ALBERT

Description: 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 16 Emissions of polychlorinated debenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) from the stack gas, fly ashes of steel and nonferrous productions, including iron ore sintering process (Sinter), electric arc furnace (EAF), secondary copper production (SCu), secondary aluminum production (SAl) and secondary lead production (SPb) were investigated. The concentrations of PCDD/Fs in stack gases of various sources ranging form high to low were as follow: SCu〉 SAl〉 EAF〉 Sinter〉 SPb, while those in fly ashes were: SCu〉 SAl〉 SPb〉 EAF〉 Sinter. It is worth noting that the toxic equivalency quantity (TEQ) in fly ash from SCu rotary kiln, at 40352ng TEQ/kg, was relatively higher than the value of municipal waste incinerator fly ashes. Due to the ratio of PCDF/PCDD〉1 both in stack gases and fly ashes of this study, the de novo synthesis may be the dominant mechanism of formation of PCDD/Fs in those processes. For PCDD/Fs congeners profiles, 2,3,7,8-TCDF was the most abundant congener in stack gases from Sintering, SCu and SAl, while the major congeners in EAF and SPb were 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8- HpCDF, respectively. The emission factors and total emission amounts of PCDD/Fs released to air from these industries were calculated. Noteworthily, the average PCDD/Fs emission factors of secondary copper and aluminum production were 2.94 and 0.291 mg TEQ/ton production, higher than those from other industries. The emission factors of Sinter, EAF, SPb were 800.1, 3160 and 4297 ng TEQ/t, respectively. For the two iron ore sintering machines, the total emission amounts of PCDD/Fs reached 100.49 g TEQ/year. Due to the high emission factors or total emission amounts, eliminating the releases of PCDD/Fs from steel and secondary nonferrous productions should attract more attentions.

Description: 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 16 Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) could be commonly detected in water bodies around many cities in China recently, which mainly comes from the industrial production and utilization in the fabric processing, metal plating, semiconductor manufacturing and fire-fighting foam. China is currently one of the few countries with increasing PFOS production and usage, so the treatment and safe disposal of PFOS pollutants is critical to effectively protect human health from those toxic chemicals. Life cycle assessment (LCA) by Simapro 7.2 was carried out in this paper to study the environmental impacts concerned with the treatment of PFOS in supercritical water, and proven process for the decomposition of PFOS pollutants with high concentration. This study focuses on not only the main environmental factors from emissions of toxic pollutants, but also the influence from technical characteristics of the iron-induced supercritical water technology including energy and substances consumption during treatment processes. The results of LCA were supposed to be provided for the environmental officials and factory managers as a theoretical basis for the PFOS technology selection and management.

Description: 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 16 This paper studied the effects of lime treatment on the pre-dewatered sludge from a wastewater treatment plant in Beijing. The moisture, leaching solution's pH, heavy metals and organic matter content have been analyzed before and after lime treatment on the sludge. The results showed that: the moisture of the original sludge significantly impacted by the lime treatment. 25% of lime dosage by weight was needed in the process of treating sludge moisture from 86.60% to 60%, while only 20% is needed in the process from 80.62% to 60%; The mixed materials’ pH has no significant difference after dosing more than 10% lime, all samples’ pH values were around 13 after lime treated 30 min, the pH trend basic on 120d monitoring shows the pH was slightly declined but still above 12; Lime treatment on sludge has effects on immobilization of heavy metals. After dosing 10% of lime, the leaching solution's Ni, Cu, Zn contents dropped from 0.55 mg/L, 2.42 mg/L and 1.09 mg/L to 0.13 mg/L, 1.54 mg/L and 0.01 mg/L; Lime treatment on sludge has a promoted stabilization of organic matter. After dosing 10% and 20% of lime, the mixtures leaching solution's COD reduces sharply, from 1950 mg/L to 298 mg/L and 152 mg/L respectively. These indicate that lime treatment has obvious effect on sewage sludge stabilization.

Description: In this paper we present a visual analytics approach for deriving spatio-temporal patterns of collective human mobility from a vast mobile network traffic data set. More than 88 million movements between pairs of radio cells—so-called handovers—served as a proxy for more than two months of mobility within four urban test areas in Northern Italy. In contrast to previous work, our approach relies entirely on visualization and mapping techniques, implemented in several software applications. We purposefully avoid statistical or probabilistic modeling and, nonetheless, reveal characteristic and exceptional mobility patterns. The results show, for example, surprising similarities and symmetries amongst the total mobility and people flows between the test areas. Moreover, the exceptional patterns detected can be associated to real-world events such as soccer matches. We conclude that the visual analytics approach presented can shed new light on large-scale collective urban mobility behavior and thus helps to better understand the “pulse” of dynamic urban systems.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers B.P. Singh The Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin is immensely important as it preserves evidence of India-Asia collision and related records of the Himalayan orogenesis. In this review, the depositional regime of the Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin and variations in composition of the Hinterland at different stages of the basin developments are presented here. The Paleogene succession of the western Himalayan foreland basin developed in two stages, i. e. syn-collisional stage and post-collisional stage. At the onset, chert breccia containing fragments derived from the hanging walls of faults and reworked bauxite developed as a result of erosion of the forebulge. The overlying Early Eocene succession possibly deposited in a coastal system, where carbonates represent barriers and shales represent lagoons. Up-section, the Middle Eocene marl beds likely deposited on a tidal flat. The Late Eocene/Oligocene basal Murree beds, containing tidal bundles, indicate that a mixed or semi-diurnal tidal system deposited the sediments and the sedimentation took place in a tide-dominated estuary. In the higher-up, the succession likely deposited in a river-dominated estuary or in meandering rivers. In the beginning of the basin evolution, the sediments were derived from the Precambrian basement or from the metasediments/volcanic rocks possessing terrains of the south. The Early and Middle Eocene (54.7–41.3 Ma) succession of the embryonic foreland possibly developed from the sediments derived from the Trans-Himalayan schists and phyllites and Indus ophiolite of the north during syn-collisional stage. The detrital minerals especially the lithic fragments and the heavy minerals suggest the provenance for the Late Eocene/Oligocene sequences to be from the recycled orogenic belt of the Higher Himalaya, Tethyan Himalaya and the Indus-suture zone from the north during post-collisional stage. This is also supported by the paleocurrent measurements those suggest main flows directed towards southeast, south and east with minor variations. This implies that the river system stabilized later than 41 Ma and the Higher Himalaya attained sufficient height around this time. The chemical composition of the sandstones and mudstones occurring in the early foreland basin sequences are intermediate between the active and passive continental margins and/or same as the passive continental margins. The sedimentary succession of this basin has sustained a temperature of about 200 °C and undergone a burial depth of about 6 km. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Paleogene succession in the Himalayan foreland basin deposited in a coastal system. ► Sediments derived from the Trans-Himalayan metamorphic rocks and Indus-Suture zone. ► Continental sedimentation began and river system stabilised later than 41 Ma when Higher Himalaya started uplifting.

Description: A planning support system for land consolidation has been developed that has, at its heart, an expert system called LandSpaCES (Land Spatial Consolidation Expert System) which contains a “design module” that generates alternative land redistributions under different scenarios and an “evaluation module” which integrates GIS with multi-criteria decision making for assessing these alternatives. This paper introduces the structural framework of the latter module which has been applied using a case study in Cyprus. Two new indices are introduced: the “parcel concentration coefficient” for measuring the dispersion of parcels; and the “landowner satisfaction rate” for predicting the acceptance of the land redistribution plan by the landowners in terms of the location of their new parcels. These two indices are used as criteria for the evaluation of the land redistribution alternatives and are transferable to any land consolidation project. Moreover, a modified version of the ratio estimation procedure, referred to as the “qualitative rating method” for assigning weights to the evaluation criteria, is presented, along with a set of non-linear value functions for standardizing the performance scores of the alternatives and incorporating expert knowledge for five evaluation criteria. The application of the module showed that it is a powerful new tool for the evaluation of alternative land redistribution plans that could be implemented in other countries after appropriate adjustments. A broader contribution has also been made to spatial planning processes, which might follow the methodology and innovations presented in this paper.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Yener Eyuboglu, M. Santosh, Francis O. Dudas, Enver Akaryalı, Sun-Lin Chung, Kemal Akdağ, Osman Bektaş The eastern Pontides orogenic belt provides a window into continental arc magmatism in the Alpine–Himalayan belt. The late Mesozoic–Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of this belt remains controversial. Here we focus on the nature of the transition from the adakitic to non-adakitic magmatism in the Kale area of Gumushane region in NE Turkey where this transition is best preserved. The adakitic lithologies comprise porphyries and hyaloclastites. The porphyries are represented by biotite-rich andesites, hornblende-rich andesite and dacite. The hayaloclastites represent the final stage of adakitic activity and they were generated by eruption/intrusion of adakitic andesitic magma into soft carbonate mud. The non-adakitic lithologies include basaltic-andesitic volcanic and associated pyroclastic rocks. Both rock groups are cutting by basaltic dikes representing the final stage of the early Cenozoic magmatism in the study area. We report zircon U-Pb ages of 48.71 ± 0.74 Ma for the adakitic rocks, and 44.68 ± 0.84 Ma for the non-adakitic type, suggesting that there is no significant time gap during the transition from adakitic to non-adakitic magmatism. We evaluate the origin, magma processes and tectonic setting of the magmatism in the southern part of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt. Our results have important bearing on the late Mesozoic–Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the eastern Mediterranean region. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Transition from adakitic to non-adakitic magmatism in a continental arc. ► New geochemical and geochronological data from adakitic and non-adakitic rocks of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt. ► Adakitic hyaloclastites reported for the first time from the eastern Pontides belt. ► Early Cenozoic adakitic and non-adakitic magmas generated by slab window processes in a south-dipping subduction zone.

Description: The authenticity of much of the stone-work along Queen’s Lane in central Oxford, UK presented an opportunity to produce a photographic survey from which a weathering index could be established. This represents a site-specific approach to devising a weathering form. Because it is photo-based, weathering forms are visible for comparison and classification purposes across disciplines. Limestone pertaining to building ashlar and plinths along this roadway, which mainly belong to Queen’s College, St Edmund Hall, New College, and Hertford College, was classified according to this newly introduced weathering index, the size-extent (S-E) index, through consideration of type, size, extent, impact, and trigger. This size- (range) and extent-based classification system enables for the assessment of weathering forms of various types, including soiling and decay features as well as those potentially expected in the presence of vegetation and animals. Weathering forms of a range of sizes were present, with a slightly greater abundance of small types (mm-cm in the micro- to mesoscale) and more discrete types with a low extent. For this location in central Oxford, chemical weathering was found to be the predominant type of soiling and decay.

Description: The feasibility of investigating the adsorption of n-octanohydroxamate collector on copper and iron oxide minerals with static secondary ion mass spectrometry has been assessed. Secondary ion mass spectra were determined for abraded surfaces of air-exposed copper metal, malachite, pseudomalachite and magnetite that had been conditioned in aqueous potassium hydrogen n-octanohydroxamate solution, as well as for the corresponding bulk CuII and FeIII complexes. In each case, the chemical species present at the solid/vacuum interface of a similarly prepared surface were established by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The most abundant positive and negative metal-containing fragment ions identified for the bulk complexes were also found to be diagnostic secondary ions for the collector adsorbed on the oxide surfaces. The relative abundances of those diagnostic ions varied with, and could be rationalised by, the monolayer or multilayer coverage of the adsorbed collector. However, the precise mass values for the diagnostic ions were not able to corroborate the different bonding in the copper and iron hydroxamate systems that had been deduced from photoelectron and vibrational spectra. Parent secondary ions were able to provide supporting information on the co-adsorption of hydroxamic acid at each conditioned surface.

Description: Existing models of spatial relations do not consider that different concepts exist on different levels in a hierarchy and in turn that the spatial relations in a given scene are a function of the specific concepts considered. One approach to determining the existence of a particular spatial relation is to compute the corresponding high level concepts explicitly using map generalization before inferring the existence of the spatial relation in question. We explore this idea through the development of a model of the spatial relation “enters” that may exist between a road and a housing estate.

Description: The Upper Pennsylvanian Casselman Formation of southeastern Ohio contains four distinct paleosol types that formed in alluvial systems within the distal Appalachian foreland basin. The properties of these paleosols as well as their small-scale lateral and vertical variations were studied to interpret the paleoenvironmental and paleoecological conditions within the alluvial settings in which they formed. The ichnofossils and pedogenic features preserved within the paleosols of the Casselman Formation record the local climactic, hydrologic, biotic, and topographic changes that occurred in the region during the Late Pennsylvanian. The four paleosols types of the Casselman Formation are interpreted as Alfisols (Type A, Type D), Vertisols (Type B), and Inceptisols (Type D). The four paleosol types indicate different degrees of changes in local moisture regimes including water table fluctuations due to seasonal precipitation and flooding events. The assemblages of ichnofossils within the paleosol types were produced by both soil arthropods and a diverse array of plants that formed part of the different soil ecosystems present within the alluvial environment. Although regional-scale studies are important for understanding the Late Pennsylvanian world, small-scale studies are also necessary to fully understand the local pedogenic, paleoenvironmental, and paleoecologic consequences of global scale changes in paleoclimate and paleogeography.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Hisako Shimizu, Toshiaki Tsunogae, M. Santosh A synthesis of the petrological characters of granulite facies rocks that contain equilibrium sapphirine + quartz assemblage from two localities (Tonagh Island (TI) and Priestley Peak (PP)) in the Napier Complex, East Antarctica, provides unequivocal evidence for extreme crustal metamorphism possibly associated with the collisional orogeny during Neoarchean. The reaction microstructures associated with sapphirine + quartz vary among the samples, probably suggesting different tectonic conditions during the metamorphic evolution. Sapphirine and quartz in TI sample were probably in equilibrium at the peak stage, but now separated by corona of Grt + Sil + Opx suggesting near isobaric cooling after the peak metamorphism, whereas the Spr + Qtz + Sil + Crd + Spl assemblage replaces garnet in PP sample suggesting post-peak decompression. The application of mineral equilibrium modeling on the TI sample in NCKFMASHTO system yields a peak p – T range of 1010–1090 °C and 8–10 kbar, followed by cooling toward a retrograde stage of 800–1000 °C and 7.5–10.5 kbar, possibly along a counterclockwise p – T path. In contrast, the peak condition of the PP sample shows 1000–1050 °C and 〉12 kbar, which was followed by the formation of Spr + Qtz corona around garnet at 930–970 °C and 6.7–7.7 kbar, suggesting decompression possibly along a clockwise p – T trajectory. Such contrasting p – T paths are consistent with a recent model on the structural framework of the Napier Complex that correlates the two areas to different crustal blocks. The different p – T paths obtained from the two localities might reflect the difference in the tectonic framework of these rocks within a complex Neoarchean subduction/collision belt. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Extreme crustal metamorphism in Napier Complex associated with Neoarchean collisional orogeny. ► Computed p – T range of 1010–1090 °C and 8–10 kbar, and 1000–1050 °C and 〉12 kbar. ► Contrasting p – T paths suggest discrete crustal domains juxtaposed during Neoarchean subduction-collision tectonics.

