime. The theme of this paper is the conditional expected-risk function for the LE/HC regime. This function, denoted by f4(.), captures the behavior of the “extreme events” of an underlying decision-making problem. The PMRM offers two advantages: (a) it isolates LE/HC events, allowing the decision-maker(s) to focus on the impacts of catastrophies; and (b) it generates more valuable information than that obtained from the common unconditional expected-risk function. Theoretical problems may arise from uncertainty about the behavior of the tail of the risk curve describing the underlying frequency of damages. When the number of physical observations in small (e.g., in flood frequency analysis), the analyst is forced to make assumptions about the density of damages. Each succeeding distributional assumption will generate a different value of f4(.). An added dimension of difficulty is also created by the sensitivity of f4(.) to the choice of the boundary of the LE/HC regime. This paper has two overall objectives: (a) to present distribution-free results concerning the magnitude of f4(.); and (b) to use those results to obtain a distribution-free estimate of the sensitivity of f4(.) to the choice of the boundary of the LE/HC regime. The above objectives are realized by extending, and further developing, existing inequalities for continuously distributed random variables.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process Sheldon Krimsky and Alonzo Plough Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Co.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The present value of the costs of injuries and deaths associated with each unit of a product is a useful number in conducting cost-benefit analysis at the CPSC. Before a remedy is known, this value indicates the approximate amount that it is worth spending on a fix; similarly, if a fix is proposed, this number indicates whether it is cost-justified. The method of analysis is applied to all-terrain vehicles. Injury costs per vehicle are estimated. Determinants of accidents are estimated using a logit regression model applied to surveys of users and of accident victims; this indicates factors associated with accidents, and is used to estimate marginal probabilities. Costs of various vehicle components are estimated using a hedonic price index. This information (injury costs, accident probabilities, and component cost) is combined in a benefit–cost analysis of proposed remedies.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Ingestion of contaminated fish can be an important human exposure pathway for dioxins and furans emitted from waste incineration plants. A new method for calculating fish contamination resulting from dioxin and furan emissions has been developed to overcome some of the problems of those currently used. The method is based on evidence that the major determinant of fish dioxin and furan uptake is sediment concentrations. Only two steps are necessary to calculate fish tissue levels. Step 1: Calculation of the concentration of dioxins and furans in particulate matter entering the lake or pond, and hence, the resulting sediment concentration. Step 2: Calculation of fish concentrations utilizing fish-to-sediment ratios for the various dioxin and furan isomers.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A study of the prevalence of skin cancer among 40,421 persons consuming arsenic-contaminated drinking water in Taiwan was used for a cancer dose-response assessment of ingested arsenic. The numbers of persons at risk over three dose intervals and four exposure durations were estimated from the data in order to apply the method of maximum likelihood to a multistage-Weibull time/ dose–response model. A constant exposure level since birth for each of the exposure categories was assumed. It was found that the cumulative hazard increases as a power of three in age, and is linear or quadratic (with a linear coefficient) in dose. Observations from a smaller epidemiologic survey in Mexico were similar to what would be predicted from the model of the Taiwan data. Assuming that the skin cancer risk from ingested arsenic in the American population would also be similar to the Taiwan population, an American male would have a lifetime risk of developing skin cancer of 1.3 × 10−3 (3.0 × 10−3) if exposed to 1 μg/kg/day for a 76-year lifespan (median lifespan in the U.S.).
