ALBERT

Notes: Summary By comparing the equalities expressing the solar flux within a wide spectral region on the assumption of an extintion within the atmospheric aerosol given by βαλ−α and that of an extintion represented by β1λ−1, a relationship is established by means of which: 1) The error is discussed which is done when the air opacity is expressed by β1, in the case when α≠1; 2) A simple and quick method is worked out for determining the parameters βα and α from actinometric observations, carried out within the spectral regions λ〈525 mμ and 525 mμ〈λ〈625 mμ.

Notes: Summary The study presents new evidence for the fact that approximately two years prior to the occurrence of maxima and minima of the sunspots, also 1 1/4 to 2 years after the occurrence of maxima, the subtropical high-pressure belts are strengthened and shifted toward the poles, and further that the pressure gradient increases from the high-pressure belt toward the polar region in the summer of the Northern Hemisphere. Based on the summerly amounts of precipitation in Central Europe and average summerly atmospheric pressures in Edinburgh, the intervals of the sunspot cycle, during which the subtropical high-pressure belt is shifted toward the poles, are determined more precisely. The distance of beginning and end of these intervals from the nearest sunspot extreme is expressed in fractions of the distance from the preceding sunspot extreme to the following one, rather than in years. Thus, the departures in anomalous sunspot cycles find their explanation. Finally a chart shows the average annual rings of 10 Central European spruces during a period of almost 200 years. This chart clearly demonstrates the incorrectness of the assertion that the 11-years' sunspot period can be found in annual rings of old trees. This is at least not true in Central Europe. On the other hand the chart expresses well the double or triple variation of precipitations within the sunspot cycle.

Notes: Summary A description with illustrating slides is given of the gelatin-silver nitrate technique for identifying chloride particles. Results of samples taken on many flights from an aircraft of the Meteorological Research Flight both in the horizontal and vertical are given. The relationship of these particles and relevant meteorological parameters are discussed.

Notes: Summary Since the beginning of the I.G.Y. collections of precipitation for chemical analysis have been made at 22 sample stations distributed all over the territory of Czechoslovakia at different heights above sea level. Analyses are carried out in the laboratories of the Geophysical Institute, Department of Physics of the Air, Hradec Králové. This preliminary report deals with the results of analyses during which the content of chloride ions was determined independently by the polarographic and the microtitration technique, while the content of nitrate ions was established polarographically. Distribution of concentrations of chlorides over the territory of Czechoslovakia represents a roughly homogeneous distribution of concentrations varying in a half year average from 0.6 mg/l to 6.6 mg/l. Generally higher concentrations can befound in mountain stations in the neighbourhood of industrial centres. In the winter months the values are higher than in the summer months in most of the stations. This is commonly due to a higher content of chlorides in solid precipitation as can be seen from the enclosed chart. A correlation between the concentration of chlorides and the intensity of the precipitation is not always clearly visible. Distribution of nitrates does not correspond with the character of the iso-lines of chlorides. Average concentrations range from 0.2 mg/l to 1.5 mg/l. The highest values were not found in the precipitations collected in the mountain stations. This would suggest a different distribution of chemical components of chlorides and nitrates in the lower levels of the troposphere which is clearly illustrated by the established concentrations in the region of High Tatra where the precipitations are collected in two neighbouring stations the height difference of which reaches nearly 2,000 m.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es werden Messanordnungen beschrieben, die für geoelektrische Tiefsondierungen bis ungefähr 4000 m geeignet sind. Anschliessend werden die erzielten Messergebnisse besprochen. Die Übereinstimmung zwischen der geoelektrischen Prognose und dem Ergebnis der Bohrung ist eine sehr gute. Die Abweichung schwankt im Mittel um ungefähr 8–13%.

Notes: Summary The subject is treated, how far the events of motion in the sea can be reproduced by application of methods, which are based on the hydrodynamical differential equations. In particular comparisons between observed and computed sea-levels for the tides in estuaries and in the North-sea are worked out. Furtheron, a method is communicated, which is giving the shape of the sea-surface, when distribution of density is known, without using a layer of no motion. The result shows a remarkable agreement with the topography of the sea-surface in the South-Atlantic given byA. Defant.

Notes: Riassunto Coi dati rilevati nel Settembre 1924 dalla ≪Mario Bianco≫ a Nord dello Stretto di Messina si determinano i coefficienti di diffusione turbolenta, longitudinale e trasversale, per gli strati superficiali della corrente ≪scendente≫ convogliata dallo Stretto medesimo: ottenendo valori in buon accordo con quelli calcolati da altri AA. per altre correnti marine. Inoltre si forniscono elementi sull'estensione per diffusione in profondità delle acque ioniche penetrate nel Tirreno.

Notes: Summary An electronic sound spectrograph has been used to analyze the transients in complicated earthquake and explosion signals. Transient analysis with a sound spectrograph gives a means for directly obtaining group velocity at each of the spectral frequencies for each of the separate arrival branches, for any type of transient signal. Compared to frequency analysis, it presents the fine spectral structure of the signal as it changes with time, not an average over a time that includes many parts of the seismic signal. Dispersion as well as the body wave spectrum of theP wave has been observed by transient analysis of seismic signals. Dispersion has also possibly been observed in theS wave, and in the various multiply reflectedS waves, which have been found to increase in period from one arrival to the next. The dispersed pattern of arrival of fundamental and higher mode surface waves has been observed for oceanic, continental, and mixed paths. Among these signals is a clear indication of the continental second shear mode. The separation of surface waves for the direct and complementary paths has also been accomplished. Our results compare well with those obtained by standard techniques. The dispersion of the fundamental and higher mode signals from explosive sources in shallow water may be easily studied by making sound spectrograms and amplitude sections of these seismic signals. These shallow water shots show bubble pulses and Airy phases, which are clearly defined on the spectrograms and sections.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Messwerte russischer Stationen beweisen die Existenz eines «Kontinental-Effektes» bei der maximalen Elektronendichte derF2-Schicht. Im Sommer besteht im Innern des asiatischen Kontinents vorzugsweise eine höhere Konzentration bei Tag; andererseits fehlt dort die sogenannte «Abend-Konzentration».

Notes: Summary The author describes the pulsing ionospheric technique which since 1939 has been successfully employed for forecasting surface weather.

Notes: Summary Following a recent hypothesis on the role of activated sodium chloride particles as potential nuclei of atmospheric precipitation, further analysis is made of average annual data due toC. Junge on the chemical composition of rainwater salts, and correlation of some parameters with the total amount of rainfall is attempted. It is found that the results obtained are in agreement with the proposed role of activated sodium chloride as a nucleus of a substantial part of the atmospheric precipitation.