Description: Ocean acidification in modern oceans is linked to rapid increase in atmospheric CO2, raising concern about marine diversity, food security and ecosystem services. Proxy evidence for acidification during past crises may help predict future change, but three issues limit confidence of comparisons between modern and ancient ocean acidification, illustrated from the end-Permian extinction, 252 million years ago: (1) problems with evidence for ocean acidification preserved in sedimentary rocks, where proposed marine dissolution surfaces may be subaerial. Sedimentary evidence that the extinction was partly due to ocean acidification is therefore inconclusive; (2) Fossils of marine animals potentially affected by ocean acidification are imperfect records of past conditions; selective extinction of hypercalcifying organisms is uncertain evidence for acidification; (3) The current high rates of acidification may not reflect past rates, which cannot be measured directly, and whose temporal resolution decreases in older rocks. Thus large increases in CO2 in the past may have occurred over a long enough time to have allowed assimilation into the oceans, and acidification may not have stressed ocean biota to the present extent. Although we acknowledge the very likely occurrence of past ocean acidification, obtaining support presents a continuing challenge for the Earth science community.

Description: For civil protection reasons there is a strong need to improve the inventory of areas that are more vulnerable to earthquake ground motions or to earthquake-related secondary effects, such as landslides, liquefaction or soil amplifications. The use of remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) methods along with the related geo-databases can assist local and national authorities to be better prepared and organized. Remote sensing and GIS techniques are investigated in north-eastern Greece in order to contribute to the systematic, standardized inventory of those areas that are more susceptible to earthquake ground motions, to earthquake-related secondary effects and to tsunami-waves. On knowing areas with aggregated occurrence of causal (“negative”) factors influencing earthquake shock and thus the damage intensity, this knowledge can be integrated into disaster preparedness and mitigation measurements. The evaluation of satellite imageries, digital topographic data and open source geodata contributes to the acquisition of the specific tectonic, geologic and geomorphologic settings influencing local site conditions in an area and, thus, estimate possible damage to be suffered.

Description: Fifteen multi-national mining companies are currently members of the Earth Moving Equipment Safety Round Table (EMESRT). Formed in 2006, EMESRT engages with mining equipment manufacturers with the aim of accelerating improvements in the safe design of mining equipment. An initial stage in this process was to communicate industry understanding of the risks in the form of “design philosophies” that describe potential unwanted events in eight hazard categories. A technique for analysing risks associated with operation and maintenance tasks, the Operability and Maintainability Analysis Technique (OMAT), was subsequently developed and trialed. The next step is the EMESRT Design Evaluation for Equipment Procurement (EDEEP) process. The aims of requesting manufacturers to follow this process are to provide equipment purchasers with a common way of assessing how well the issues in the EMESRT Design Philosophies are addressed in the equipment design; and to provide manufacturers with additional information for use during equipment design. The process involves identifying priority tasks based on frequency and severity of the consequences of potential unwanted events identified in the EMESRT Design Philosophies; undertaking a task-based risk assessment of priority tasks in conjunction with site-based personnel; evaluating the effectiveness of control measures; and providing information about safe design features in a standardised format.

Description: Many paleontologists have noticed the broadly similar patterns between the changes in Cenozoic mammalian diversity and taxonomic dominance and climate changes. Yet detailed studies of fossil population samples with fine-scale temporal resolution during episodes of climate change like the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the White River Group, and the late Pleistocene at Rancho La Brea tar pits, demonstrates that most fossil mammal species are static and show no significant microevolutionary response to major climate changes. This mismatch between patterns seems best explained by species sorting. As the punctuated equilibrium model demonstrated, over long time spans most fossil species are stable and do not respond to climate change. Instead, change occurs at the next hierarchical level, with species sorting adding and subtracting to the total diversity pattern revealed by coarse-scale taxon counting, apparently responding to longer-term changes in climate as revealed by proxies like the oxygen isotope record.

Description: Conulariids are unusual extinct metazoans most often considered to be a group of scyphozoan cnidarians or close relatives. Generally, the temporal range of conulariid fossils is perceived to be late Precambrian or Cambrian to Triassic, though a supposed Cretaceous conulariid from Peru was published 46 years ago. A re-evaluation of this fossil indicates it is not a conulariid, but instead a pinnacean bivalve (Pinna sp.), confirming that the geologically youngest conulariids are of Late Triassic age. However, a review of the Triassic conulariid fossil record indicates it is very sparse, with only eight published records. It does not provide a reliable basis for analyzing the structure of conulariid extinction. Nevertheless, conulariid extinction still appears to have taken place very close to the end of the Triassic. The cause of conulariid extinction may have been the onset of the Mesozoic marine revolution, in which durivorous predators developed new mechanisms for preying on the epifaunal benthos, including the conulariids.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Daniel E. Harlov High-grade dehydration of amphibolite-facies rocks to granulite-facies is a process that can involve partial melting, fluid-aided solid-state dehydration, or varying degrees of both. On the localized meter scale, solid-state dehydration, due to CO 2 -rich fluids traveling along some fissure or crack and subsequently outwards along the mineral grain boundaries of the surrounding rock, normally is the means by which the breakdown of biotite and amphibole to orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene occur. Various mineral textures and changes in mineral chemistry seen in these rocks are also seen in more regional orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-bearing rocks which, along with accompanying amphibolite-facies rocks, form traverses of lower crust. This suggests that solid-state dehydration during high-grade metamorphism could occur on a more regional scale. The more prominent of these fluid-induced textures in the granulite-facies portion of the traverse take the form of micro-veins of K-feldspar along quartz grain boundaries and the formation of monazite inclusions in fluorapatite. The fluids believed responsible take the form of concentrated NaCl and KCl brines from a basement ultramafic magma heat source traveling upwards along grain boundaries. Additional experimental work involving CaSO 4 dissolution in NaCl brines, coupled with natural observation of oxide and sulfide mineral associations in granulite-facies rocks, have demonstrated the possibility that NaCl-brines, with a CaSO 4 component, could impose the oxygen fugacity on these rocks as opposed to the oxygen fugacity being inherent in their protoliths. These results, taken together, lend credence to the idea that regional chemical modification of the lower crust is an evolutionary process controlled by fluids migrating upwards from the lithospheric mantle along grain boundaries into and through the lower crust where they both modify the rock and are modified by it. Their presence allows for rapid mass and heat transport and subsequent mineral genesis and mineral re-equilibration in the rocks through which they pass. Graphical Abstract

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Wang Xiaojian, Yao Zhishu, Rong Chuanxin, Cai Haibin, Cheng Hua Because of the hydrophobic consolidation settlement, there is a large axial additional force between the deep alluvium and the shaft lining, which is the major cause for damage of the shaft. The article proposes a new type compressible connector in hydrophobic shaft lining. The model test indicates that under the axial additional force, the connector has good axial compressed deformation features, lateral compressive resistance capacity, and reliable water proof and leak proof ability.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Ying Wang, X.C. Li, N. Wei, Wenlian Xiao Transient pulse method (TPM) originally introduced by Brace et al. is a theoretically well-established and widely used method. The advantages and limitations of this method for rock permeability measurement are discussed. The modified storage-adjustable TPM can develop the advantages and bypass the limitations so as to measure rock permeability in a large-scale range. The approximate solution is the preferred mathematic method because of the ease of data deduction. However, the systematic error associated with the approximate solution is involved with the limited situations of parameters β and γ. The design criteria are presented for optimizing the experimental configuration for a desired measuring precision and duration as well as ease of data deduction. Therefore, well application of the advanced storage-adjustable TPM can be prospected.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B JinLong Piao, Seong Baeg Kim In this paper, we proposed a calculation formula in order to make a correlation analysis tool of the data of the regional groundwater level and rainfall, which were measured and collected. We developed the tool as a web-based analysis tool to manage effectively each regional groundwater level data on the web. We described how to implement the web analysis tool to make Jeju Island groundwater more efficient and scientific management.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Zhang Ying-hua, Wang Dan-dan With the arrival of the low-carbon economy, numerous enterprises have realized the significance of a transformation to the low-carbon operation. With regard to department store in China, which is closely related to our daily life, seems not up to the expectations. Through in-depth interview, field survey and low-carbon questionnaire survey, this paper has induced common problems existing in department stores and puts forward a path to realize their low-carbon operations in order to provide some references for the transformation of service industry in China.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Song Yanjina, Cheng Guoqiangb Based on simulation of one-dimensional coal and gas outburst and energy conservation principle, a mechanism on spalling lamination and a formula of the lamination characteristic length were promoted. The performance of simulations in different gas pressure conditions showed that the formula was appropriate to the test results. Before the appearance of spalling lamination, a sudden strain change occurred in failure point which may fail later. During the unloading stress wave's propagation in the coal-gas medium, coal would fail as maximum tensile stress beyond the criterion, and then spalling or crush happened. The spalling lamination was disc-shaped without friction, and cone-shaped with friction. Only when gas pressure was bigger than 10 atmospheric pressures, coal crushed out. But there was no coal-gas outburst under 7 atmospheric pressures.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Puyang Zhang, Hongyan Ding, Conghuan Le, Xianqing Liu The offshore wind turbines with large-scale bucket foundation is installed in sea area of Qidong city, Jiangsu province of China. Wind tower is high-rise structure, he study on dynamic characteristics of tower structure is very important. The acceleration time interval curve can be obtained under the condition of artificial excitation and natural wind through installing accelerometers, charge amplifiers, data acquisition instrument and so on, on bucket foundation and tower tube. The natural frequency of the tower can be obtained through low-pass filter analysis and Fourier transformation to the acceleration time interval curves. After analysis, the natural frequency of the tower is between 0.3∼0.4 Hz. Through analysis on the acceleration time interval curve under the wind force function whether under working condition or shut-down condition, import information on the wind-induced response of the structure can be obtained.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Cheng Zeng Mineralogical examination and stable isotope analyses for the Lake Qinghai sediments indicate that authigenic carbonate minerals are present either in the form of one type or several types co-existed in the sediments, and that large differences inδ 18 O of up to 6.5‰ are shown for selected sediment samples. Theseδ 18 O values are highly and positively correlated with total carbonate contents (TCC) and are not affected by shifts in carbonate mineral composition, indicating that oxygen stable-isotope fractionation among different carbonate minerals is minimum. The results suggest that marked changes in carbonateδ 18 O are resulted predominantly from changes in isotopic composition of the lake water, and that differentiatedδ 18 O values resulted possibly from isotope fractionation among co-existed carbonates formed in natural environmental conditions are limited to 0-1‰. Theδ 18 O proved to be a useful environmental proxy for the study of the past changes in P-E budget of closed-basin lakes.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part A Shunyi Li, Hongyan Ma Enriching, separating and selecting strains form the soil around Zhengzhou University canteen which has great degradability for cooking oil, b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , b 4 , m 1 , a 1 , among which b 4 is the best. And studied the growth conditions and the degradation conditions of b 4 , the results showed that the optimal growing condition is as follows: carbon source (beef extract) 2.0 g/L, nitrogen source (peptone) 5.0 g/L, shaker rotation speed 150r/min; its optimal degradation condition: initial pH value 5.0, cooking oil concentration 3.0 g/L, degradation temperature 30°C, the degradation rate of oil will stabilize at above 48% after 32 h.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part A Hao Hong, Feng Guohui, Wang Hongwei Two types of hybrid systems are investigated here. One was composed of vapor compressor and desiccant (VC+D) cooling system, and the other was composed of vapor compressor, desiccant and direct evaporative cooler (VC+D+EC) cooling system. The system regenerated by electricity and solar energy was conventional and solar hybrid systems respectively. Mathematical model of rotary desiccant wheel was established by considering thermal storage of supportive structure, and the physical model and numerical model of the hybrid system were established too. It was found that under the same operating condition, compared with conventional vapor-compression (VC) cooling system, Coefficient of performance (COP) and energy saving of two VC subsystem for hybrid systems are increased 16.09%, 28.71% and 58.37%, 78.71%; energy saving of whole loads for conventional hybrid and solar hybrid systems are 11.76%, 20.51% and 38.22%, 53.62%. It was also found that with the inside design temperature increased and relative humidity unchanged, energy saving potential of VC subsystems and of the whole loads for conventional hybrid and solar hybrid cycles was strengthened. The performances of the two hybrid cycles were studied in some typical area of China. The results show that more energy was saved in hot, dry climates and less was saved in hot, humid climates for the conventional hybrid cycles, while the solar hybrid cycles always saved more energy than conventional VC cycles.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part A He Ji, Wang Songlin, Wu Qinglin, Chen Xiaonan Calculating flood based on rainfall is an important part of hydrological forecast. However, due to the diversity and complexity of factors affecting the relationship between rainfall and runoffs, using the perspective of mechanism to simulate the forming of flood through rainfall is often difficult. In this paper, flood forecast model is constructed based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Genetic Programming (GP), using actual data to mine the relationship among rainfall, pre rain and net rain, to avoid the flaws of constructing actual mathematical expression in advance, and automatically search for optimal structure. Practice has approved that applying data mining technique on flood forecasting of Douhe Reservoir is able to achieve outstanding results.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part A Zhang Lei, Pan Jienan, Zhang Xiaomin Many factors influence coal mining, such as coal seams, structure condition, lithologic characteristics of roof and floor, and so on. The mining technology and developing methods are not the same for different geological conditions. Based on mining geological conditions and the actual situation of the coal production in Linhuan coal mine, Huaibei Coalfield, combining the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation theory and method, this paper puts forward a kind of practical and reasonable structure system-evaluation prediction index system for fully-mechanized coal mining block. This system is applied to study mining geological condition in the No.9 coal seam Linhuan coal mine, Huaibei Coalfield, China, and make comprehensive evaluation and prediction for mining geological conditions of different blocks.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part A Shulin Li The importance for sustainable development is increasingly being recognized by the world, and the looking for ways to implement sustainable development has become the focus in domestic and foreign academics. As an effective means of sustainable development, circular economy has been obtained the attention of academics and government. In this study, with the system analysis of development and principle of circular economy, based on the input-output analysis tools, this paper builds an input-output analysis table and the basic evaluation model of circular economy in enterprise.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 12, Part B Zhong-Ze Zhan, Hong-Bin Liu, Hui-Ming Li, Wei Wu, Bin Zhong Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) has been widely used for qualitative and quantitative estimation of vegetation cover and growth activity. Understanding the relationship between NDVI and terrain attributes is of critical importance for protecting environmental and natural resources. A total 36 images of SPOT-VGTS10 with a spatial resolution of 1 km of 2007 were used to investigate the relationship between NDVI and topography in Chongqing. Three terrain attributes, namely, aspect, slope and altitude, were derived from a digital elevation model (DEM). According to its topographical characteristics, Chongqing was classified into four areas, namely, Northeastern Chongqing, Southern Chongqing, Central Chongqing and Western Chongqing. The results showed that topography had strong influence on the distribution and growth of vegetation in the study area. The values of NDVI varied from 0.5 to 0.8 for northeastern Chongqing, from 0.15 to 0.6 for western Chongqing, from 0.5 to 0.65 for central Chongqing, and from 0.4 to 0.8 for southern part of Chongqing. The values of NDVI increased with altitude in the four regions, especially in low altitude areas. The vegetation mostly occupied on 0-25 degree, north-facing and south-facing slopes for northeastern Chongqing, on 0-9 degree, east-facing and west-facing slopes for western Chongqing, on slope of 0-15 degree for central Chongqing, and on 0-20 degree, east-facing and west-facing slopes for southern Chongqing, respectively.