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A framework is presented within which to organize consideration of appropriate measures of delivered dose and selection of an appropriate procedure for interspecies conversion of kinetically equivalent doses. Systematic species dependencies of simple kinetic relationships between administered and delivered dose are developed. Interspecies scaling of kinetic parameters, including firstorder rate constants and maximum rates of capacity-limited processes, is discussed, and the effects of conventional scaling procedures on initial and steady-state concentrations and on areas under the blood concentration curve are shown. Particular attention is given to production of reactive metabolites. It is shown that interspecies dose or dose rate conversion on the basis of the 3/4 power of body weight is consistently either realistic or conservative when the conversion is carried out from smaller to larger species, except when first-order elimination and capacity-limited production of an active metabolite coexist. In this case, the 3/4 power of body weight conversion procedure may be either overpredictive or underpredictive, depending on the relative dependence of the efficiency of metabolite production and elimination on species body weight. Interspecies dose conversion on a direct mg/kg body weight basis is consistently much less conservative than the 3/4 power of body weight procedure, resulting when scaling from smaller to larger species in underestimation of delivered dose or of steady-state concentration of both parent and metabolite for all of the kinetic relationships considered. Applicability and limitations of these procedures are also discussed.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: In this paper, I take risk to mean a composite of the probability of an adverse event and the severity of the consequences of the event. I explore two issues in the economic valuation of changes in individual risks brought about by public policies. These are: (1) the relationship between the values of risk prevention (i.e., the lowering of the probabilities of adverse events) and risk reduction (i.e., the reduction of the severity of the consequences of adverse events); and (2) the relationship between ex ante and ex post measures of the value of changes in risk.
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    Risk analysis 9 (1989), S. 0 
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The probability of tumor and hazard function are calculated in a stochastic two-stage model for carcinogenesis when the parameters of the model are time-dependent. The method used is called the method of characteristics.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The methodology presented here identifies an approach to accurately and economically analyze the effects on risk of various containment performance issues. Although this method facilitates the evaluation of potential containment improvements, it does so while utilizing the significant amount of information accumulated by the U.S. NRC Reactor Risk Reference Program. The use of hindsight and the acceptance of point estimate quantifications of risks allows the proposed methodology to be scrutable and understandable to the community as well as relatively simple and inexpensive to apply. A study of containment venting strategies was used to demonstrate the capabilities of the simplified containment event tree methodology. However, the methodology is flexible enough for a wide range of risk evaluations.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Multistage modeling incorporating a time-dependent exposure pattern is applied to lung cancer mortality data obtained from a cohort of 2802 arsenic-exposed copper-smelter workers who worked 1 or more years during the period 1940–1964 at a copper smelter at Tacoma, Washington. The workers were followed for death through 1976. There were 100 deaths due to lung cancer during the follow-up period. Exposures to air arsenic levels measured in μ/m3 were estimated from departmental air arsenic and workers urinary arsenic measurements. Relationships of different temporal variables with excess death rates are examined to judge qualitatively the implications of the multistage cancer process. Analysis to date indicates a late stage effect of arsenic although an additional early stage effect cannot be ruled out.
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    Notes: This study attempted to verify and extend previous research on people's perceptions of the risks and benefits of technology and their judgments concerning the acceptability of technology safety regulations. The study addressed several limitations of prior work, in that: (1) it was the first “expressed-preference” study to collect data from large, representative samples of Americans; (2) the research design made “person,” rather than “technology,” the unit of statistical analysis; and (3) the study employed an expanded set of independent variables, including three qualitative benefit characteristics. The results confirmed several major conclusions of prior expressed-preference research, the most important being that members of the public tend to define “risks,”“benefits,” and “acceptability” in a complex, multidimensional manner; and that their definitions differ significantly from those used by professional risk-managers and other technical experts in quantitative assessments of risk and acceptability. The results also indicated that people's stances toward technology regulation tend to cut across traditional sociodemographic lines.
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    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1747-6593
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This study examines the effects of timber preservative spillages on the ecology of the River Lossie whilst the river's quality was recovering following the removal of an unsatisfactory discharge of sewage effluent. The effects of spillages on a minor tributary of the River Lossie are also presented.
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    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
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    Notes: This paper examines the use of agrochemicals in modern agriculture and horticulture. It begins by reflecting on the uncertainties of agricultural and horticultural production prior to the use of synthetic chemicals, then discusses the improved quantity and quality of output which is possible using agrochemicals. The social, environmental and agricultural hazards attendant upon chemical use are also considered. Provided that proper safeguards are observed, the use of agrochemicals is a sine qua non for the majority of farmers and growers in the UK.