Notes: Summary Annual average results of rainwater analysis, carried out byC. Junge at about 60 stations of the United States sampling network are used in an attempt to correlate the ionic species present in rain, as a general contribution to atmospheric chemicstry. Correlation with physical parameters is attempted at the same time in some cases, and the resulting trends discussed. The results obtained are presented in the general form of linear and planar correlation, and linear regression coefficients.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In der Nullschicht, die identisch ist mit der Schicht des hochtroposphärischen Windmaximums, kehren sich im Mittel die großräumigen Vertikalbewegungen um und herrschen die stärksten ageostrophischen Windkomponenten zum hohen Druck hin. Diese übergradientischen Winde in der Nullschicht können zur Erklärung der thermisch-indirekten Zirkulation der planetarischen Westwinddrift herangezogen werden. Ein echtes persistentes Windminimum hat ebenfalls Nullschichtcharakter mit ageotrophischem Massenfluß zum tiefen Druck hin (Nullschicht 2. Art mit negativem Nullschichteffekt). Eine persistente Schicht mit verschwindendem horizontalen Druckgradienten kann vielleicht als Nullschicht 3. Art bezeichnet werden, die keinen Nullschichteffekt aufweist. Sie kehrt die großräumigen Vertikalbewegungen nicht direkt um, sondern trennt übereinanderliegende Bereiche mit voneinander unabhängiger Vertikalbewegung. Alle drei Arten von Nullschichten sind im Zusammenhang mit der allgemeinen Zirkulation von großer Bedeutung.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Transport radioaktiver Aerosol-Partikel durch die Atmosphäre wirft neue meteorologische Probleme auf. Eine kinematische Methode der Vorhersage von Trajektorien zeigt erhebliche Unterschiede gegenüber den Stromlinien. Die Ausbreitung von Partikelwolken ist eine Funktion der Vektorstreuung des Windfeldes und einem von der Zeit abhängigen Parameter. Der Massenaustausch zwischen der Troposphäre und der viel partikelreicheren Stratosphäre vollzieht sich vorwiegend in horizontaler Richtung im Niveau der Strahlströmungen. Einige Besonderheiten der Stratosphäre über dem tropischen Pazifik werden kurz beschrieben: die Aufspaltung der Tropopause über dem Äquator und die großen zeitlichen Änderungen der zonalen Windströmungen. Während die Gravitation und das Auswaschen durch Niederschläge vorwiegend gröbere Partikel (Durchmesser〉2μ) zur Sedimentation bringen, fällt die Koagulation an Wolkenelementen hauptsächlich die kleinsten Partikel (〈0.1 μ) aus.

Notes: Abstract I has been shown that irradiation of air by sun-rays leads to a formation of atmospheric condensation nuclei, as measured with the automatic nucleus counter (1). To control the influence of the material, experiments were done in a gasometer where a rubber balloon was built in, also in a metal container covered either with uviol glass or window glass, or with air in a polyethylene balloon. The same influence of sunrays was observed in each case. Similar experiments were then done with compressed air from a metal container, or with oxygen gas, nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide all from metal containers. In all cases sun-rays produced condensation nuclei; the effect was present both at 1800 m and at 270 m altitude. Diffuse sunlight with high clouds also had an effect. Infra-red radiation and mechanical shaking were without result, but ultraviolet rays from a quartz-mercury lamp increased the nucleus count of the balloon whether it contained air or one of the above-mentioned gases. As yet it has not been possible to decide the mechanism of formation of these nuclei and what their meteorological and biological role might be. The detailed paper will appear later in «Geofisica pura e applicata».

Notes: Summary In brief a newly developed freezing nuclei meter is described. Results of measurements made with this instrument in New Jersey, California and in the Thule area, Greenland, are shown. These data are compared with measurements of condensation nuclei, simultaneously made with the General Electric and the Aitkennuclei counters. Also the results obtained from some measurements of the lightscattering function of the aerosol in industrial areas near New York City are presented.

Notes: Summary An investigation of heated surfaces of glass, metal and oil as sources of condensation nuclei is reported. Below a certain transition temperature the nucleus production is of a temporary nature and decreases to zero with the continued heating of the surface. Above this temperature, however, the nucleus production does not change with time. The transition temperature varies with the material of the surface and is not always associated with the onset of incandescence. The nuclei produced at the lower temperatures have a radius of about 10−5 cm and, on production, are mainly uncharged. Electric light bulbs can produce appreciable numbers of these nuclei.

Notes: Summary During continuous measurements of the concentration of small ions near the ground made over the period of many months, several causes of variation were identified. During rain in large electric fields, ions of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient were produced in sufficiently large numbers to give rise to very high concentrations over short periods. Sometimes, after rain, a considerable increase in the density of small ions was found, suggesting a reduction in the numbers of nuclei and large ions. In moderate electric fields, a reduction was observed in the concentration of ions of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient in a way corresponding to the electrode effect. A simplified theory of the effect predicts results similar to those found in practice. The paper will appear elsewhere.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird das ebenen-Schichtenproblem der Reflexionsseismik mit konstanten Frontgeschwindigkeiten, beliebigen Neigungen und beliebiger Lage der Quelle allgemein behandelt und durch Verallgemeinerung der tΔt Methode ein einfaches Aufschlussverfahren für geneigte Schichten entwickelt.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Gegeben ist ein festes, elastisches Medium, das aus homogenen, isotropen, planparallelen Schichten aufgebaut ist. Im Innern einer Schicht wird ein punktförmiger Störungsherd von Multipolcharakter angenommen. Die Störung setzt zur Zeitt=0 ein. Unter Anwendung der Laplace-Transformation werden nach dem Verfahren vonCagniard «Exponentialkoeffizienten» und «Übertragungsfaktoren» berechnet, die gestatten, die elastischen Verschiebungen der an den verschiedenen Unstetigkeitsflächen reflektierten und gebrochenen Wellen zu bestimmen.

Notes: Summary The conditions for sliding over artificial joint surfaces have been studied experimentally by cutting rock cylinders at various angles to their axes and studying slip over these surfaces in a triaxial testing apparatus. The types of joint used were: (i) filled with plaster to simulate a soft joint filling, (ii) bare surfaces ground approximately flat, and (iii) natural surfaces across which shear failure had taken place. The results agreed reasonably well with the simple theory for a constant coefficient of friction. Measured coefficients of friction lie in the range 0.5–0.8 and differ by surprisingly little between the various surfaces. The surfaces across which sliding has taken place exhibit interesting slickenside phenomena. Subsidiary failures frequently occur which cut across the joint surfaces.

Notes: Summary The paper treats the results of telluric measurements in the Austrian Molasse-Zone and in the Vienna Basin, supplemented with data of other geophysical methods and deep-wells. The analysis of the results shows that the telluric method supplies not only a picture with good reconnaissance proceeding from which further, especially seismic research can be planned more expediently, but can render good services in solving detailed problems too. The hypothesis concerning the anisotropy of sediments resp. its effect is verified by the results of modelexperiments too.