Description: Recent descriptions of new taxa and recognition of survivorship of Jurassic genera across the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary bring the total number of Cretaceous ichthyosaur genera to eight. Taxa currently known from the Cretaceous include Ophthalmosaurus, Caypullisaurus, Aegirosaurus, Platypterygius, Maiaspondylus, Athabascasaurus, Sveltonectes, and Acamptonectes. This review summarizes the occurrence of all Cretaceous genera. A discussion of morphological diversity demonstrates the different, though overlapping, ecological niches occupied by the different taxa, while the comparison of phylogenetic hypotheses shows the problems inherent in understanding the evolutionary relationships between Cretaceous genera. The Late Jurassic radiation indicated in the competing phylogenetic hypotheses may correlate with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean or additional dispersal routes established by the breakup of Gondwana. Inclusion of the stratigraphically oldest Platypterygius species may aid in resolving these evolutionary relationships.

Description: Available online 3 November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers The Sinai Peninsula has been recognized as a subplate of the African Plate located at the triple junction of the Gulf of Suez rift, the Dead Sea Transform fault, and the Red Sea rift. The upper and lower crustal structures of this tectonically active, rapidly developing region are yet poorly understood because of many limitations. For this reason, a set of P- and S-wave travel times recorded at 14 seismic stations belonging to the Egyptian N ational S eismographic N etwork (ENSN) from 111 local and regional events are analyzed to investigate the crustal structures and the locations of the seismogenic zones beneath central and southern Sinai. Because the velocity model used for routine earthquake location by ENSN is one-dimensional, the travel-time residuals will show lateral heterogeneity of the velocity structures and unmodeled vertical structures. Seismic activity is strong along the eastern and southern borders of the study area but low to moderate along the northern boundary and the Gulf of Suez to the west. The crustal V p / V s ratio is 1.74 from shallow (depth ≤ 10 km) earthquakes and 1.76 from deeper (depth 〉 10 km) crustal events. The majority of the regional and local travel time residuals are positive relative to the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM), implying that the seismic stations are located above widely distributed, tectonically-induced low-velocity zones. These low-velocity zones are mostly related to the local crustal faults affecting the sedimentary section and the basement complex as well as the rifting processes prevailing in the northern Red Sea region and the ascending of hot mantle materials along crustal fractures. The delineation of these low-velocity zones and the locations of big crustal earthquakes enable the identification of areas prone to intense seismotectonic activities, which should be excluded from major future development projects and large constructions in central and southern Sinai. Graphical abstract Highlights ► High crustal V p / V s ratio is observed, which is consistent with the rifting processes. ► Positive travel time residuals implying the presence of tectonically-induced low V p zones. ► Consistent results between the low V p and high V p / V s ratio and other geophysical observations.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 The Venda Nova Pluton (VNP) is a zoned ring structure emplaced in the southern portion of the Neoproterozoic Araçuai Belt, in Espírito Santo, Brazil. It is a slightly westward tilted cylinder-like intrusion, with an almost circular horizontal section. In the center of this structure, an off-centered gabbro-noritic core, surrounded by syeno-monzonitic rocks, intrudes an outer ring of charnockites and norite. These envelop the syeno-monzonitic and gabbro-noritic center, as a narrow discontinuous belt. While, in the core intrusion, mingling and mixing processes are widespread and well documented in the literature, in the outer ring, the norite and charnockite layers show predominantly homogeneous and isotropic internal structures. Nevertheless, smaller interaction zones between charnockites and norite denote a comparatively more restricted mingling process. The norite is a fine-grained rock with hypidiomorphic granular to intergranular texture. The charnockites are medium-grained and made up of: (a) orthopyroxene-tonalite, (b) orthopyroxene-quartz-diorite, and (c) orthopyroxene-granodiorite with hypidiomorphic granular to porphyritic textures. In all lithotypes both ortho- and clinopyroxene are replaced by hornblende and biotite. Two contrasting compositional sequences have been recognized, based on whole rock geochemistry: (1) a basic, with tholeiitic affinities (norite) and, (2) an intermediate, medium-K calc-alkaline, comprising the charnockites. Estimated crystallization temperatures, which have been calculated from micro-probe analysis of pyroxenes, range from 915 ± 25 °C to 960 ± 50 °C. Re-equilibration temperature (ilmenite-magnetite calibration) is around 600 ± 50 °C. This indicates oxygen fugacities four order of magnitude below the FMQ-buffer and a reduced environment. Coeval pressure conditions estimated from the Al-content in hornblende range from 5.5 ± 0.6 kbar. Data obtained for the norite point toward an evolution from the partial melting of an anhydrous tholeiitic mantle magma. The charnockites may correspond to the differentiation of a calc-alkaline parental magma. The later could be the hybrid product from the contamination and mixing between the anhydrous tholeiitic magma with other deeper crustal sources. Further the magmatic system evolved through fractionation of orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, plagioclase and ilmenite. Our results support the hypothesis for the evolution of the Venda Nova Pluton through a mantle-crust delamination process probably related to the collapse of the Araçuai orogeny. Graphical abstract Highlights ► The calcic charnockitic intrusion is related to the collapse of the Brasiliano Araçuaí Belt (G5 Supersuite). ► Petrogenetic constraints point toward reducing conditions and emplacement under 16 km in depth. ► The evolution of the pluton was possibly controlled by mantle-crust delamination process.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 High-grade dehydration of amphibolite-facies rocks to granulite-facies is a process that can involve partial melting, fluid-aided solid-state dehydration, or varying degrees of both. On the localized meter scale, solid-state dehydration, due to CO 2 -rich fluids traveling along some fissure or crack and subsequently outwards along the mineral grain boundaries of the surrounding rock, normally is the means by which the breakdown of biotite and amphibole to orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene occur. Various mineral textures and changes in mineral chemistry seen in these rocks are also seen in more regional orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-bearing rocks which, along with accompanying amphibolite-facies rocks, form traverses of lower crust. This suggests that solid-state dehydration during high-grade metamorphism could occur on a more regional scale. The more prominent of these fluid-induced textures in the granulite-facies portion of the traverse take the form of micro-veins of K-feldspar along quartz grain boundaries and the formation of monazite inclusions in fluorapatite. The fluids believed responsible take the form of concentrated NaCl- and KCl- brines from a basement ultramafic magma heat source traveling upwards along grain boundaries. Additional experimental work involving CaSO 4 dissolution in NaCl-brines, coupled with natural observation of oxide and sulfide mineral associations in granulite-facies rocks, have demonstrated the possibility that NaCl-brines, with a CaSO 4 component, could impose the oxygen fugacity on these rocks as opposed to the oxygen fugacity being inherent in their protoliths. These results, taken together, lend credence to the idea that regional chemical modification of the lower crust is an evolutionary process controlled by fluids migrating upwards from the lithospheric mantle along grain boundaries into and through the lower crust where they both modify the rock and are modified by it. Their presence allows for rapid mass and heat transport and subsequent mineral genesis and mineral re-equilibration in the rocks through which they pass. Graphical abstract Highlights ► High-grade, fluid-aided dehydration of amphibolite- to granulite-facies rock. ► Comparison with localized, solid-state CO 2 -induced dehydration zones. ► Regional solid-state dehydration fluids include concentrated NaCl-KCl brines.

Description: September 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 5 The fact that several half-grabens and normal faults developed in the Lower–Middle Cambrian of Tazhong (central Tarim Basin) and Bachu areas in Tarim Basin, northwest China, indicates that Tarim Basin was under extensional tectonic setting at this time. The half-grabens occur within a linear zone and the normal faults are arranged in en echelon patterns with gradually increasing displacement eastward. Extensional tectonics resulted in the formation of a passive continental margin in the southwest and a cratonic margin depression in the east, and most importantly, influenced the development of a three-pronged rift in the northeast margin of the Tarim Basin. The fault system controlled the development of platform – slope – bathyal facies sedimentation of mainly limestone-dolomite-gypsum rock-saline rock-red beds in the half-grabens. The NW-SE trending half-grabens reflect the distribution of buried basement faults. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Half-grabens and normal faults developed in the Lower-Middle Cambrian in Tarim Basin. ► Extensional tectonics resulted in the formation of a passive continental margin. ► Normal fault system controls distribution of “platform–slope–basin facies”.

Description: July 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 Non-marine ostracodes, charophytes and palynomorphs are abundant in most Cretaceous lacustrine basins of East Asia. However, their ranges are not directly integrated with marine biota that defines the Cretaceous stages. Non-biotic events such as magnetochrons and radiometric ages in these terrestrial deposits enable their correlation with marine strata. The SK1 north and south composited cores in the Songliao Basin present a continuous section of Upper Cretaceous non-marine fossil and magnetochron successions in superposed order. These chronostratigraphic events are integrated with marine events by an X / Y graphic plot between the core data and a global database of Global Section and Stratotype Points (GSSP) and key reference sections. This plot projects stage boundaries in marine sections into the SK1 section and interpolates numerical ages to the first and last occurrences of biota and to lithostratigraphic boundaries. This stratigraphic experiment tests and refines age calibrations based on both manual interpolation of depths to numerical ages and cyclostratigraphy. Ages derived by interpolation are similar and ages by cyclostratigraphy are older because stage boundaries are calibrated to a different age scale. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Non-biotic Late Cretaceous events in terrestrial deposits of the Songliao Basin correlate with marine strata. ► Non-marine events are integrated with marine events by an X/Y graphic plot between core data and global database. ► The plot interpolates numerical ages to fossil ranges and to lithostratigraphic boundaries.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 Charnockites sensu lato (charnockite-enderbite series) are lower crustal felsic rocks typically characterised by the presence of anhydrous minerals including orthopyroxene and garnet. They either represent dry (H 2 O-poor) felsic magmas that are emplaced in the lower crust or granitic intrusions that have been dehydrated during a subsequent granulite facies metamorphic event. In the first case, post-magmatic high-temperature recrystallisation may result in widespread metamorphic granulite microstructures, superimposed or replacing the magmatic microstructures. Despite recrystallisation, magmatic remnants may still be found, notably in the form of melt-related microstructures such as melt inclusions. For both magmatic charnockites and dehydrated granites, subsequent fluid-mineral interaction at intergrain boundaries during retrogradation are documented by microstructures including K-feldspar microveins and myrmekites. They indicate that a large quantity of low-H 2 O activity salt-rich brines, were present (together with CO 2 under immiscible conditions) in the lower crust. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Igneous and metamorphic charnockites can be identified by typical microstructures. ► Microstructures can be obliterated by metamorphic recrystallisation. ► Charnockites may be affected by high-temperature metasomatism.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 Large charnockite massifs occur in the high-grade Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) and Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB) crustal provinces of Peninsular India. Available geochronological data indicate that the magmatism is episodic, associated with distinct orogenic cycles in the different crustal domains. The geochemical data also indicate a change in composition from trondhjemitic at ∼3.0–2.9 Ga to dominantly tonalitic at ∼2.6–2.5 Ga to tonalitic-granodiorite-granitic at ∼2.0–1.9 Ga to dominantly tonalitic at 1.7–1.6 Ga to quartz monzonitic or tonalitic at ∼1.0–0.9 Ga to granodiorite-granitic at ∼0.8–0.7 Ga. The trondhjemitic and tonalitic end members are metaluminous, magnesian and calcic to calc-alkalic, characteristic of magnesian group charnockites. The granodioritic to granitic end members are metaluminous to slightly peraluminous, ferroan and calc-alkalic to alkali-calcic, characteristic of ferroan group charnockites. The quartz monzonitic end members are metaluminous to peraluminous, magnesian to ferroan and calcic to calc-alkalic, neither characteristic of the magnesian group nor of the ferroan group of charnockites. Based on the occurrence and difference in composition of the charnockite massifs, it is suggested that the charnockite magmatism registers the crustal growth of the Indian plate on its southern (SGT) and eastern (EGB) sides, along active continental margins by accretion of arcs. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Charnockite magmatism in Peninsular India is episodic. ► Least differentiated end members are similar to magnesian group charnockites. ► Episodic charnockite magmatism registers the crustal growth of the Indian plate.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 Incipient charnockites represent granulite formation on a mesoscopic scale and have received considerable attention in understanding fluid processes in the deep crust. Here we report new petrological data from an incipient charnockite locality at Rajapalaiyam in the Madurai Block, southern India, and discuss the petrogenesis based on mineral phase equilibrium modeling and pseudosection analysis. Rajapalaiyam is a key locality in southern India from where diagnostic mineral assemblages for ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism have been reported. Proximal to the UHT rocks are patches and lenses of charnockite (Kfs + Qtz + Pl + Bt + Opx + Grt + Ilm) occurring within Opx-free Grt-Bt gneiss (Kfs + Pl + Qtz + Bt + Grt + Ilm + Mt) which we report in this study. The application of mineral equilibrium modeling on the charnockitic assemblage in NCKFMASHTO system yields a p - T range of ∼820 °C and ∼9 kbar. Modeling of the charnockite assemblage in the MnNCKFMASHTO system indicates a slight shift of the equilibrium condition toward lower p and T (∼760 °C and ∼7.5 kbar), which is consistent with the results obtained from geothermobarometry (710–760 °C, 6.7–7.5 kbar), but significantly lower than the peak temperatures (〉1000 °C) recorded from the UHT rocks in this locality, suggesting that charnockitization is a post-peak event. The modeling of T versus molar H 2 O content in the rock (M(H 2 O)) demonstrates that the Opx-bearing assemblage in charnockite and Opx-free assemblage in Grt-Bt gneiss are both stable at M(H 2 O) = 0.3 mol%–0.6 mol%, and there is no significant difference in water activity between the two domains. Our finding is in contrast to the previous petrogenetic model of incipient charnockite formation which envisages lowering of water activity and stabilization of orthopyroxene through breakdown of biotite by dehydration caused by the infiltration of CO 2 -rich fluid. T - X Fe 3+ (=Fe 2 O 3 /(FeO + Fe 2 O 3 ) in mole) pseudosections suggest that the oxidation condition of the rocks played a major role on the stability of orthopyroxene; Opx is stable at X Fe 3+ 〈0.03 in charnockite, while Opx-free assemblage in Grt-Bt gneiss is stabilized at X Fe 3+ 〉0.12. Such low oxygen fugacity conditions of X Fe 3+ 〈0.03 in the charnockite compared to Grt-Bt gneiss might be related to the infiltration of a reduced fluid (e.g., H 2 O + CH 4 ) during the retrograde stage. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Charnockite formation at ∼820 °C and ∼9 kbar based on NCKFMASHTO pseudosections. ► Lower p and T (∼760 °C and ∼7.5 kbar) if MnNCKFMASHTO system is applied. ► Charnockite formation by the infiltration of a reduced fluid (e.g., H 2 O + CH 4 ).