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    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper describes how the Clyde River Purification Board (the regulatory authority) and Bee-cham Pharmaceuticals (the identified discharger) agreed and adopted a novel means of controlling a pharmaceutical plant effluent which is discharged to Irvine Bay, Scotland. Control was achieved by means of a consent (licence) condition requiring compliance with a laboratory test of acute toxicity, which was added to the more orthodox conditions already imposed upon the discharge. The new condition was derived using the concept, explicit in the environmental quality objective/environmental quality standard approach to pollution control, of an allowable mixing zone around the outfall. The derivation and validation of the condition necessitated laboratory and field bioassay, current measurements and dye releases, and the use of a plume development model.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: For about eighty years the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) has remained one of the major indicators of organic pollution in the water industry.Whilst many adaptations and refinements have been made over the last 2–3 decades, one of the most significant was to suppress nitrification by the addition of allylthiourea (ATU) at 0.5 mg/1, thus ensuring that only carbonaceous oxidation was measured. Evidence has accrued to show that, for some situations, this concentration is insufficient to fully suppress nitrification.Poor stability is a problem with biochemical oxygen demand when samples have to be stored prior to analysis, and a method of storage is proposed which minimizes instability. As an empirical bioassay procedure, the accuracy of BOD can be poor compared with alternative methods such as chemical oxygen demand; and problems with incubator and refrigerator temperatures, the preparation of standards, and replacement batteries for dissolved-oxygen probes are discussed.The aim of this paper is to show that these problems with biochemical oxygen demand can be eliminated, thereby retaining confidence in its use.
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    Water and environment journal 3 (1989), S. 0 
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    Notes: In recent years, the Norfolk Broads have been enriched with sewage effluent and runoff from heavily fertilized land. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from these sources can cause ecological problems by stimulating increase in algal biomass in the water, so part of Anglian Water's programme of research in Broadland has been to remove phosphate from major sewage effluents discharged to the Rivers Ant and Bure. This is achieved by dosing ferric sulphate to secondary effluent and settling the resultant insoluble complex.At three sites on the River Bure, the performance of timeclock- and redox-based dose control systems was evaluated. Redox control, by restricting dosing when phosphate load was low, increased the efficiency of phosphate removal and produced up to 19 per cent savings in chemical costs. Modifications are described which made the system self-regulating and ensured that savings were not eroded by maintenance costs. The system now operates efficiently and routinely at major sites on the Rivers Ant and Bure.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: This paper discusses Government policy to August 1989 on the use of protection zones to protect UK water sources from pollution by nitrate. It outlines the use of the powers in the Water Act 1989 to declare Nitrate Sensitive Areas, and the procedures that would be followed in declaring such zones. The circumstances are outlined in which compensation would be paid in Nitrate Sensitive Areas and the reasons for departing from the ‘polluter pays’ principle. UK policy is related to the proposed European Community Directive on the control of nitrate, and the similarities between the two approaches are illustrated.
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: The principles of design of a land treatment system are explained on the basis of determining the land area requirements of particular constituents in terms of the supply rate and assimilative capacity. Illustrative data are provided for the design and performance of slow-rate and overland flow systems.The paper includes a comprehensive report on the design and performance of pilot studies carried out on a reed-bed treatment system at Valleyfield, Fife, Scotland. This provides valuable insight into the choice of the bed substrate and the problems of reed establishment. Of the media tested, coarse pulverized fuel ash appeared to be promising in terms of its hydraulic conductivity and reduction in biochemical oxygen demand. For a domestic sewage of typical strength, a bed area of 5 m2 per population equivalent yielded an effluent having a BOD of less than 20 mg/1, but did not provide conditions which were conducive to significant nitrogen removal.
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