Notes: Summary The analysis of the readings taken with aWorden gravimeter during fieldwork over a period of four years when compared with tests in a laboratory shows that its behaviour is not dependent on vibration and that the drift can be separated into two distinct parts; an isothermal drift and a thermal drift. The former is remarkably constant over short and long periods of time and is of the order of 0.01 mgal/hour. The latter is complicated and is dependent on the rate of change of the ambient temperature being different in size and sign, for quick and slow changes of temperature. The sensitivity changes slowly with time, 0.1% per year, and is only slightly affected by temperature. Tares or jumps in the readings are very rare. Modifications to the meter are suggested, consisting of the inclusion of a rheostat in the lighting circuit and the attachment of a thermometer to the outside of the instrument. In order to keep the correction for drift to a small size and to increase the accuracy, returns to a base station should be made according to changes in the ambient temperature rather than at fixed time intervals.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Ein Effekt wird beschrieben, der bei der Messung der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit von Gasen mit radioaktiven Bestandteilen wirksam ist. Die Meßergebnisse der beiden polaren Leitfähigkeiten werden von abgestrahlten Ladungsquanten, die beim Zerfall der an Meßelektroden angelagerten radioaktiven Substanzen entstehen, gegensinnig beeinflußt. Die Tendenz dieses Einflußes hängt vom Meßprinzip ab, so daß bei der Entlademethode die negative Leitfähigkeit zu groß und die positive zu klein gemessen wird — bei der Auflademethode ist es umgekehrt. Der Emissionseffekt ε ist eine Funktion der Menge der in den Gasen enthaltenen radioaktiven Substanzen, der Expositionszeit und der wirksamen Oberfläche des Meßkondensators. Die Wirkung von ε wird an Ergebnissen von Leitfähigkeismessungen der Luft demonstriert. Durch Reduktion der Meßergebnisse mit gleichzeitigen polaren Basiswerten kann der Einfluß dieses Effektes eliminiert werden.

Notes: Summary Certain problems of synoptic meteorology relating to the nature of the large quasi-stationary cyclonic and anticyclonic centers aloft are examined from the standpoint of an hypothesis which seeks to connect their maintenance with that of the smaller transient disturbances. The suggested link between these two scales of eddies is in many ways similar to that operating in the general circulaton in order to account for the sustained existence of the circumpolar mean zonal motions, according to the more modern concepts. Newer views concerning the dynamcis of large convective processes, and the essential nonlinearity of the laws governing motions in the atmosphere, figure importantly in the arguments advanced.

Notes: Summary Measurements of the concentration of small ions near the ground showed that large numbers of «ions» of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient were produced in rain. A series of laboratory experiments designed to examine the processes involved, showed that the ions were produced by the disintegration of films of water when drops splash, and a determination was made of the dependence of the charge released by individual drops on the parameters involved. The paper will be published elsewhere.

Notes: Summary Spectral analysis of atmospheric emission and absorption in the translucent region 8–13 microns from observations made in London and in the relatively clean air near Ascot (Berks) has confirmed the existence of a continuous extinction in the lowest 2 Km of the atmosphere which outweighs the selective extinction due to gaseous constituents. This continuous extinction must be due to atmospheric aerosol, or to the far wings of distant, strong gaseous absorption lines. Our provisional conclusions are that the former cause predominates in London, but is unimportant near Ascot where the observed extinction must be mainly due to the latter cause. Attention is drawn to the important contribution which the continuum can make to the heat balance of the atmosphere below 2 Km. The report will appear elsewhere.

Notes: Riassunto Fino ad oggi sono apparse solo teorie elettrogeosmotiche transitorie unidimensionali. Quì risolviamo un problema del genere bidimensionale, con elettrodi verticali cilindrici. Le curve rappresentative delle portate d'acqua catodicaq K a cui perveniamo, denotano diminuzioni abbastanza rapide fino ai tempi dell' ordine dei «tempi elettrodici τ», (t=τ), portate che poi diminuiscono in modo molto lento. Si riscontrano quì più estesi «pianerottoli»q K che non quelli delle monodimensionalità (t=τ/9). Inoltre, col crescere dei rapporti distanze eteropolari-raggi catodici, o col diminuire dei raggi catodici, tali portate (che si compongono dei contributi dei singoli anodi) s'incrementano nel modo diagrammato.

Notes: Summary Condensation nuclei which grow into droplets in natural clouds constitute only a small fraction of the total population of nuclei, since they must be activated at low supersaturations (〈1%). Such nuclei cannot readily be measured by the usual expansion methods. A chemical diffusion method is described in which water vapour and HCl vapour diffuse between a water surface and an aqueous HCl solution; this produces the continuous small supersaturations required to study these «cloud nuclei». Nucleus numbers are obtained photographically. Results of observations made by this method during the period April–August 1958 are presented and discussed; they suggest that the main source of cloud nuclei is the dry land surface.

Notes: Summary The «scintillation effect» occuring in photo-electric nucleus counters is explained as follows: After an adiabatic expansion a radial temperature distribution is formed in the fog-tube to which corresponds an opposite radial distribution of the refraction index of air. This causes a deflection of the light beam in the direction of the large optical density, giving as a result the changes of the photo-current. A calculation following this idea yields the right order of magnitude and the time dependence of the effect.

Notes: Summary 1) It is confirmed that in filtered, nucleus-free air, in a polyethylene balloon, if irradiated by sunglight, an immediate large number of condensation nuclei appear. — 2) The nucleus count rises to about 35. 000/cm3 and if the irradiation is continued does not increase, but decreases. This decreased is accelerated in the dark. — 3) Less intensive sunlight as when the sun was covered by clouds, gives slower and smaller increases. — 4) The same was observed if, instead of air, inducstrial oxygen or nitrogen was used. — 5) Traces of H2S increase the sun effect enormously. — 6) Traces of NH3 also increase it, but less than H2S. — 7) SO2 filtered through cottonwool gave also in the dark nuclei, which then decreased in number. — 8) It is supposed that H2S is oxydized by the photochemical action of the sun's visible spectrum to SO2 → SO3 → SO4 which is a nucleus. With NH3 the formation of (NH3)2 SO4 is probable. But no direct proof is given that these are the actual impurities which explain the sun's action on air. It is calculated that dilutions of 10−15 of an impurity of the type of H2S can quantitatively explain the sun effect. — 9) The work ofAitken is extensively quoted, who noticed, 50 years ago, the «fog produced by sun».

Notes: Résumé Les moyennes mensuelles des températures publiées parF. Eredia pour 482 stations ont servi au calcul de la phase de la composante annuelle par la technique deYakovlev plus expéditive que la méthode d'analyseLabrouste. L'examen de la répartition géographique de la phase calculée fait ressortir les influences de l'orographie, de l'orientation des côtes et de la latitude sur la mise en place dans le temps de la fraction permanente de la marche annuelle des températures.

Notes: Résumé La marche annuelle de l'intensité du vent en Grèce est étudiée d'après les données anémologiques de 31 stations. Les stations considerées ont été classifiées en 6 types selon la marche annuelle de l'intensité du vent; les raisons qui justifient cette classification sont discutées. L'amplitude annuelle de l'intensité du vent est plus grande aux régions insulaires et littorales qu'à l'intérieur de la Peninsule Héllénique.