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6 Examples of the mightiest energy releases by great earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and hypotheses providing explanations for them are analyzed along with the results of some recently published researches and visualizations. The emerging conclusions are that the mechanism of the strong earthquake is a chemical explosion; that volcanic eruption is a special type of earthquake wherein the hypocenter rises to the earth-surface; and that there is an association between the seismic-volcanic processes and mantle “fluids” and the lack of energy for mantle plumes. A conceptual system of hypotheses is put forward to explain the conservation of energy during Earth’s accretion, its quasi-stable release by primordial H- and He-degassing and of the crucial role of the energy of degassing-comprising-reactions in endogenic processes. Specific mechanisms and chemical processes are proposed for the gas-liquid mantle plumes melting through the solid mantle using heat-energy released in reactions of their metamorphic and chemical transformation under gradual decrease of pressure and temperature; volcanic gases are put forward as energy carriers. 3 He performance as a unique measuring transformer correlative to the internal heat flow was used for calculation of energy release by degassing; it equals to 5.12 × 10 20 J/yr, an amount of energy five-fold greater than the entire energy loss involved in earthquake and volcanic activity. The hypotheses proposed are objectively testable. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Energy-outputs of mega-cataclysms and other facts are explained by the proposed energy-source. ► During Earth accretion H and He were stored in its interior under ultrahigh pT -conditions. ► The giant energy invested in H-He trapping is queasy-constantly released by their degassing.

Description: November 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 6

Description: Available online 29 October 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers A series of Cretaceous plutons is present in the eastern Pontides of northeastern Turkey. The Turnagöl intrusion is the least studied and, thus, the least understood plutons in the orogen. This intrusion consists of hornblende-biotite granodiorites emplaced at 78 Ma based on LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating. It is of sub-alkaline affinity, belongs to the medium to high-K calc-alkaline series, and displays features typical of I-type granites. The rocks of the intrusion are enriched in large-ion lithophile elements and light rare earth-elements with negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.69–0.82), but are deficient in high-field-strength elements. They have a small range of ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) i (0.7060–0.7063), ɛ N d i (−2.6 to −3.1), and δ 18 O (+8.1 to +9.1) values. Their Pb isotopic ratios are 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 18.63–18.65, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.62–15.63, and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.53–38.55. The fractionation of plagioclase, hornblende, and Fe-Ti oxides had key functions in the evolution of the Turnagöl intrusion. The crystallization temperatures of the melts ranged from 758 to 885 °C as determined by zircon and apatite saturation thermometry. All these characteristics, combined with the low values of K 2 O/Na 2 O and (Na 2 O + K 2 O)/(FeO t  + MgO + TiO 2 ), as well as the high values of (CaO + FeO t  + MgO + TiO 2 ), suggest an origin by dehydration melting from a metabasaltic lower crustal source. Graphical abstract Highlights ► Geochemical, geochronological and Sr-Nd-Pb-O isotopic data on Turnagöl intrusion. ► Geochemical data show an affinity to I-type granites. ► Origin of the magma correlated to dehydration melting of a mafic crustal source.

Description: September 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 5 The Erlangmiao granite intrusion is located in the eastern part of the East Qinling Orogen. The granite contains almost 99 vol.% felsic minerals with accessory garnet, muscovite, biotite, zircon, and Fe-Ti oxide. Garnet is the dominant accessory mineral, shows zoned texture, and is rich in w (FeO) (14.13%–16.09%) and w (MnO) (24.21%–27.44%). The rocks have high SiO 2 , alkalis, FeO t /MgO, TiO 2 /MgO and low Al 2 O 3 , CaO with w (Na 2 O)/ w (K 2 O)〉 1. Their Rb, Ga, Ta, Nb, Y, and Yb contents are high and Sr, Ba, Eu, Zr, P, and Ti contents are low. These features indicate that the Erlangmiao granite is a highly evolved metaluminous A-type. Garnet crystallized at the expense of biotite from the MnO-rich evolved melt after fractionation of biotite, plagioclase, K-feldspar, zircon, apatite, and ilmenite. The relatively high initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0.706–0.708), low and negative ɛ Nd (120 Ma) values (−6.6 to −9.0), and old Nd model ages (1.5–1.7 Ga) suggest that the rocks were probably formed by partial melting of the Paleoproterozoic granitic gneisses from the basement, with participation of depleted mantle in an extensional setting. Graphical abstract Highlights ► FeO-, MnO-rich garnet crystallized at the expense of biotite from MnO-rich granitic magma. ► Granite formed from a highly evolved metaluminous A-type magma. ► Granite magma derived through the melting of Paleoproterozoic granitic gneisses.

Description: 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Cryopreservation of a prokaryotic alga, Acaryochloris marina , which was first isolated as a minor symbiont from a colonial ascidian, was investigated. This alga, possessing chlorophyll d as the major photosynthetic pigment, is an important organism for elucidating various biological questions such as the mechanism of chlorophyll diversity and the evolution of photosynthesis. However, the proportion of photosynthetic pigments changes on serial subcultures on maintenance under a fluorescent lamp, a light condition that differs from that of the original habitat. Cryopreservation has the capacity to ensure the maintenance of the physiological and genetic stability of A. marina . By placing samples in a styrene foam container in a deep freezer, cooling rate of –2 °C·min-1 was obtained for pre-freezing to –80 °C prior to plunging into liquid nitrogen. Amongst the three distinct cryoprotectants employed, [dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 10% v/v), methanol (10% v/v), and glycerol (10% v/v)], DMSO was the most effective since cells preserved in DMSO for one month in liquid nitrogen or at –80 °C in a deep freezer, started to grow 200 h after inoculation at 20 °C under a fluorescent lamp. In contrast, no cell growth was observed when cells were preserved employing methanol, and growth of contaminant bacteria was observed when cells were preserved in glycerol. The optimum concentration of DMSO was 10%. Other concentrations of DMSO resulted in an extended lag period at 5% and 20% DMSO, and growth was completely inhibited at 40% DMSO.

Description: 2012 Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Business feasibility of oil production using the green alga Botryococcus braunii has been studied for a conceptually designed, 19-hectare (ha) semi-open pond type oil producing plant. B. braunii is known to produce triterpenic hydrocarbons, such as C34H58, with high purity. The construction cost was estimated to be 200M¥ (2.35M$) and the operation cost was 200M¥ (2.35M$), or 10.5 M¥/ha year (=124,000$/ha year). The plant achieved a net energy gain in operation with an energy consumption ratio (ECR) of 2.80. Based on the total sales of the hydrocarbon oil produced and the operation cost balance considerations, the breakeven point oil price was 107 ¥/L. By utilizing corporate financial analyses methods, the capital value of the oil producing company was estimated. The analysis methods described in the present study can also be applied to other oil production companies that use microalgae. We found that the initially invested capital increases approximately three times through successive business years when the oil price is 130 ¥/L. In conclusion, several considerations introduced in the present study suggest that the algal oil production business will become strongly competitive in the fuel market by mid-twenty-first century.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Elena Achim, Gabriela Manea, Iuliana Vijulie, Octavian Cocoş, Laura T”rlă The paper aims to make an overall assessment of drought related problems, and to shed some light on land degradation and aridity in Romania, with particular emphasis on Dăbuleni Town belonging to the Dolj County. The main research methods employed for this study were observation, survey and cartographic method, which made use of GIS techniques. A map with the current spatial distribution of the forest belt fragments overlapping the initial vegetation was accomplished. The investigation has found that these patches cover small areas lying in the immediate vicinity of the Dăbuleni town. We suggest that in order to mitigate the impact of climatic modifications and to prevent land degradation the reconstruction of forest protection belts created between 1970 and 1980 is a must, in as much as in their present condition they can no longer protect the hydrotechnical improvements and the lands. However, project implementation is hindered by the lack of cadastre and funds. At the same time, the population and the landowners in the area need to be explained the importance of forest protection belts for the improvement of environment and living conditions, for the gradual diminishing of drought effects and for the enhancement of agricultural production. Another problem that must necessarily be settled is the development of a methodology for granting compensations to those landowners who agree to change the use of their agricultural lands so as to allow the creation of forest protection belts.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Andreea-Loreta Cercleux, Florentina-Cristina Merciu, George-Laurenţiu Merciu The aim of this paper is to analyze preservation and capitalization of technical and industrial heritage in Romania. An ecosystemic approach to the heritage was used in order to study the interdependence between the quality of a monument building and the relation between the suppliers and recipients of services related to the heritage – with various functional models of towns. Thus, a classification was elaborated in order to establish the positive and negative aspects of behavior of urban metabolisms in terms of preservation and capitalization of technical and industrial heritage assets. For this purpose the most relevant case studies were selected to depict the different phases of urban regeneration projects (the cities of Bucharest, Timişoara, Călan, Reşita). The presence of a rich and diverse technical and industrial patrimony in Romania requires continuing the programs to preserve the industrial assets which have to be incorporated into economic policies for regional and national development and planning.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Ioan Eustaţiu Marinescu, Sorin Avram The study aims at establishing an integrated method for the analysis of urban functional and spatial disparities induced by the structure and functional zoning of urban space. The study area is represented by an urban territorial unit of 90 000 square meters situated in the central area of Craiova. Computer-based cartographic conversion from satellite images provides the general metric scale of the analyzed territory. At this stage, the scientific approach is concerned with the elaboration and use of two metric indexes in order to calculate the functional fragmentation within the reference perimeter. There are presented criteria for the delimitation of functional zones by taking into account the predominant function of individually assessed perimeters. Furthermore, metric data is analyzed by the use of relative functional fragmentation index (RFf) and absolute functional fragmentation index (AFf). Recorded parameters are compared to the optimum values of space fragmentation in order to point out the functional and spatial disparities of urban space. The method can be easily used for the analysis of functional fragmentation of any urban areas or as part of more complex urban studies. It can also constitute a useful tool for territorial planning, better balance of urban territory and modification of functional units in order to meet specific standards in the economy of urban land use

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac, Liliana Zaharia, Gabriel Minea, Răzvan Zarea, Mihaela Borcan In the context of Water Framework Directive, we intend to develop a hydromorphological typology oriented toward the stability of river channels. Based on recent topographic profiles and on the maps drawn in the late 1970s, several parameters of the bankfull stage are computed: the ratio between the maximum depth and the height of the lower bank, the ratio between the channel width and its mean depth, the river competence, and the specific stream power. This methodology is applied for 32 cross profiles in the perimeter of the gauging stations lying within the Ialomiţa and Buzău watersheds. In the case of our study area, three types of channels are distinguished, each showing a different stability under the present conditions: unstable channels susceptible to evolve laterally and vertically; unstable channels susceptible to evolve sideways; and moderately unstable channels. Each of these types includes sub-types differentiated by river competence and sub-sub-types described by channel pattern and characterized by specific stream power. The study confirms the idea that the sinuous channels of the Carpathian streams and the braided channels specific to the Sub-Carpathians and piedmont plains are susceptible to evolve rapidly, whereas the meandering channels belonging to the lowlands of the Romanian Plain have a slower evolution. Beyond this overall picture, the typology leaves room for identifying some particularities due especially to human interventions. Therefore, in perspective, the analysis of hydromorphological features needs to rely also on historical studies.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Valentin Cojanu, Robert Dobre, Ileana Pătru-Stupariu The study aims at highlighting accessibility both as a crucial component in establishing the Competitive Potential Index (CPI) and as a good indicator for the capitalization of the regional potential of Romania. The present research contributes to the discussion about the competitive potential of economic growth at territorial level and attempts to identify policy guidelines of regional relevance for a national economy. We performed a spatial analysis of the most important Romanian growth centers and compared it to other centers of the same rank in the nearby European space. Spatial analysis can play a decisive role in defining the areas with economic potential. We have demonstrated that national or metropolitan growth poles are directly influenced by the degree of accessibility and therefore it is obvious that there is a direct relationship between the capitalization of economic potential and the density of transport infrastructure. The defining of various accessibility areas was done by taking into account the presence of modern transportation routes and the influence of topography. GIS applications proved to be extremely useful in the delimitation of accessibility areas and, in addition, they provided very accurate results. The areas lying at a distance in time of less than or equal to one hour from the core of the growth pole, irrespective of the land transportation means, were included in the category of highly accessible areas. At the same time, one can note that on the national scale the values of CPI are different. This fact can be explained by an uneven capitalization of the economic potential, which can be put to the account of an unequal development of the transport infrastructure in Romania. In order to get a clear picture of the relationship between CPI and accessibility in the case of Bucharest, which is the main growth pole of Romania, we made comparisons with two metropolis of the same development rank lying nearby (Budapest and Sofia). The employed methodology can also be used for identifying the areas that can be turned to economic account provided that the local and regional transport infrastructures are developed or modernized.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Darko Dragi Dimitrovski, Aleksandar Tomislav Todorović, Aleksandar Djordje Valjarević Geographical area of Gruţa, with its intact natural beauty and important cultural and historical monuments, has significant potential for tourism development. Local government is particularly important to tourism development and promotion in several aspects. Respondents, rural hosts from Gruţa region complained of the lack of cooperation on the part of local government. The experimental research comprises three parts; the first part includes a questionnaire that was conducted in regional and local organizations which have a decisive impact on regional economic development and tourism. The second part of the research was focusing on the basic characteristics of rural households owners. The third part includes qualitative research about rural tourist characteristics. Experimental research for this study was performed in the region of Gruţa in Central Serbia, including registered rural households that have participated in rural tourism in the last few years. Results indicate that rural home owners involved in rural tourism are members of the Tourist Organization of Knić, predominantly male, from 40 to 60 years old and they hold secondary school diplomas. The results of the research suggest that an average tourist in Gruţa is at a higher social and cultural level, with medium income and mostly coming from urban areas. This type of tourist is open to typical rural activities including sports, farm works, as well as to enjoying nature and gastronomy.

Description: Crowdsourced geodata has been proven to be a rich and major data source for environmental simulations and analysis, as well as the visualization of spatial phenomena. With the increasing size and complexity of public buildings, such as universities or hotels, there is also an increasing demand for information about indoor spaces. Trying to stimulate this growing demand, both researchers and Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) communities envision to extend established communities towards indoors. It has already been showcased that VGI from OpenStreetMap (OSM) can be utilized for different applications in Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) as well as for simple shortest path computations inside buildings. The here presented research now tries to utilize crowdsourced indoor geodata for more complex indoor routing scenarios of multiple users. Essentially, it will be investigated if, and to what extent, the available data can be utilized for performing indoor evacuation simulations with the simulation framework MATSim. That is, this paper investigates the suitability of crowdsourced indoor information from OSM (IndoorOSM) for evacuation simulations. Additionally, the applicability of MATSim for agent-based indoor evacuation simulations is conducted. The paper discusses the automatic generation simulation-related data, and provides experimental results for two different evacuation scenarios. Furthermore, limitations of the IndoorOSM data and the MATSim framework for indoor evacuation simulations are elaborated and discussed.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Andreas Prokoph, Hafida el Bilali, Richard Ernst Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) are considered a relevant cause for mass extinctions of marine life throughout Earth’s history. Their flood basalts and associated intrusions can cause significant release of SO 4 and CO 2 and consequently, cause major environmental disruptions. Here, we reconstruct the long-term periodic pattern of LIP emplacement and its impact on ocean chemistry and biodiversity from δ 34 S sulfate of the last 520 million years (Ma) under particular consideration of the preservation limits of LIP records. A combination of cross-wavelet and other time-series analysis methods has been applied to quantify a potential chain of linkage between LIP emplacement periodicity, geochemical changes and the Phanerozoic marine genera record. We suggest a mantle plume cyclicity represented by LIP volumes ( V ) of V = –(350–770)10 3 km 3 sin(2π t /170 Ma) + (300–650)10 3 km 3 sin(2π t /64.5 Ma+2.3) for t =time in Ma. A shift from the 64.5 Ma to a weaker ∼28–35 Ma LIP cyclicity during the Jurassic contributes together with probably independent changes in the marine sulfur cycle to less ocean anoxia, and a general stabilization of ocean chemistry and increasing marine biodiversity throughout the last ∼135 Ma. The LIP cycle pattern is coherent with marine biodiversity fluctuations corresponding to a reduction of marine biodiversity of ∼120 genera/Ma at ∼600 × 10 3 km 3 LIP eruption volume. The 62–65 Ma LIP cycle pattern as well as excursion in δ 34 S sulfate and marine genera reduction suggest a not-yet identified found LIP event at ∼440–450 Ma. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► 140 and 65 Ma cyclic eruptions of large igneous provinces (LIP) control ocean chemistry and marine biodiversity. ► Since ∼135 Ma a ∼32 Ma cyclicity became dominated in LIP and marine biodiversity records. ► Cycle amplitudes relate to reduction of ∼120 marine genera at 〉∼600×10 3 km 3 LIP eruption volume.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Susumu Nagano, Seiji Yamamoto, Masao Nagakubo, Kinya Atsumi, Makoto M. Watanabe In automotive engine combustion, particularly in case of compression ignition in diesel engines, physical properties of the fuel have a direct impact on the spray combustion process. The density, kinematic viscosity, surface tension, and distillation properties of triterpenic hydrocarbons extracted from the BOT-22 strain of Botryococcus braunii (called Bot-oil) were measured, and these properties were compared with those of standard diesel fuel. The density and surface tension of Bot-oil were almost the same as those of the diesel fuel. However, the kinematic viscosity of Bot-oil was 55 to 58 cSt at room temperature, which was 16 times higher than that of the diesel fuel. In addition, the distillation temperature of Bot-oil was approximately 430 °C, which was over 100 °C higher than that of the diesel fuel. To attain the properties required for fuel, a cracking technology for Bot-oil must be established.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Koji Iwamoto, Sohjiro Fukuyo, Masaaki Okuda, Masami Kobayashi, Yoshihiro Shiraiwa Cryopreservation of a prokaryotic alga, Acaryochloris marina , which was first isolated as a minor symbiont from a colonial ascidian, was investigated. This alga, possessing chlorophyll d as the major photosynthetic pigment, is an important organism for elucidating various biological questions such as the mechanism of chlorophyll diversity and the evolution of photosynthesis. However, the proportion of photosynthetic pigments changes on serial subcultures on maintenance under a fluorescent lamp, a light condition that differs from that of the original habitat. Cryopreservation has the capacity to ensure the maintenance of the physiological and genetic stability of A. marina . By placing samples in a styrene foam container in a deep freezer, cooling rate of –2 °C·min-1 was obtained for pre-freezing to –80 °C prior to plunging into liquid nitrogen. Amongst the three distinct cryoprotectants employed, [dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 10% v/v), methanol (10% v/v), and glycerol (10% v/v)], DMSO was the most effective since cells preserved in DMSO for one month in liquid nitrogen or at –80 °C in a deep freezer, started to grow 200 h after inoculation at 20 °C under a fluorescent lamp. In contrast, no cell growth was observed when cells were preserved employing methanol, and growth of contaminant bacteria was observed when cells were preserved in glycerol. The optimum concentration of DMSO was 10%. Other concentrations of DMSO resulted in an extended lag period at 5% and 20% DMSO, and growth was completely inhibited at 40% DMSO.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Yoshito Yuyama Tsukuba city has been promoting projects to reduce 50% CO2 emission per capita by 2030. One action plan is creation of a low-carbon rural area including acceleration of biomass use. Biomass Task Force was established aiming at planning of Biomass Town, and implementation of social experiment on biomass use. Interim achievements such as investigation result of present biomass use situation, ideas of biomass use including algae, and preparation of road map to promote biomass use, are arranged. It is essential to have reliable cooperation among related sectors, good institution, funds and suitable technologies at several points in time.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Sergio Ginesu, Donatella Carboni, Marian Marian This paper uses a combination of archaeological, geomorphologic and radiometric data from the coast of Sardinia, in Italy, to purpose a reconstruction of the sea-level and coastal changes during the recent period in the whole island. The archaeological remains have been used as one of indicators to interpret the recent movements, uplift or subsidence, long the coastal tracts of the island; the evidences are represented by quarries, megalithic buildings, submerged towns, roman villas, the latter by harbor structures, Medieval testifies and other ruins like the wrecks for a long span. In summary, the comparison between the geomorphologic evolution, archaeological indicators and radiometric data suggests a different sea-level uplifting corresponding to the different Pleistocenic evolution in some places of the island; in some cases there is an evident correspondence between the submerged remains and the presence of the grabens that characterizing the geological structure of the Sardinia. The submerged archaeological indicators are intended to identify the level of the sea, in most situation, they indicate the presence of a sea level lower than their base subject to the tidal range at the time which can be only be approximate. However, the presence of a single type of indicator does not know the precise level of the sea; in the same way it is very difficult to distinguish between eustatic and tectonic components. The combination and correlation between different data at the regional level is the only possibility to have an interpretative hypothesis for movements. Unfortunately it is rare to have all three indicators in one place. The results are given in recognition of areas of greatest subsidence, evidenced by some ancient cities, with the more stable areas and those that behave differently showing that even in historic and protohistoric Sardinia, while considered a stable land, suffer a continuous weak lifting or subsidence comforted by archaeological data showing that, at the same time, the progression of the phenomenon is different.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Hiroshi Matsuura, Atsushi Nakazawa, Mayumi Ueda, Daiske Honda, Makoto M. Watanabe, Kunimitsu Kaya A strain of Aurantiochytrium sp. was grown in media with various concentrations of glucose to monitor triglyceride production as a potential source of oil for biodiesel. The fatty acid composition of triglyceride in the strain was unique, because the fatty acids consisted of only 6 molecular species, and the major species were myristic, pentadecanoic, palmitic, heptadecanoic, docosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids. When cells were cultured in glucose-rich (over 9%) medium for 4 days, the triglyceride yields were 0.5-1.0 g/L. After culture for 4 days, the fatty acid composition of triglyceride was nearly identical in all cells grown in media containing various concentrations of glucose. However, when cells were grown in medium containing 12% glucose for 12 days, unique triglyceride containing only saturated fatty acids accumulated. This bio-rearrangement into fully-saturated fatty acids-containing triglyceride may be utilized for the preparation of biodiesel oil.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Camelia-Eliza Telteu, Liliana Zaharia This paper presents some morphometrical and dynamical features of the South Dobrogea lakes based on the bathymetric data between 2010-2011. The analyze includes the lakes on the Black Sea shore (Siutghiol, Limanu and Tatlageac) and on the right side of the Danube River (Bugeac, Oltina, Mârleanu, Domneasca). The Siutghiol Lake is the deepest one with 7.82 m and has the highest volume (69.69 mil. m 3 ). The Domneasca Lake has the lowest maximum depth (2 m) and the smallest area (0.49 km 2 ). The wind is a main factor which causes the water dynamic, and determines the resuspension of the sediments by the wave action. In order to estimate the bottom dynamic conditions, the form factor (Vd), the erosion and transport areas (ET) of fine sediments and the fine sediments accumulation areas (A0) were determined based on the morphometrical features: lakes area (A, in km2), the mean depth (Dm, in m) and the maximum depth (Dmax, in m). The study shows that the areas of accumulation prevail in the Tatlageac, Siutghiol and Domneasca lakes (62.64-69.36%) and the erosion and transport areas prevail in the Bugeac, Oltina, Mârleanu and Lakes (76.67-99%). The dynamic ratio (the ratio between the area's square root and the mean depth) ranges between 4.18 (Oltina Lake) and 0.40 (Domneasca Lake). The relation between the lake form and the bottom dynamic conditions is highlighted by the form factor which ranges between 0.78 (Limanu Lake) and 1.83 (Domneasca Lake). Our estimation of the erosion, transport and accumulation areas of the fine sediments could be useful for improving the management of the lakes, especially for the lakes that are used for fish production, imposing some structural and nonstructural measures.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Thomas Friedl, Maike Lorenz The SAG is one of the most comprehensive resources of microalgal cultures (www.epsag.uni-goettingen.de). It is supporting research in biotechnology and biodiversity through ex situ conservation of algae and expert knowledge on identifying and isolating. Multiple strains proven to represent the same microalgal species exhibit extensive genotypic diversity interesting for further exploitation. Cryopreservation is well suited to circumvent problems associated with perpetual maintenance, but needs optimization to ensure genetic stability. To ensure the SAG's reliability, primary goals are correctly identified strains as references for DNA sequence comparisons. Novel isolates from unusual terrestrial habitats worth further biotechnological exploitation are being developed.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Nicolae Frunzeti, Călin Baciu In the framework of studies on gas emissions, the surface and time distribution of carbon dioxide flux represent an important geochemical tool for volcanic activity monitoring. Ciomadu volcano, located on the southern part of Eastern Carpathians, witnesses the most recent eruption in the whole Carpathian range. In order to understand the actual behavior and to assess the present phase of this extinct volcano, the diffuse CO 2 flux near Sfânta Ana Lake was measured using the closed chamber method. Carbon dioxide flux values ranged from about 2 g m -2 day -1 up to 90 g m -2 day -1 . The measurements were performed in different places by respect to the Sfânta Ana crater. The results show a tendency of increase in carbon dioxide flux starting from the flank toward the crater, with the highest values located close to the shore lake. A carbon dioxide flux distribution map for the measurements inside the crater was produced, that reveals a particular pattern distribution of CO 2 flux.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Makoto Shiho, Masayuki Kawachi, Kazuhiko Horioka, Yosuke Nishita, Kazuhiko Ohashi, Kunimitsu Kaya, Makoto M. Watanabe Business feasibility of oil production using the green alga Botryococcus braunii has been studied for a conceptually designed, 19-hectare (ha) semi-open pond type oil producing plant. B. braunii is known to produce triterpenic hydrocarbons, such as C34H58, with high purity. The construction cost was estimated to be 200M¥ (2.35M$) and the operation cost was 200M¥ (2.35M$), or 10.5 M¥/ha year (=124,000$/ha year). The plant achieved a net energy gain in operation with an energy consumption ratio (ECR) of 2.80. Based on the total sales of the hydrocarbon oil produced and the operation cost balance considerations, the breakeven point oil price was 107 ¥/L. By utilizing corporate financial analyses methods, the capital value of the oil producing company was estimated. The analysis methods described in the present study can also be applied to other oil production companies that use microalgae. We found that the initially invested capital increases approximately three times through successive business years when the oil price is 130 ¥/L. In conclusion, several considerations introduced in the present study suggest that the algal oil production business will become strongly competitive in the fuel market by mid-twenty-first century.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Boglárka-Mercedesz Kis, Boglárka Czellecz, Călin Baciu, László Kékedy-Nagy The study area, located at the contact zone between the Harghita Mountains and the Transylvanian Basin is well known for the abundance and diversity of mineral water springs. These mineral waters are used by the local people for drinking and also as Spas. This paper focuses on the mineral waters of some traditional Spas from this area, Odorheiu Secuiesc (Seiche Spa, Kápolnás Spa or Solymossy Spa), Upper Vârghiş Valley (Selters Spa and Nádasszék Spa) and Chirui Spa. The aim of the present work is to characterize the mineral waters based on the quantification of chemical content and also to establish correlations between the geological structure and the water's chemical composition. The geological setting and tectonics have a large influence on the chemical composition of mineral waters. Two main water types can be described, mineral waters of Na+ – Cl- type, present at Odorheiu Secuiesc, Kápolnás Spa and of HCO3- type with no dominant cation at Chirui Spa. The mineral waters located on a fault at Odorhei Seiche Spa have high CO2 values. Possible mixing zones might be identified between the two types which are present in the Upper Vârghiş Valley where mineral waters of Na+ – HCO3-– Cl- type are present except one source, which is of Na+ – Cl- type. The mixing is reflected not only by the chemical composition, but also by the quantity of dissolved CO2. The present paper deals with all the existing mineral water springs in the area providing information in a high resolution about the local hydromineral system.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Ekaterina Ivanova Ivanova, Roumen Donchev Nedkov, Iva Boneva Ivanova, Kameliya Lyubomirova Radeva This paper proposes dividing of Black Sea Catchment Area's river basins into four morpho hydrographic regions – Dobrudja, East Balkan mountain, lowland of Burgas and Strandzha Mountain. It is based on geomorphologic and hydrographic characteristics of rivers and river basins (altitude, valleys, slopes, drainage density, river length, catchment shape, stream orders, and curve of the rivers). The work uses GIS to analyze and data of the rivers and the river basins collected from basic topographic maps. Digital Elevation Model (DEM), created on the base of satellite images, was also used. Based on the data collected for this study some basic hydrographical parameters were calculated. This is the first experiment of morpho-hydrographic dividing of the main catchment area in Bulgaria using river basins like basic units. It shows a way to unify separate river basins into major areas that can be useful for analyzing and research of water resources.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Ruben Iosif Road-kill can lead to a sharp local decline of herpetofauna species. For this reason, transportation agencies are more and more interested to implement mitigation measures in order to eliminate this threat. The present study proposes to identify the railroad network induced threats at a railroad segment spatial scale on Getic Tableland, south-western Romania, by highlighting associated mortality hot spots for Testudo hermanni boettgeri. The railroad segment was chosen due to the reported road-kills and high traffic volume. In order to identify road associated mortality hot spots, we adapted a gravity model by including a weighting coefficient for overtaking obstacles. The model was adapted after observing that the cuts, fills, ditches and guardrails can change the tortoises behavior, making them avoid dangerous crossings, thus influencing the distribution of hot spots. As a main result, our study managed to adapt a gravity model for a more accurate assessment of railroad associated mortality. The average value of inter-habitat interaction is reduced by 23.37% after introducing the coefficient of overtaking the obstacles. However, despite the numerous obstacles, at a home range spatial scale, the maximum inter-habitat interaction value is not decreased, the range being stable (range = 0 - 99.66). Instead, the spatial extent of the hot spots is modified because of the increased territorial dependence and home range multi-annual stability, both severely threatening the tortoise that have a home range bisected by a major railroad. Our study accurately identifies the hot spots, which is particularly important in planning mitigation efforts, for building effective underpasses and fences systems.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Mirela Paraschiv In the current global economic situation, poverty stands out as a growing concern with multiple territorial aspects. Poverty is to be found both in developing and developed countries with certain differences of classification, typology, magnitude, importance, but nevertheless with some fundamental common characteristics. Homelessness represents the most extreme manifestation of poverty in urban areas. The perception of the community referring to homeless people was evaluated through 150 social surveys among residents in 18 pre-identified areas in Bucharest. Residents’ security and local reasons of insecurity are used as a perception differentiation instrument in the analysis. Results reflect that homelessness has a high territorial visibility in Bucharest. The phenomenon is recognized as continuously increasing, referring to territorial distribution and affected urban areas, depth and effects on different categories of population and need for more specifically directed policies and action.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Ryoji Shimamura, Sho Watanabe, Yoshio Sakakura, Makoto Shiho, Kunimitsu Kaya, Makoto M. Watanabe The BOT-22 strain of Botryococcus braunii was cultured under laboratory and outdoor conditions. Medium K was developed, which decreased the cost of medium preparation to 1/30th. A polycarbonate bottle (10 L) was replaced with a polyethylene bag for cost effectiveness. Addition of nitrogen substantially increased biomass of the strain; however, the hydrocarbon content remained unchanged. Growth rates of 〉10 L scale cultures were much lower than those of 〈200 mL scale flask cultures. BOT-22 grew well in outdoor cultures despite extensive fluctuations in temperature and light conditions during the day from autumn to early winter and at spring. Maximum growth rates obtained using a tube bioreactor were two times higher than those obtained using 10L/30L scale cultures and a dome bioreactor. Thus, the tube bioreactor was more efficient for utilizing the light required for photosynthesis by this strain.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Andra Cătălina Petre, Alexandru Nedelea, Laura Comănescu, Anca Munteanu The Sâmbata Valley is located in the north-eastern part of the Fagaras Mts, an area with a varied range of present geomorphologic processes which manifest with different intensities in space and time. The remarkable morphodynamic energy and favourability to erosion processes in the context of overgrazing exploitation and extreme weather events are the main features of the analysed mountain area. On this background of high morphodynamic potential, the geomorphological processes have a strong impact on existing tourist facilities from degradation to total destruction. The morphodynamic potential is related to morphometrical data and meteorological parameters and a GIS analysis is conducted in order to obtain the terrain susceptibility to geomorphological processes map. The synthesis map of terrain susceptibility to geomorphological processes groups different areas within six classes of susceptibility depending on the types and intensity of geomorphological processes (areas affected by geomorphological processes, areas with very high susceptibility, areas with high susceptibility, areas with moderate susceptibility, areas with low susceptibility, areas with very low susceptibility). The analysis of trail susceptibility to damage due to geomorphological processes reveals a major percent of trail length that presents very high susceptibility to damage (38.9%). Having in view the fact that the paths system from the Fagaras Mountains is relatively old, the pretty high anthropic impact and the geomorphologic processes which affect it, it has to be reconditioned, by following the principles of modern trail-building.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Mioara Clius, Alexandra Teleucă, Ovidiu David, Adrian Moroşanu Accessibility is an indicator that involves two components: the place - with its morphological and morphometric features -, and man - who wants to reach that place. The relief accessibility map is a useful tool both for tourists and national park managers. Sustainable management in a park and planning involves the opening of new hiking trails which must take into account the relief accessibility, internal zoning, land use and the presence of tourist interest objectives. In this study we produced a map of relief accessibility for Ceahlău National Park (CNP) in Romania using two indicators: the slope and the land use. The model integrates both primary data and secondary data resulted from the reclassification operations. From the intersection of these secondary data in a transition matrix we have established five types of accessibility levels that are represented for the entire park and trails in the CNP. Of the total area of the park - which is located in Romania's eastern Carpathians, within a mountain unit with less than 1900 m altitude -, over 90% encompasses high and medium accessibility levels (types 2 and 3) which shows a high potential for planning. Data resulted from this model can be used for an efficient management of trails in a national park and their evaluation according to the degree of accessibility.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Alena Dràbkovà Development of tourism in recent years implies that this way of spending leisure time has become essential for many people. The aim of this paper is to review touristslsquo; manners and briefly sum up their perceptions. A sociological survey among tourists was carried out in four selected Protected Landscape Areas (= PLAs) in the Czech Republic. Questions were focused on data about staying in and using services in PLAs. Also, satisfaction with services was assessed. The results showed that the majority of tourists go on a trip with friend(s) or family and they usually spend only one day in the PLA. More than half of them use catering services, but less than 10% of tourists purchase locally produced goods. Reasons for visiting PLAs and the main considerations of trip planning were also recognized. Furthermore, obtained data could be useful for planning in the field of tourism.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 14 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor, Ioan Ianoş, Daniela Iurea, Maria-Nataşa Văidianu Principal Component Analysis is a statistical instrument able to identify the variables explaining most variation within a sample. When the lines are administrative units within a region, and the input variable account for a specific issue (e.g., level of development etc.), Principal Component Analysis can be used to pinpoint the variables explaining mostly the specific issue. Moreover, if used in conjunction with GIS modeling, the entire approach produces hierarchies of the administrative units, which by mapping allow for the identification of hotspots (e.g., underdeveloped regions etc.) that are at the core of intervention policies. The presentation examines several examples from research aiming to assess the level of development in Romania, Ialomiţa hydrographic basin, the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve and Iaşi County. The results indicate the utility of the approach as a research instrument, but also for strategic planning purposes. Specifically, they allow for pinpointing the variables that best account for the level of development, describing economic, social, demographic, education, infrastructure and cultural aspects. The results indicate that development cannot be assessed using variables pertaining to a single sector, as in all cases the relevant variables account for economic, social, cultural, or demographic issues.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers J. Brendan Murphy, R. Damian Nance The supercontinent cycle has had a profound effect on the Earth’s evolution since the Late Archean but our understanding of the forces responsible for it operation remains elusive. Supercontinents appear to form by two end-member processes: extroversion, in which the oceanic lithosphere surrounding the supercontinent (exterior ocean) is preferentially subducted (e.g. Pannotia), and introversion in which the oceanic lithosphere formed between dispersing fragments of the previous supercontinent (interior ocean) is preferentially subducted (e.g. Pangea). Extroversion can be explained by “top–down” geodynamics, in which a supercontinent breaks up over a geoid high and amalgamates above a geoid low. Introversion, on the other hand, requires that the combined forces of slab-pull and ridge push (which operate in concert after supercontinent break-up) must be overcome in order to enable the previously dispersing continents to turn inward. Introversion may begin when subduction zones are initiated along boundaries between the interior and exterior oceans and become trapped within the interior ocean. We speculate that the reversal in continental motion required for introversion may be induced by slab avalanche events that trigger the rise of superplumes from the core-mantle boundary. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Supercontinents form by two end-member processes: extroversion and introversion. ► Extroversion can be explained by top–down geodynamic models. ► Introversion requires reversals in plate motions, maybe triggered by a superplume.