Notes: Summary The Southern Oscillation in air pressure may be described primarily as an air pressure balance whose scales are centred near Djakarta (Indonesia) and near Easter Island (South Pacific Ocean) respectively. A synoptic station was established at Easter Island July 1, 1949. 1) The 8 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island from the period July 1949 up to July 1957 have been correlated with the simultaneous air pressure values at 289 stations throughout the world; 2) The 7 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island from the period July 1949 up to July 1956 have been correlated with the simultaneous air pressure values at 65 grid points in North Asia and from the period July 1950 up to July 1957 with simultaneous air pressure values at 32 grid points in Africa; 3) At least 5 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island have been correlated with simultaneous air pressure values at 159 grid points between latitudes 20° and 60° S (Southern Hemisphere Project, Weather Bureau, Pretoria). The latter coefficients obtained, being less reliable, have been used only indicatively. The 545 correlation coefficients have been plotted on world charts and isopleths of the correlation coefficients with the values −0.9,; −0.7; −0.4; 0; +0.4; +0.7 and +0.9 have been drawn (Fig. 1 and 2). The patterns of the isopleths on both maps are very much alike. This is due, of course, to the fact that the coefficient of correlation between Djakarta and Easter Island air pressure deviations reaches a value as high as −0.93. From these pictures may be inferred that the Southern Oscillation acts for the greater part as a stationary wave and for the rest as a progressive wave. Another prominent feature of the Southern Oscillation, shown by the pictures, is that the Easter Island scale is meridionally developed, whereas the Djakarta scale is mainly zonally developed, especially along the equator. It is shown to be very probable that the arctic and antarctic regions both cooperate with the Djakarta region, thus stressing an undeniable overall zonal symmetry of the two patterns. A first impression is obtained of the kind of encroachment of the antarctic circulation on the Southern Oscillation. The well detailed patterns in the northern moderate and high latitudes call up the idea of the planetary waves in the zonal current which normally flows through these latitudes and the question is raised whether blocking action is stimulated when the Southern Oscillation is well developped. Similar indications are obtained from the still rather provisional and rough patterns in the southern moderate and high latitudes.

Notes: Summary The effect on extinction of isothermal distillation, shrinking of the droplets by evaporation without recondensation of the liberated water vapour, coagulation and differential settling of the fog droplets which take place in the fog of a photo-electric nucleus counter and which can produce a small additional extinction («creep») in the first seconds after its formation, were numerically examined. The relative contribution of each process to the total creep observed is assessed. It is found that isothermal distillation can produce amounts of creep (up to 1.70%) which exceed considerably those caused by evaporation or coagulation. The results of these computations explain the occurrence of creep with concentrations greater than approx. 25 000 nuclei/cm3 in fog-tubes of 3.85 cm air-column diameter. That the disappearance of creep in fog-tubes of diameters 2.5 cm and less is due to the accelerated heat-flow from the walls of the narrow fog-tube was previously proved by reducing appropriately the diameter of the light pencil through the fog. In order to meet the objection that by restricting the cross section of the light pencil the fine structure of the fog comes into play, the increase in the travel time of the heat from the walls was achieved this time by using a photo-electric counter with a fog-tube of 8 cm diameter and a light beam of 2.8 cm diameter as in the «Standard Counter 1946». As expected, creep was found in every single measurement up to readings of 53%. Typical examples of the galvanometer pointer-movement and photographic records of the extinction during fog formation in such a wide fog-tube for readings between approx. 10 and 76% are given and their peculiarities discussed. The extinction over the range from 175 000 to 20 000 nuclei/cm3 was also measured with a red and a blue monochromatic interference filter and the results contrasted against the computed extinctions for these two wave lengths. It was ascertained that for the same number of nuclei the extinction for red light is in general larger than that for blue; the difference between the observed extinctions varies considerably, becoming zero or even negative. The most striking feature, however, is the different course of the extinction for the two wave lengths as a function of the number or size of the droplets. The size of the fog droplets in the counter was deduced from the extinction measurements for these two wave lengths and by collecting the falling droplets on coated slides. The radius of the droplets obtained by the optical method varies from 1.81 to 3.19 μ when the extinction decreases from 86 to 56%. The radius of the droplets as deduced from gelatine coated slides dyed with Naphtol Green B increases from 1.44 μ at 67.4% extinction (42 400 nuclei/cm3) to 6.30 μ at 15.6% (858 nuclei/cm3).

Notes: Summary The possibility of the use of measurements of the electrolytical conductivity of precipitation water as an aid to the chemical analysis has been examined. The measured conductivity of rain-water and of water obtained by melting snow and rime was of the order of magnitude of that for more or less good distilled water, apart from some exceptions. Considerable variations of the conductivity of rain-water continuously measured during rainfalls were observed. The relation between the conductivity and the chemical composition of the precipitation water was discussed by using the data of the Scandinavian precipitation-chemistry project. The importance of pH measurements was also shown by this consideration.

Notes: Summary The diffusion of gaseous radioiodine vapour to surfaces is controlled by boundary layer effects, and diffusion to the walls of a tube is in good agreement with theory. In the presence of condensation nuclei the behaviour of the radioiodine depends on the amount of iodine carrier present. With no carrier the radioiodine appears to undergo adsorption on the nuclei.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird über parallele Untersuchungen der atmosphärischen Gefrierkerne und der Kondensationskerne berichtet, die an drei klimatisch verschidenen Meßorten — Frankfurt/M, Taunus Observatorium und Zugspitze — bei unterschiedlichen Witterungsbedingungen vorgenommen wurden. Im Verlauf der Untersuchungen zeigte sich eine starke Abhängigkeit der Aktivierungstemperatur der Gefrierkerne von der Teilchengröße der Kondensationskerne, die mit verschiedenen Methoden nachgewiesen werden konnte.