Description: The Arctic atmospheric boundary layer (AABL) in the central Arctic was characterized by dropsonde, lidar, ice thickness and airborne in situ measurements during the international Polar Airborne Measurements and Arctic Regional Climate Model Simulation Project (PAMARCMiP) in April 2009. We discuss AABL observations in the lowermost 500 m above (A) open water, (B) sea ice with many open/refrozen leads (C) sea ice with few leads, and (D) closed sea ice with a front modifying the AABL. Above water, the AABL had near-neutral stratification and contained a high water vapor concentration. Above sea ice, a low AABL top, low near-surface temperatures, strong surface-based temperature inversions and an increase of moisture with altitude were observed. AABL properties and particle concentrations were modified by a frontal system, allowing vertical mixing with the free atmosphere. Above areas with many leads, the potential temperature decreased with height in the lowest 50 m and was nearly constant above, up to an altitude of 100–200 m, indicating vertical mixing. The increase of the backscatter coefficient towards the surface was high. Above sea ice with few refrozen leads, the stably stratified boundary layer extended up to 200–300 m altitude. It was characterized by low specific humidity and a smaller increase of the backscatter coefficient towards the surface.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Oleg G. Safonov, Elizaveta I. Kovaleva, Svetlana A. Kosova, H.M. Rajesh, Georgy A. Belyanin, Maria A. Golunova, Dirk D. Van Reenen Reaction textures and fluid inclusions in the ∼2.0 Ga pyroxene-bearing dehydration zones within the Sand River biotite-hornblende orthogneisses (Central Zone of the Limpopo Complex) suggest that the formation of these zones is a result of close interplay between dehydration process along ductile shear zones triggered by H 2 O-CO 2 -salt fluids at 750–800 °C and 5.5–6.2 kbar, partial melting, and later exsolution of residual brine and H 2 O-CO 2 fluids during melt crystallization at 650–700 °C. These processes caused local variations of water and alkali activity in the fluids, resulting in various mineral assemblages within the dehydration zone. The petrological observations are substantiated by experiments on the interaction of the Sand River gneiss with the H 2 O-CO 2 -(K, Na)Cl fluids at 750 and 800 °C and 5.5 kbar. It follows that the interaction of biotite-amphibole gneiss with H 2 O-CO 2 -(K, Na)Cl fluids is accompanied by partial melting at 750–800 °С. Orthopyroxene-bearing assemblages are characteristic for temperature 800 °С and are stable in equilibrium with fluids with low salt concentrations, while salt-rich fluids produce clinopyroxene-bearing assemblages. These observations are in good agreement with the petrological data on the dehydration zones within the Sand River orthogneisses. Graphical abstract

Description: The present study examined the sensitivity of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations to the important factors affecting air quality inside a public transportation bus. Additionally, this study quantified the in-bus contaminant concentrations in relation to the ranked statistically significant variables. The independent variables to which the monitored contaminant concentrations are the most sensitive to were determined using regression trees and the analysis of variance. A comprehensive one-year database, of the monitored contaminant concentrations and the independent factors that affect an indoor microenvironment (meteorology, monitoring periods, outdoor sources, and ventilation settings) was developed to study the sensitivity of monitored in-bus contaminants. SO2 concentrations were extremely sensitive to the month, weather conditions, and heavy vehicles. NO concentrations were sensitive to the month/season, ventilation, and ambient temperature; while NO2 concentrations were additionally sensitive to the monitoring period and the ambient mixing ratio. Quantified in-bus relationships revealed NO and NO2 concentrations to be less than 0.6 ppm and 0.1 ppm, respectively. SO2 concentrations of 0.4 ppm were observed in the fall-winter months, when the lead heavy vehicles were at a minimum density of 56 per hour; 〈 0.4 ppm SO2 concentrations remained for the rest of the year.

Description: This paper explores the patterns of human activities within a geographical space by adopting the taxicab static points which refer to the locations with zero speed along the tracking trajectory. We report the findings from both aggregated and individual aspects. Results from the aggregated level indicate the following: (1) Human activities exhibit an obvious regularity in time, for example, there is a burst of activity during weekend nights and a lull during the week. (2) They show a remarkable spatial drifting pattern, which strengthens our understanding of the activities in any given place. (3) Activities are heterogeneous in space irrespective of their drifting with time. These aggregated results not only help in city planning, but also facilitate traffic control and management. On the other hand, investigations on an individual level suggest that (4) activities witnessed by one taxicab will have different temporal regularity to another, and (5) each regularity implies a high level of prediction with low entropy by applying the Lempel-Ziv algorithm.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers H.M. Rajesh, M. Santosh Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Charnockites are important components of lower continental crust. ► Charnockites occurring as massive plutons are of igneous origin. ► (Incipient) Charnockites are granulite facies metamorphic rocks.

Description: Smoke plume rise is critically dependent on plume updraft structure. Smoke plumes from landscape burns (forest and agricultural burns) are typically structured into “sub-plumes” or multiple-core updrafts with the number of updraft cores depending on characteristics of the landscape, fire, fuels, and weather. The number of updraft cores determines the efficiency of vertical transport of heat and particulate matter and therefore plume rise. Daysmoke, an empirical-stochastic plume rise model designed for simulating wildland fire plumes, requires updraft core number as an input. In this study, updraft core number was gained via a cellular automata fire model applied to an aerial ignition prescribed burn conducted at Eglin AFB on 6 February 2011. Typically four updraft cores were simulated in agreement with a photo-image of the plume showing three/four distinct sub-plumes. Other Daysmoke input variables were calculated including maximum initial updraft core diameter, updraft core vertical velocity, and relative emissions production. Daysmoke simulated a vertical tower that mushroomed 1,000 m above the mixing height. Plume rise was validated by ceilometer. Simulations with two temperature profiles found 89–93 percent of the PM2.5 released during the flaming phase was transported into the free atmosphere above the mixing layer. The minimal ground-level smoke concentrations were verified by a small network of particulate samplers. Implications of these results for inclusion of wildland fire smoke in air quality models are discussed.

Description: Several tasks in urban and architectural design are today undertaken in a geospatial context. Building Information Models (BIM) and geospatial technologies offer 3D data models that provide information about buildings and the surrounding environment. The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) and CityGML are today the two most prominent semantic models for representation of BIM and geospatial models respectively. CityGML has emerged as a standard for modeling city models while IFC has been developed as a reference model for building objects and sites. Current CAD and geospatial software provide tools that allow the conversion of information from one format to the other. These tools are however fairly limited in their capabilities, often resulting in data and information losses in the transformations. This paper describes a new approach for data integration based on a unified building model (UBM) which encapsulates both the CityGML and IFC models, thus avoiding translations between the models and loss of information. To build the UBM, all classes and related concepts were initially collected from both models, overlapping concepts were merged, new objects were created to ensure the capturing of both indoor and outdoor objects, and finally, spatial relationships between the objects were redefined. Unified Modeling Language (UML) notations were used for representing its objects and relationships between them. There are two use-case scenarios, both set in a hospital: “evacuation” and “allocating spaces for patient wards” were developed to validate and test the proposed UBM data model. Based on these two scenarios, four validation queries were defined in order to validate the appropriateness of the proposed unified building model. It has been validated, through the case scenarios and four queries, that the UBM being developed is able to integrate CityGML data as well as IFC data in an apparently seamless way. Constraints and enrichment functions are used for populating empty database tables and fields. The motivation scenarios also show the needs and benefits of having an integrated approach to the modeling of indoor and outdoor spatial features.

Description: In Brazil, plantations of exotic species such as Eucalyptus have expanded substantially in recent years, due in large part to the great demand for cellulose and wood. The combination of the steep slopes in some of these regions, such as the municipalities located close to the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira, and the soil exposure that occurs in some stages in the Eucalyptus cultivation cycle, can cause landslides. The use of a geographic information system (GIS) assists with the identification of areas that are susceptible to landslides, and one of the GIS tools used is the spatial inference technique. In this work, the landslide susceptibility of areas occupied by Eucalyptus plantations in different stages of development in municipalities in the state of São Paulo was examined. Eight thematic maps were used, and, the fuzzy gamma technique was used for data integration and the generation of susceptibility maps, in which scenarios were created with different gamma values for the dry and rainy seasons. The results for areas planted with Eucalyptus were compared with those obtained for other land uses and covers. In the moderate and high susceptibility classes, the pasture is the land use type that presented the greatest susceptibility, followed by new Eucalyptus plantations and urban areas.

Description: At least two lineages of Mesozoic birds are known to have possessed a distinct feather morphotype for which there is no neornithine (modern) equivalent. The early stepwise evolution of apparently modern feathers occurred within Maniraptora, basal to the avian transition, with asymmetrical pennaceous feathers suited for flight present in the most basal recognized avian, Archaeopteryx lithographica. The number of extinct primitive feather morphotypes recognized among non-avian dinosaurs continues to increase with new discoveries; some of these resemble feathers present in basal birds. As a result, feathers between phylogenetically widely separated taxa have been described as homologous. Here we examine the extinct feather morphotypes recognized within Aves and compare these structures with those found in non-avian dinosaurs. We conclude that the “rachis dominated” tail feathers of Confuciusornis sanctus and some enantiornithines are not equivalent to the “proximally ribbon-like” pennaceous feathers of the juvenile oviraptorosaur Similicaudipteryx yixianensis. Close morphological analysis of these unusual rectrices in basal birds supports the interpretation that they are modified pennaceous feathers. Because this feather morphotype is not seen in living birds, we build on current understanding of modern feather molecular morphogenesis to suggest a hypothetical molecular developmental model for the formation of the rachis dominated feathers of extinct basal birds.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Nicholas Arndt Massif anorthosites form when basaltic magma differentiates in crustal magma chambers to form low-density plagioclase and a residual liquid whose density was greater than that of enclosing crustal rocks. The plagioclase and minor pyroxene crystallized in situ on the floor of the magma chamber to produce the anorthosite complex, and the residual liquid migrated downwards, eventually to solidify as dense Fe-rich cumulates some of which were removed to the mantle. These movements were facilitated by high temperatures in Proterozoic continental crust, thus explaining the restriction of large anorthosite massifs to this period in Earth history Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► The fate of residual liquid left after plagioclase accumulates in massif anorthosites is unknown. ► This liquid is denser than crustal rock and migrated downwards into the lower crust. ► The predominance of massif anothosites in the Proterozoic may be related to the thermal state of continental crust.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Kenji Kawai, Shinji Yamamoto, Taku Tsuchiya, Shigenori Maruyama It has been thought that granitic crust, having been formed on the surface, must have survived through the Earth’s evolution because of its buoyancy. At subduction zones continental crust is predominantly created by arc magmatism and is returned to the mantle via sediment subduction, subduction erosion, and continental subduction. Granitic rocks, the major constituent of the continental crust, are lighter than the mantle at depths shallower than 270 km, but we show here, based on first principles calculations, that beneath 270 km they have negative buoyancy compared to the surrounding material in the upper mantle and transition zone, and thus can be subducted in the depth range 270–660 km. This suggests that there can be two reservoirs of granitic material in the Earth, one on the surface and the other at the base of the mantle transition zone (MTZ). The accumulated volume of subducted granitic material at the base of the MTZ might amount to about six times the present volume of the continental crust. Our calculations also show that the seismic velocities of granitic material in the depth range from 270 km to 660 km are faster than those of the surrounding mantle. This could explain the anomalous seismic-wave velocities observed around 660 km depth. The observed seismic scatterers and reported splitting of the 660 km discontinuity could be due to jadeite dissociation, chemical discontinuities between granitic material and the surrounding mantle, or a combination thereof. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Presence of considerable amount of granitic materials in the mantle transition zone. ► This explains anomalous seismic velocities around the 670 km discontinuity. ► Our new model provides many interdisciplinary consequences.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 Lawrence H. Tanner, Xin Wang, Alesha C. Morabito The Yan'an Formation of the Ordos Basin is a sequence of four members, consisting of siliciclastic sediments deposited in alluvial, lacustrine and mire settings during the Middle Jurassic. Samples collected from Members Two and Four contain abundant blackened plant material identified through standard analytical techniques as fusain (fossil charcoal). The occurrence of fusain in fluvial sandstones at multiple horizons in the outcrops, combined with the previously reported high concentration of inertinite in the coals of Member One, indicates that paleowildfire was a common occurrence in the Ordos Basin during Yan'an deposition. Sedimentary evidence from Yan'an outcrops suggests that the paleoclimate was seasonal during deposition of Members Two through Four, which may have contributed to the wildfire frequency. The presence of fusain in the Yan'an Formation indicates that atmospheric oxygen levels were clearly above the minimum required for sustained combustion during the Middle Jurassic. This conclusion contradicts previous geochemical models for paleoatmospheric composition, but supports more recent studies. Graphical abstract Graphical abstract Highlights ► Abundant fusian in the Middle Jurassic Yan'an Formation (Ordos Basin, China). ► The presence of fusain indicates that paleowildfire was common during Yan'an deposition. ► Atmospheric oxygen levels over minimum value for sustained combustion during Middle Jurassic.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 Syed Amer Mahmood, Richard Gloaguen Landscapes in tectonically active Hindu Kush (NW Pakistan and NE Afghanistan) result from a complex integration of the effects of vertical and horizontal crustal block motions as well as erosion and deposition processes. Active tectonics in this region have greatly influenced the drainage system and geomorphic expressions. The study area is a junction of three important mountain ranges (Hindu Kush-Karakorum-Himalayas) and is thus an ideal natural laboratory to investigate the relative tectonic activity resulting from the India-Eurasia collision. We evaluate active tectonics using DEM derived drainage network and geomorphic indices hypsometric integral (HI), stream-length gradient (SL), fractal dimension (FD), basin asymmetry factor (AF), basin shape index ( B s ), valley floor width to valley height ratio ( Vf ) and mountain front sinuosity ( S mf ). The results obtained from these indices were combined to yield an index of relative active tectonics (IRAT) using GIS. The average of the seven measured geomorphic indices was used to evaluate the distribution of relative tectonic activity in the study area. We defined four classes to define the degree of relative tectonic activity: class 1 __ very high (1.0 ≤ IRAT 〈 1.3); class 2 __ high (1.3 ≥ IRAT 〈 1.5); class 3—moderate (1.5 ≥ IRAT 〈 1.8); and class 4—low (1.8 ≥ IRAT). In view of the results, we conclude that this combined approach allows the identification of the highly deformed areas related to active tectonics. Landsat imagery and field observations also evidence the presence of active tectonics based on the deflected streams, deformed landforms, active mountain fronts and triangular facets. The indicative values of IRAT are consistent with the areas of known relative uplift rates, landforms and geology. Graphical abstract Graphical abstract Highlights ► Evaluation of DEM based geomorphic indices to study active tectonics in Hindu Kush. ► Index of relative active tectonics (IRAT) using GIS. ► Very high, high and moderate IRAT classes consistent with the known uplift rates.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 N. Natarajan, G. Suresh Kumar A numerical model is developed for investigating the evolution of fracture permeability in a coupled fracture-matrix system in the presence of fracture-skin with simultaneous colloidal and bacterial transport, by taking into account the effects of thermal stress and silica precipitation/dissolution, which is computed using linear reaction kinetics. The non-linear coupled equations are numerically modeled using the fully implicit finite difference method and a constant continuous source is adopted while modeling thermal, contaminant, colloidal and bacterial transport. Due to co-colloid bacterial transport under non-isothermal conditions, in a coupled fracture-skin-matrix system, the fracture apertures vary spatially, with a corresponding pressure variation for a constant discharge. A series of numerical experiments were conducted for analyzing the spatial variation of fracture aperture in response to the combined effects of thermal stress, silica precipitation/dissolution, and simultaneous colloidal and bacterial transport in the presence of the fracture-skin. The simulation results suggest that temperature and contaminant concentration of the mobile fluid within the fracture increases with reduction in initial fracture aperture. The pattern of variation followed by the fracture aperture is nearly the same in the presence and absence of bacterial transport but the magnitude of the fracture aperture is low under the influence of bacterial transport. The variation in the fracture aperture resulting from precipitation-dissolution and thermoelastic stress is significant when the fracture aperture is very low and reduces with increment in fracture aperture. The variation in fracture aperture and pressure remains the same for both undersaturated and supersaturated fluid entering the fracture due to the influence of bacterial transport at the inlet of the fracture. Graphical abstract Graphical abstract Highlights ► Temperature and contaminant concentration increase with decreasing fracture aperture. ► Bacterial growth reduces the reservoir efficiency due to reduction of permeability. ► Contaminants form substrate for bacteria which causes fracture aperture reduction.

Description: Two new fossil species of Ostracoda belonging to the genus Bythocythere Sars, 1866, Bythocythere solisdeus n. sp. and to the genus Cytheropteron Sars, 1866, Cytheropteron eleonorae n. sp. are described. The specimens come from the upper silty sand layers of the Globorotalia truncatulinoides excelsa Zone (“Sicilian” stage), cropping out in “Cala S. Antonino” along the western side of the Cape Milazzo Peninsula (NE Sicily). Both species belong to a typical Bathyal ostracod association characterized by very low temperatures.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Carlos J. Chernicoff, Eduardo O. Zappettini, João O.S. Santos, Neal J. McNaughton, Elena Belousova We have carried out zircon U-Pb SHRIMP dating and Hf isotope determinations on a biotite paraschist and on a tonalitic orthogneiss of the Yaminué Complex, and re-evaluate this Complex in the broader context of the tectonic evolution of the Patagonia composite terrane. In the metasedimentary unit (msuYC), the youngest detrital zircon dated at 318 ± 5 Ma (Mississippian/Pennsylvanian boundary) indicates a Pennsylvanian (or younger) depositional age. The three main age populations peak at 474, 454 and 374 Ma. Preliminary Hf isotope data for two detrital zircons (447 and 655 Ma) yielded ε (Hf) values of – 0.32 and 0.48, indicating that their primary sources contained small amounts of recycled crustal components (of Calymmian age; T DM 1.56 Ga). Zircons from the orthogneiss (miuYC; intrusive into msuYC) show a crystallization age of 261.3 ± 2.7 Ma (Capitanian; late middle Permian) which is broadly coeval with deformation, and Neoarchean – Paleoproterozoic inheritance. Meaningful core-rim relationship between Neoarchean zircon cores and late Permian rims is well defined, indicating the occurrence of Archean crust in this sector of Patagonia. Hf T DM of Permian zircons is mainly Meso – Paleoarchean (2.97 – 3.35 Ga), with highly negative ε (Hf) values (ca. – 33). Hf T DM of inherited Neoarchean zircon cores is also Meso – Paleoarchean (3.14 – 3.45 Ga) but more juvenile ( ε (Hf) = – 0.3). Hf isotopes reinforce the presence of unexposed ancient crust in this area. Combining geological and isotope data, as well as geophysical models, we identify the Yaminué Complex within the La Esperanza-Yaminué crustal block flanked by two other, distinct crustal blocks: the Eastern block which forms part of the Patagonia terrane sensu stricto , located in the eastern Patagonian region, and the Western block forming part of the Southern Patagonia terrane. Their origins and timing of amalgamation to form the Patagonia Composite Terrane are also discussed. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► Youngest detrital zircon in metasedimentary units 317.8 ± 4.9 Ma. ► Metaigneous unit inherited from Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic. ► Hf evidence for ancient crust.