Notes: Summary Working on the hypothesis that atmospheric ice-forming nuclei are largely of terrestrial origin, the nucleating ability of various types of soil particles and mineral dusts has been investigated. Of the thirty substances tested, twenty-one, mainly silicate minerals of the clay and mica groups, were found to produce ice crystals in supercooled clouds and also on supercooled soap films at temperatures of − 18° C, or above, and of these, ten were active above − 12° C. The most abundant of these is kaolinite with a threshold temperature of − 9° C. Ten natural substances, again mainly silicates, were found to become more efficient ice nuclei having once been involved in ice-crystal formation, i.e. they could be pre-activated or «trained». Thus, ice crystals grown on kaolinite nuclei, which are initially active at −9° C, when evaporated and warmed to near 0° C in a dry atmosphere, leave behind nuclei which are thereafter effective at − 4° C. Particles of montmorillonite, another important constituent of some clays, and which are initially inactive even at −25° C, may be pre-activated to serve as ice nuclei at temperatures as high as −10° C. It is suggested that although such particles can initially form ice crystals only at cirrus levels, when the ice crystals evaporate they will leave behind some «trained» nuclei which may later seed lower clouds at temperatures only a few degrees below 0° C. On this hypothesis, the fact that efficient nuclei are occasionally more abundant at higher levels would not necessarily imply that they originate from outer space. Indeed, in view of our tests on products of stony meteorites, produced both by grinding and vaporization, which show them to be ineffective at temperatures above − 17° C, it seems likely that atmospheric ice nuclei are produced mainly at the earth's surface, the clay minerals, particularly kaolinite, being a major source. Although a good deal of work has been carried out in different laboratories on the ice-nucleating ability of a wide variety of inorganic compounds, there has been little agreement in the results. Careful tests carried out in our laboratory have revealed a number of reasons for this. Spurious results may be obtained because of the presence, in the air or the chemicals, of small traces of silver or free iodine, leading to the formation of silver iodide: if all such trace impurities are removed, many of the substances that have been claimed to provide efficient ice nuclei are found to be quite ineffective. It is dangerous to infer that all twinkling particles in a water cloud are ice crystals since particles of some seeding agents glitter even at positive temperatures. The threshold temperature of a nucleant will depend upon the criterion adopted for the onset of nucleation, i.e. upon the fraction of the total number of particles of seeding agent which are activated; this, in turn, will depend upon the fraction of particles which happen to possess suitable crystallographic faces for nucleation. Much may also depend upon the manner in which the test is performed. Since some nucleating materials produce ice crystals only after a delay of 30 seconds or more, they may appear to be ineffective if tested in the transient cloud of an expansion chamber but highly effective if allowed to remain in an ice-supersaturated atmosphere for a minute or more. Again, we have found that the efficiency of some nuclei is governed by the supersaturation as well as the temperature of the environment, and the supersaturation regimes in expansion, diffusion, and mixing-cloud chamber may be widely different. Highly soluble particles, although able to act as «sublimation» nuclei in atmospheres super-saturated relative to ice but sub-saturated relative to water, on entering a water cloud go quickly into solution and lose their nucleating ability. Inorganic substances which definitely nucleate a supercooled water cloud in a mixing-cloud chamber at temperatures of −15° C and above are: AgI (−4° C), PbI2 (−6° C), CuS (−6° C), Ag2S (−8° C), Ag2O (−9° C), HgI2 (−8° C), V2O5 (−14° C), Cu2I2 (−15° C), the figures in brackets indicating the threshold temperatures at which about one particle in 104 becomes active as an ice nucleus. Cadmium iodide (−12° C), ammonium fluoride (−9° C) and iodine (−14° C) are examples of salts which will act as sublimation nuclei in an ice-supersaturated atmosphere and will nucleate a supercooled soap film, but which are ineffective in a water cloud because of their solubility. Although the most efficient nucleating agents tend to be hexagonal in structure, there are some striking exceptions e.g. Ag2S, Ag2O, HgI2, but in most cases, we have been able to find a low-index crystal surface on which the ice lattice could grow with a misfit of only a few per cent. In an attempt to investigate the nucleation mechanism in more detail, we have studied the growth of ice on single crystals of various nucleating agents. Perfect orientation of ice crystals has so far been observed on the basal faces of silver iodide, lead iodide, cupric sulphide, cadmium iodide, and freshly-cleaved mica, on the (001) plane of iodine, and on the (010) plane of mercuric iodide.

Notes: Summary The properties of condensation nuclei generated at a metal point corona discharge have been examined. The threshold voltages for nucleus production and for small ion production are the same. The fraction of the nuclei which is charged is initially small and becomes virtually zero after a few seconds. It is demonstrated that in the non-uniform field near the point there is a force on the nuclei driving them to the point. From determinations of the diffusion coefficient it is tentatively concluded that a portion at least of the nuclei are originally of molecular size. No satisfactory explanation has been found for certain anomalous features of the variations in size and in concentration of the nuclei with time after production.

Notes: Summary A technique is described which allows the study of the concentration of silver-iodide particles produced by a ground generator. It consists of marking these particles with Iodine 131, then filtering the air at the required places with air-borne filters. The iodine is extracted chemically, concentrated in a very small silver iodide disc which is then placed upon a nulcear emulsion. After two weeks the activity is measured by electron track counting. Limitations of the method are given. The paper has been published in extenso in the «Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik and Physik» (ZAMP), XIa, p. 375, 1958.

Notes: Summary The scheme of a seism caused by the slipping of a transcurrent fault is examined and the law of the variation of the seismic superficial displacement v/s distance to the fault is given, assuming that no extra stress is produced at the base of the broken layer. Taking a simple example for the preseismical strain, it is possible to find an order of magnitude of the extent of the fault in depth. An application to the San Francisco seism of 1906 gives a depth of about 13 km.

Notes: Summary The waveform of a sonic pulse along the surface of a semi-infinite medium is investigated for short distances from the source. The velocities of the various modes are compared and used to deduce the elastic constants of the medium. The breadth of the Rayleigh wavelets is used to verify the wavelet theory and deduce the law of absorption of the medium. Direct attenuation measurements are somewhat scattered and do not agree exactly with wavelet breadth results.

Notes: Summary Differences between epicenter azimuths and the direction of arrival of firstP-waves are determined from the horizontal seismograms of Djakarta station. Systematic azimuth deviations of more than 15° are encountered in the NW through N to SE azimuths. Azimuth deviations caused by a discontinuity dipping 5, 10 and 15° and with a ratio of velocity of longitudinal waves at either side of the discontinuity of 1.23, 1.38 and 1.52 are calculated. The most simple model suitable to the observed data is that of a discontinuity with a velocity ratio of about 1.5, dipping 8–10° in a N 10° E direction. In the S and W directions of Djakarta no dipping discontinuity is needed to account for the few observed data in these quadrants.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird das Interpretationsproblem der Refraktionsseismik in einem einachsig inhomogenen Körper allgemein behandelt und exakt gelöst.

Notes: Summary Some advantages of a correlation measure based on a counting procedure are indicated for geophysical applications.

Notes: Summary Calculations are performed to determine the time variation of supersaturation during cloud formation. It is shown that a simple expression can be used to obtain the maximum supersaturation (and hence the number of nuclei activated) as a function of updraught velocity and nucleus spectra insert omitted portion of copy reported in Part 1 and it isshown that they lead to cloud droplet concentrations which agree with those actually observed.

Notes: Summary The development of the law of radiation, and his consequences, shortly exposed.

Notes: Summary Five ofBerlage's eight empirical rules concerning the Southern Oscillation (1957) may be united in one general rule with regard to the different influence of solar activity during 11-year sunspot cycles with annual maximum numberR above or below 85 (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). The opposite character of strong and weak 11-year cycles of solar activity is also present in the 7-year period (Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10; Fig. 1). Finally it is shown that a similar contrast obviously exists in the appearance of polar lights (Table 11, Fig. 2 and 3). The results have not been statistically tested. Because of the rather small number of solar periods involved and the complicated character of the relations found, I could not find a satisfactory statistical method to operate with. I may emphasize, however, the ≪converging evidence≫ enlarging considerably the statistical significance of my results.