Description: The fully coupled WRF/Chem (Weather Research and Forecasting/Chemistry) model is used to simulate air quality over coastal areas of the Sea of Japan. The anthropogenic surface emissions database used as input for this model was based primarily on global hourly emissions data (dust, sea salt, and biomass burning), RETRO (REanalysis of the TROpospheric chemical composition), GEIA (Global Emissions Inventory Activity), and POET (Precursors of Ozone and their Effects in the Troposphere). Climatologic concentrations of particulate matter derived from the Regional Acid Deposition Model (RADM2), chemical mechanism, and the Secondary Organic Aerosol Model (MADE/SORGAM) with aqueous reactions were used to deduce the corresponding aerosol fluxes for input to the WRF/Chem model. The model was first integrated continuously over 48 hours, starting from 00:00 UTC on 14 March 2008, to evaluate ozone concentrations and other precursor pollutants. WPS meteorological data were used for the WRF/Chem model simulation in this study. Despite the low resolution of global emissions and the weak density of the local point emissions, it was found that the WRF/Chem model simulates the diurnal variation of the chemical species concentrations over the coastal areas of the Sea of Japan quite well. The Air Quality Management Division of the Ministry of the Environment in Japan selected the maximum level of the air quality standard for ozone, which is 60 ppb. In this study, the atmospheric concentrations of ozone over the coastal area of the Sea of Japan were calculated to be 30–55 ppb during the simulation period, which was lower than the Japanese air quality standard for ozone.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 Bhaskar Kundu

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Yanhong Pan, Jingeng Sha, Yaqiong Wang, Xiaolin Zhang, Xiaogang Yao, Bo Peng, Xin Rao Abstract The brackish-water bivalve Waagenoperna Tokuyama, 1959 is reported from the Lower Jurassic Badaowan Formation at four localities, along the southern margin and western margin of the Junggar Basin. Taphonomic features recorded in the field indicate that it occurs in autochthonous or parautochthonous assemblages. The autecology of Waagenoperna therefore yields information on the palaeoenvironment of the area. The restriction of Waagenoperna to marine and brackish-water settings suggests that the sea water once reached these areas during the Sinemurian. This paper discusses the palaeogeographic implications and suggests an ingression of the sea from the west to the western and southern part of the Junggar Basin. Additionally, the two Waagenoperna species collected from the Haojiaogou section in the Junggar Basin are taxonomically documented. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers A.M. Gorodnitskiy, Yu.V. Brusilovskiy, A.N. Ivanenko, A.M. Filin, N.A. Shishkina New methods are presented for processing and interpretation of shallow marine differential magnetic data, including constructing maps of offshore total magnetic anomalies with an extremely high resolution of up to 1–2 nT, mapping weak anomalies of 5–10 nT caused by mineralization effects at the contacts of hydrocarbons with host rocks, estimating depths to upper and lower boundaries of anomalous magnetic sources, and estimating thickness of magnetic layers and boundaries of tectonic blocks. Horizontal dimensions of tectonic blocks in the so-called “seismic gap” region in the central Kuril Arc vary from 10 to 100 km, with typical dimensions of 25–30 km. The area of the “seismic gap” is a zone of intense tectonic activity and recent volcanism. Deep sources causing magnetic anomalies in the area are similar to the “magnetic belt” near Hokkaido. In the southern and central parts of Barents Sea, tectonic blocks with widths of 30 to 100 km, and upper and lower boundaries of magnetic layers ranging from depths of 10 to 5 km and 18 to 30 km, respectively, are calculated. Models of the magnetic layer underlying the Mezen Basin in an inland part of the White Sea–Barents Sea paleorift indicate depths to the lower boundary of the layer of 12 to 30 km. Weak local magnetic anomalies of 2–5 nT in the northern and central Caspian Sea were identified using the new methods, and drilling confirms that the anomalies are related to concentrations of hydrocarbon. Two layers causing magnetic anomalies are identified in the northern Caspian Sea from magnetic anomaly spectra. The upper layer lies immediately beneath the sea bottom and the lower layer occurs at depths between 30–40 m and 150–200 m. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► The new algorithms for processing marine magnetic gradient surveys are presented. ► Our approach allows to map and interpret the weak (up to 2–5 nT) magnetic anomalies. ► It was applied to resolve the geometry of magnetic layers.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Yuuhiko Tanabe, Syou Kato, Hiroshi Matsuura, Makoto M. Watanabe A Botyrococcus braunii strain with high potential for biofuel production was isolated from a pond in Southeast Asia. This strain showed a higher growth rate (μ= 0.101/day) and biomass productivity (2.61 dry cell weight (dcw) g/L), both of which are comparable to those of our benchmark strain B. braunii BOT-22. Chemical analyses indicated that this strain produced 〉44% of lipids (w/dcw), 21-37% of which was identified as C34 botryococcene. 18S rDNA sequence analysis indicated this strain is closely related to BOT-22, suggesting that this strain can be affiliated into Race B. Interestingly, microscopic observations revealed that this strain harboured numerous bacterial ectosymbionts at the rim of host Botryococcus colonies. Our results suggest that algal-bacterial symbiotic consortia may have a potential to improve the productivity of biofuels, providing us with an alternative to pure culture of oil-producing algae.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Qixin Huang, Yu Liu, Xingwen Zheng, Guanqiu Chen Shore water pollution has increased prominently as the rapid development of agriculture and industry. Nine ponds in the mangrove plantation-aquaculture A, B and C systems were established. The results showed that algal abundance ranged from 10.5×10 5 to 3744.3×10 5 ind./L and had positive correlations with Chl a , DO, COD and TP (r=0.697, 0.302, 0.350, 0.276, respectively; p 〈0.01). Removal rates in mangrove Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora stylosa for NH 3 -N, NO 3 -N, TN, PO 4 -P were 41.74%-88.43%. NH 3 -N and PO 4 -P were lowerd by 55.91%-75.31% in Aegiceras corniculatum . The system stability was enhanced after mangrove plantation by the indication of algal abundance and species composition.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Koji Iwamoto, Yoshihiro Shiraiwa High iodine concentrations are thought to be toxic to algal growth. However, in this study, among tested 10 algae, 6 species ( Bellerochea sp., Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , Dunaliella tertiolecta , Isochrysis galbana , Skeletonema costatum , Tetraselmis sp.) exhibited high iodine tolerance and 2 species showed positive growth responses ( Emiliania huxleyi , Gephyrocapsa oceanica ). On the other hand, growth of Chlorella kessleri and Chaetoceros sociale were strongly inhibited. Interestingly, the effect of iodine differed among algal species and between the molecular forms of iodine, namely iodide (I − ) or iodate (IO 3 − ) ions. Neutron activation analysis indicates that E. huxleyi intracellularly accumulated more iodine when grown in KIO 3 than when grown in KI. Such high intracellular iodine accumulation may stimulate the growth. Moreover, E. huxleyi accumulated ca.10 times more iodine than that found in seawater, suggesting that microalgae can be used in iodine-related industries for extracting iodine from seawater and iodine-containing wastewater.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Atsushi Ishimatsu, Hiroshi Matsuura, Tomoharu Sano, Kunimitsu Kaya, Makoto M. Watanabe The colonial green alga Botryococcus braunii produces a large amount of hydrocarbons. This alga is subclassified into three chemical races (A/B/L), according to the hydrocarbon structures. Strain Bot-22 isolated from a Japanese dam is classified as race B. The main product of the strain was C34 botryococcene which was determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results of [1-13C] glucose feeding and NMR experiments showed that the compound was synthesized via the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway. These results roughly agreed with a previous study. Unexpectedly, 13C-labeled methyl groups were detected in the 13C-incorporated compound suggesting that pathways besides MEP are playing a role in biosynthesis.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers, Volume 3, Issue 4 Prosanta K. Khan, Partha Pratim Chakraborty, G. Tarafder, S. Mohanty The disastrous M w 9.3 (seismic moment 1.0 × 10 30 dyn/cm) earthquake that struck northwest Sumatra on 26 December 2004 and triggered ∼30 m high tsunami has rejuvenated the quest for identifying the forcing behind subduction related earthquakes around the world. Studies reveal that the strongest part (elastic core) of the oceanic lithosphere lie between 20 and 60 km depth beneath the upper (∼7 km thick) crustal layer, and compressive stress of GPa order is required to fail the rock-layers within the core zone. Here we present evidences in favor of an intraplate origin of mega-earthquakes right within the strong core part (at the interface of semi-brittle and brittle zone), and propose an alternate model exploring the flexing zone of the descending lithosphere as the nodal area for major stress accumulation. We believe that at high confining pressure and elevated temperature, unidirectional cyclic compressive stress loading in the flexing zone results in an increase of material yield strength through strain hardening, which transforms the rheology of the layer from semi-brittle to near-brittle state. The increased compressive stress field coupled with upward migration of the neutral surface (of zero stress fields) under non-coaxial deformation triggers shear crack. The growth of the shear crack is initially confined in the near-brittle domain, and propagates later through the more brittle crustal part of the descending oceanic lithosphere in the form of cataclastic failure. Graphical abstract Graphical abstract Highlights ► Strain-hardening and upward migration of neutral surface under compression. ► Transformation of rheological character from semi-brittle to near-brittle. ► Triggering of mega-earthquake at the rheological interface.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Geoscience Frontiers Julio Cezar Mendes, Cristina M.P. De Campos The Venda Nova Pluton (VNP) is a zoned ring structure emplaced in the southern portion of the Neoproterozoic Araçuai Belt, in Espírito Santo, Brazil. It is a slightly westward tilted cylinder-like intrusion, with an almost circular horizontal section. In the center of this structure, an off-centered gabbro-noritic core, surrounded by syeno-monzonitic rocks, intrudes an outer ring of charnockites and norite. These envelop the syeno-monzonitic and gabbro-noritic center, as a narrow discontinuous belt. While, in the core intrusion, mingling and mixing processes are widespread and well documented in the literature, in the outer ring, the norite and charnockite layers show predominantly homogeneous and isotropic internal structures. Nevertheless, smaller interaction zones between charnockites and norite denote a comparatively more restricted mingling process. The norite is a fine-grained rock with hypidiomorphic granular to intergranular texture. The charnockites are medium-grained and made up of: (a) orthopyroxene-tonalite, (b) orthopyroxene-quartz-diorite, and (c) orthopyroxene-granodiorite with hypidiomorphic granular to porphyritic textures. In all lithotypes both ortho- and clinopyroxene are replaced by hornblende and biotite. Two contrasting compositional sequences have been recognized, based on whole rock geochemistry: (1) a basic, with tholeiitic affinities (norite) and, (2) an intermediate, medium-K calc-alkaline, comprising the charnockites. Estimated crystallization temperatures, which have been calculated from micro-probe analysis of pyroxenes, range from 915 ± 25 °C to 960 ± 50 °C. Re-equilibration temperature (ilmenite-magnetite calibration) is around 600 ± 50 °C. This indicates oxygen fugacities four order of magnitude below the FMQ-buffer and a reduced environment. Coeval pressure conditions estimated from the Al-content in hornblende range from 5.5 ± 0.6 kbar. Data obtained for the norite point towards an evolution from the partial melting of an anhydrous tholeiitic mantle magma. The charnockites may correspond to the differentiation of a calc-alkaline parental magma. The later could be the hybrid product from the contamination and mixing between the anhydrous tholeiitic magma with other deeper crustal sources. Further the magmatic system evolved through fractionation of orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, plagioclase and ilmenite. Our results support the hypothesis for the evolution of the Venda Nova pluton through a mantle-crust delamination process probably related to the collapse of the Araçuai orogeny. Graphical abstract Graphical Abstract Highlights ► The calcic charnockitic intrusion is related to the collapse of the Brasiliano Araçuaí Belt (G5 Supersuite). ► Petrogenetic constraints point towards reducing conditions and emplacement under 16 km in depth. ► The evolution of the pluton was possibly controlled by mantle-crust delamination process.

Description: Publication year: 2012 Source: Procedia Environmental Sciences, Volume 15 Mikihide Demura, Masanobu Kawachi, Hiroshi Koshikawa, Takuro Nakayama, Yusuke Mayuzumi, Makoto M. Watanabe Botryococcus braunii is a green colonial alga that produces large volumes of liquid hydrocarbon. Therefore, B. braunii is expected to be useful as an alternative fuel resource. Natural blooms of B. braunii have been recorded in several lakes and reservoirs. Elucidation of natural B. braunii blooming would provide important information for the development of an open-pond cultivation system. In this study, we periodically assessed the genetic diversity and colony density of B. braunii populations, along with several environmental parameters, in two Japanese reservoirs (provisionally called “N” and “S”) from December 2008 to December 2009. Reservoir N had low numbers of B. braunii colonies whereas Reservoir S was characterized by periodic density increases that occurred in December 2008, and in March, September, and December 2009. Population genetics analysis using specific environmental sequences (PGA-SES method) was conducted for B. braunii populations for the first time. Among the B. braunii -dominated samples of Reservoir S, high levels of genetic diversity were observed in December 2008 and March 2009, whereas the diversity levels in September and December 2009 were low. The results suggest that B. braunii periodicity can be categorized into a high genetic diversity type and a low genetic diversity type. The high genetic diversity type may be caused by simultaneous growth of many genotypes, whereas the low genetic diversity type seems to be explained by increases in the cell density of only a few adapted genotypes.