Notes: Summary This paper presents the study of variations of the solar radiation and the blueness of the sky during the eclipse of June 30, 1954 at Athens. The comparison of the solar radiation march during the eclipse day to that of the two preceding and the two following days of the eclipse-all five days were almost identical from the standpoint of weather—proved that the direct solar radiation and the total (sky and sun) radiation underwent a considerable decrease during the phenomenon. The blueness of the sky also underwent a significant change, especially at the maximum of the eclipse.

Notes: Summary A new calibration of the improved version of a photo-electric nucleus counter with a fog-tube of 3.85 cm air-column diameter and blotting-paper lining and of a photo-electric counter Model 1957 with air-column diameter of 2.5 cm and ceramic lining was carried out by adjusting the calibration curve of 1946 with reference to the considerably improved absolute (Aitken type) counter with stereophotomicrographic recording. The experimental arrangement for the calibration, the method of sampling, the nuclei used, the procedure of measuring, the evaluation of the measurements with the photo-electric and photographic counter are discussed and the effect of dampness of the graticule in the photographic counter and the influence of the ambient or initial temperature on the concentration measurements with both types of counters have been theoretically and experimentally investigated. On account of the considerable influence of the dampness of the graticule on the counting results we have used exclusively for this new calibration, measurements on a sufficiently damp graticule. The deduction of the new calibration tables consisting in the, adjustment of 7 fundamental points of the old calibration curve, is described. The agreement of the adjusted values for the two photoelectric counters with different air-column diameters and linings which refer to the same concentration, is very good; the maximum difference is less than 2%. Basic values of concentration curves for photo-electric counters with air-column diameter of 3.85 cm fitted with blotting-paper lining and of 2.5 cm diameter with ceramic lining. The new calibration is valid for an ambient temperature of 20°C.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Ausgehend von derEmden'schen Theorie der äquatorialen Beschleunigung der Sonne und einer früheren Anwendung derselben auf den Planeten Jupiter, wird auch die Beschleunigung bei Saturn hier erstmalig diskutiert und der Versuch gemacht, dieselbe Theorie zur Erklärung der Ostabweichung der Kontinente der Erde im äquatorialen Gebiet anzuwenden. Das ist nur möglich, wenn man 1.) auf die archaische Periode der Erdentwicklung zurückgreift, bei der aber die wesentlichen Höhenunterschiede der Erdoberfläche schon ausgebildet waren, 2.) der Pol im wesentlichen die jetzige Lage hatte und 3.) der Reibungskoeffizient der festen Erdkruste aber wesentlich geringer war: 1014 gegen etwa 1020 c.g.s.

Notes: Summary Earthquake shear waves with period around 12.2 min have been lately reported byM. Båth (1958), who suggests that these might be due to torsional vibrations of the whole mantle on some axis through the centre of the earth. An attempt has been made here to put forward a theory which accounts for such vibrations. The general elastokinetic equation for a heterogeneous isotropic medium is solved for a free spherical shell overlying a liquid core, and the solution is investigated for the first two modes. The frequency equation is solved for a shell and the limiting cases of a full sphere and an infinitely thin shell. Application is then made for various approximate mantle models, and periods are found which are in fair agreement with the observed. It is then shown that if the rigidity of the core is taken into consideration a closer agreement with the observed might be attained.

Notes: Summary By means of the long-period records at Uppsala and Kiruna of thirteen specially selected earthquakes, the Love and Rayleigh wave dispersion is determined for all oceans and all continents except for South America. The observations have given information on crustal structure along several paths, not investigated earlier; in other cases, they have confirmed earlier results. The methods are discussed. The results for oceanic areas are summarized in the following table: The observations demonstrate the oceanic structure of the central Arctic area as well as the complete similarity of the Atlantic and Pacific bottom structure. Continental dispersion curves are determined for very long paths over Euro-Asia and for the hitherto longest path over North America as well as for a path crossing Africa. These observations indicate an average crust about 10–15 km thicker along the Euro-Asiatic path than along the North American path, whereas there is perfect agreement between the North American and the African continent. A shear-wave velocity of 4.3–4.4 km/sec is obtained for the upper part of the mantle under the continents. Further conclusions must await the computation of a greater number of theoretical dispersion curves.

Notes: Summary The vertical gradient of gravitational field is derived by a corollary ofGreen's theorem from the gravitational potential. For the solving of the integral defined the vertical gradient is given a simple approximation. For practical computation are presented the numerical values of coefficients.

Notes: Summary The figures of equilibrium independant from the law of density in their interior can be characterized by the remarkable property that the absolute value of the «shape-parameter» must be a minimum. This gives an equation between the flattening and the twoStokes constant ε and δ, by which the ∞3 figures of equilibrium can be selected from the ∞4 solutions ofHelmert's equations for a given mass. Each inhomogeneous spheroidical figure of equilibrium is determined unequivocally by the mass and the shape of its free surface or by the mass and three physical parameters; the law of density is strictly individual. From the threefold infinite multiplicity of the figures of equilibrium linear series are to find out with two fixed physical parameters or you can compute a series of figures with a common level surface or the series built by all level surface of a given figure of equilibrium. Though the moments of inertia are notStokes constants the normal spheroid of earth unequivocally defined by ω,W 0 andC can be determined without hypotheses, because in the series (ω,K) also the moments of inertia and the mechanical ellipticity are constant. Therefore the empirically known mechanical ellipticity can be substituted by the static flattening returning to the homogenous figure in the beginning of the series. Of course the determination of the normal spheroid of earth demands the knowledge of gravity in equator and of the equator-axis instead of the unknown mass of earch series (ω,W 0), (ω,K) and (K,W 0), which intersect in the normal spheroid, are discussed. Also the boundary surface of the figures of equilibrium in the Cartesian system of the coordinatesa, α andh m is discussed; this surface is determined byf=−3a2/2.

Notes: Abstract Four new sulfur isotope ratios of native volcanic sulfur are given and it is shown that isotope distributions are best presented with histograms. Possible causes governing the isotope compositions of native volcanic sulfur are briefly discussed.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wurden 35 Kohlengesteinsproben und andere Biolithe vornehmlich von österreichischen Vorkommen emissionsspektrographisch auf Bor untersucht. Als maximaler Borgehalt im lufttrockenen Kohlengestein wurde 0·06% B und in der Asche 0·46% B gefunden. Die Boranreicherung dürfte im wesentlichen auf das Borspeichervermögen der pflanzlichen Substanz zurückgehen. Es wurden Koinzidenzen im Borgehalt limnischer und paralischer Kohlen festgestellt, so daß die Verwendung des Bors als Leitelement zunächst problematisch erscheint. Die höchsten Borgehalte zeigen die Glanzbraunkohlen der inneralpinen Molasse, die als limnisch-fluviatile Bildungen betrachtet werden. Eine Überprüfung dieser Faziesangaben erscheint notwendig.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Auf Grund unterschiedlicher petrotektonischer Daten wird im Kristallin des Bayerischen Waldes die Wirksamkeit zweier altersverschiedener Orogenesen festgestellt, wovon die ältere wahrscheinlich präkambrisch ist. Da in einer Spätphase der jüngeren Orogenese varistische Magmatite tektonisch umgeprägt wurden, kann wahrscheinlich die gesamte jüngere Orogenese als varistisch, ihre Hauptbewegungen und die Vergneisung möglicherweise als bretonisch angesehen werden. Das Für und Wider zu dieser Auffassung wird diskutiert.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Eine tektonische Untersuchung des SW-Abschnittes der Moselmulde ließ drei verschiedene Bewegungspläne erkennen, die im Verlauf der variszischen Orogenese wirksam waren: 1. Einengung in Richtung etwa 150°, 2. Vertikalbewegungen etwa 60° streichender Streifen, 3. Horizontalbewegungen an etwa N-S streichenden Zonen. Gegenüber dem in großem Umfange rotierendem Gestein zeigen die Beanspruchungspläne weitgehend Richtungskonstanz. Das hier aufgezeigte Bewegungsbild dürfte mutatis mutandis auch für Teile anderer Faltengebirge gelten, in denen geschieferte Gesteine vorherrschen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Aus den neueren geologischen Beobachtungen und Kartierungen in Griechenland folgt, daß die tektonische Aufgliederung Griechenlands nachRenz, zumindest in Ostgriechenland, nicht zu Recht besteht. An Stelle einer tektonischen Trennung haben wir kontinuierliche sedimentäre Übergänge. Gewiß gibt es tektonische Kontakte an kleineren und größeren Überschiebungen und einem verbreiteten Schuppenbau, aber diese Störungen beweisen keine tektonische Längsgliederung in Fazieszonen, für welcheRenz ein so reiches stratigraphisches Material erarbeitet hat.

Notes: Zusammenfassung I. Der polygonale Querschnitt der Säulen des Basalts usw. ist durch die Schrumpfung bei der Abkühlung und durch die letzten Bewegungen der erstarrenden Lava bedingt. Die Wirkung der Kontraktion ist augenfällig und altbekannt. Das fließtektonische Kluftnetz dagegen ist nicht ohne weiteres sichtbar und läßt sich nur mit statistischen Verfahren fassen und veranschaulichen. Wie Beispiele zeigen, ist die Methode zur Aufhellung der Bewegungsvorgänge in Ergußgesteinen nützlich. Auf Beziehungen zur „Granittektonik“ wird hingewiesen. II. Das Korngefüge des Basalts ist, wie U-Tisch-Vermessungen der Plagioklasleisten ergaben, i.a. straff ausgerichtet. Mit der Erklärung der Basaltsäulen als Bénardsche Wirbelzellen läßt sich die Regelung nicht in Einklang bringen. Das Parallelgefüge ist vielmehr durch das Fließen der Schmelze beim Aufstieg und bei der Platznahme erzeugt. Es erlaubt damit Schlüsse auf die Form und Entstehung von Ergußgesteinskörpern.

Notes: Abstract The Pleistocene, and possibly also other, older glaciations, are believed to have resulted from a combination of terrestrial and astronomical factors. Preceding glaciation, orogenesis and uplift increased the Earth's albedo and decreased temperature. Lowering of temperature below a certain threshold value permitted the astronomical cause to become operative. While smaller glaciations may have been largely or entirely patterned by the astronomical cause or causes, terrestrial factors had an important effect in determining the course of the larger glaciations. Two time-delay factors are believed to have been responsible for the oscillatory pattern of glaciation: these are plastic iceflow, and crustal warping. Summer insolation variation in the high latitudes is believed to be a more likely astronomical cause than variation of solar radiation.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Neue stratigraphische Erforschungen im mittelböhmischen Devon haben in den letzten Jahren eine Reihe neuer Kenntnisse gebracht, welche die bisherige Ansicht über die Stratigraphie der Devonschichten im Barrandium in beträchtlichem Maße ändern. Die Grenze zwischen Silur und Devon wurde neu bestimmt und die fazielle Entwicklung des Unterdevons neu ausgewertet (der Koněprusykalk ist ein Äquivalent des unteren Teiles des Bránikkalkes u. a.). Die Grenze zwischen dem Unter- und Mitteldevon wird nun viel höher gelegt als es der älteren Auffassung entspricht. Bei allen Schichtgruppen wurden reiche fazielle Unterschiede festgestellt und biostratigraphische Untersuchungen durchgeführt.

Notes: Summary From the high western border areas of Western Irak and Northern Saudi Arabia the land slopes gently eastwards to the Mesoptamian Plain and the Persian Gulf. Thirteen physiographic provinces can be recognized within the area. Rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Recent outcrop, and it is probable that the entire stratigraphic column is present. Few structural features are impressive. Such folds as are present within the Arabian socle are faulted at depth, caused by pinching due to unequal movements of the basement. The shield represents a sialic “raft” in a state of instability, and forces acting to restore isostatic balance have created a giant couple. The internalstress system of tension and shearing results in differential vertical fault-block movements. The shield proper characterizes a region in which vertical movements predominate, and only in the arcuate mobile belt are tangential forces operative.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die in den Gebirgen fehlenden Kriterien für ihren Bewegungsgang und das Datum ihrer Erhebung werden ersetzt durch vulkanische Bewegungsindikatoren, sowie durch das z. T. präglazial-pliozäne Alter der am Aufbau beteiligten und wieder freigelegten Intrusivbasalte. Im Bruchschollengebirge des tertiären „Cantalvulkans“ wird ein fünfmaliges Zurücksinken und Wiederaufsteigen während des Pliozäns nachgewiesen, wobei die letzte Gebirgserhebung in das ältere Pleistozän fällt. Der ermittelte Mechanismus und die Datierung seines letzten Aufstiegs werden auf die Mittel- und Hochgebirge übertragen und die Indizien für analoge Vorgänge in den Ostalpen näher dargelegt.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In Ergänzung zum FortschrittsberichtKürstens werden geologische Probleme des Schottischen Kristallins diskutiert unter Betonung der petrographischen Betrachtungsweise und Verwertung eigener Feld- und Schliffbeobachtungen.

Notes: Abstract Precambrian rocks, ranging in age from probable Archaean to Upper Proterozoic, crop out over an area of 25,000 square miles in north-western Queensland. They fall into four large divisions, separated by major unconformities. Little is known of the history of the Archaean rocks, which are believed to include altered acid lavas, schists, gneisses and migmatite. The Lower Proterozoic strata form part of an orogenic belt. The Lower Proterozoic lower sequence is rich in altered acid and basic lavas. It has a maximum thickness of not less than 40,000 feet and was strongly deformed by east-west pressure and probably intruded by granite before the Lower Proterozoic upper sequence was deposited. Sediments form the bulk of the Lower Proterozoic upper sequence; these accumulated most thickly to the west and north-west of the core of lower sequence belt, but overlie lower sequence strata. The greatest thickness of sediments is at least 40,000 feet. The sequence was deformed by a renewal of east-west compressive stresses, accompanied by granite emplacement. Folding is strong to moderate, but lacks well-defined linearity in the west of the outcrop area. Upper Proterozoic sediments and lavas accumulated mainly in the west and north-west of the region. They are gently to moderately folded on west to north-west axes. The Precambrian in north-western Queensland, excluding the Camooweal Dolomite, crops out over about 25,000 square miles. Systematic field work was started by joint teams of the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources and the Geological Survey of Queensland in 1950. Reconnaissance mapping of the region was completed in 1954 but check work and more detailed mapping of areas of economic interest are still in progress. Maps are being prepared at a scale of 1 inch to 4 miles (1: 253,440) and a report on the area is being written (Carter andBrooks, in preparation). The Camooweal Dolomite, of Upper Proterozoic or Lower Cambrian age, is not included. Its stratigraphic and palaeographic position is discussed byNoakes (1956). The reconstruction of the geological history of the region presented below is an interpretation of the data obtained. The evidence is not sufficiently complete to enable a unique interpretation to be made of all aspects of the region's history. In particular the history of granite intrusion has not yet been completely unravelled.

Notes: Abstract The known palaeontological and stratigraphical evidence is used as a basis for the construction of maps of the continents showing the extent of their inundation by the sea in Sakmarian time in the Upper Palaeozoic. In the northern hemisphere apart from India the evidence is sufficiently reliable to give reasonable maps, and the great extent of the inundations suggests that the climate would be considerably modified from that of today; no undoubted Sakmarian glacials occur there. In Southern continents and India, the “Gondwana” biogeographical province has made correlation with the northern continents controversial, but reasons are given for assuming that “Gondwana” glacial deposits were at least in part Sakmarian; the resultant maps show that the “Gondwana” land surfaces were but little reduced in area, and that the main glacials (except for India) lie within a belt between 40∘ S and 20∘ S. Present lack of knowledge of Sakmarian conditions in Antarctica makes reconstructions of climatic belts too hazardous for possible use in enunciating or checking hypotheses of continental drift and polar wandering.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Während im Unterperm Südtirols gewaltige Eruptionen die Bozener Porphyrplatte schufen, geht die seit dem Oberkarbon begonnene Sedimentation in den Karnischen Alpen ruhig weiter. Hingegen sind in den Lienzer Dolomiten und Gailtaler Alpen Ausläufer der Bozener Eruptionen zu beobachten. In den Karawanken beginnt der triassische Vulkanismus schon im Skyth und überschreitet im Anis/Ladin in der Villacher Alpe die heutigen Südalpen. Im Savebereich fehlen teilweise die Grödener Konglomerate, wobei hochmarines Mittelperm bis zur heutigen „Savelinie“ zwischen Karawanken und Julischen Alpen reicht.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der permische Vulkanismus hat in Sardinien zuerst basische Laven und nur zum Schluß saure Typen gefördert. Echte Ergüsse sind verhältnismäßig selten; lokal ist die Tuff- und Breccienbildung stark entwickelt. In allen Fällen liegen die pyroklastischen Sedimente (Tuffe und Breccien) auf den Konglomeraten, Sandsteinen und Tonen des Rotliegenden und sind am besten in den kleinen Becken des varistischen Festlandes erhalten.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird versucht, eine Vorstellung über die Möglichkeit der „Durchpausung“ präexistierender flächiger oder körperhafter Inhomogenitäten eines tieferen Stockwerkes in das darüberliegende Deckgebirge bei neuerlicher Beanspruchung zu gewinnen. Zu diesem Zweck werden zunächst einige Beispiele, das Verhältnis von Tektonik und Vulkanismus betreffend, betrachtet. Schließlich wird an zwei konkreten Beispielen (Nordschwarzwald und Spessart) eine etwas eingehendere Analyse unternommen. Es läßt sich dabei die komplexe Natur von Art und Grad der „Durchpausung“ erkennen, so daß bei ihrer Beurteilung größte Vorsicht am Platze ist. Ähnliches gilt für alle mit der „Posthumität“ in der Tektonik zusammenhängende Fragen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Quarzporphyrkuppe des Kahlbusch bei Dohna (Sachsen) wurde geologisch aufgenommen.Pietzsch (1916) erkannte in den Erstarrungsformen des Porphyrs eine Quellkuppe. Durch Detailaufnahmen der Fluidaltextur, der Gestalt und der Stellung der Säulen, sowie durch die Diskussion deren Beziehungen zueinander, lassen sich Aussagen über die Form des Subvulkans und die Richtung und Lage der Förderspalte machen. Die Form des Subvulkans spricht für einen Staurücken im Sinne vonRittmann, die herzynisch streichenden Strukturen werden durch die Lage in der Elbtalzone bedingt. Analogien zum rezenten Spaltenvulkanismus auf Island lassen weitere Schlüsse auf den Eruptionsmechanismus zu. Mit dem relativ ruhigen Aufstieg der Lava sind Tufferuptionen (Tuffschlote) verbunden.

Notes: Abstract The Permian activity in the Oslo region started with lava effusions. Monzonitic rhomb porphyry flows predominate, with basaltic flows inbetween. Then a number of basalt volcanoes formed. This phase ended in explosive volcanism, producing ignimbrites, and the explosive activity is considered the primary cause for formation of at least four large and a few smaller cauldrons (or calderas). Below the lava surface monzonitic magma and associated syenitic and granitic magmas crystallized to larvikite, nordmarkitic and granitic rocks. These magmas are assumed to be formed by local melting of portions of the lower crust. The mode of emplacement is stoping.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Auf dem Nordflügel der Nahemulde treten zwischen Kirn/Nahe und Winterburg eine ganze Reihe von Erscheinungsformen des permischen Saar-Nahe-Vulkanismus auf, und zwar in Form von Lavaserien der Grenzlagergruppe des Oberrotliegenden und als gangförmige Bildungen in den Sedimenten des Unterrotliegenden. Auch sind mehrere Schlote zu beobachten. Im Vergleich zur Umgebung von Idar-Oberstein (SW) fällt die wesentlich geringere oberflächliche Verbreitung und viel kleinere Zahl der viel weniger mächtigen Lavadecken auf. Zwischen dem Auftreten der Gänge und dem Verlauf von Störungen germanotyper Bruchfaltentektonik ist ein Zusammenhang zu erkennen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Am Südrand der Bozener Porphyr-Platte (im Raum nordöstlich von Trento) konnte auf Grund neuer Untersuchungen für die unterpermische Eruptivfolge eine Zweiteilung gewonnen werden, die mit der bisher für diesen Bereich geltenden Gliederung (Trener 1904, 1933) in Widerspruch steht. Die untere, basische, „Basale Tuff-Serie“ genannte Abteilung wird neben einzelnen eingeschalteten Melaphyr- und Porphyritlagen hauptsächlich von Kristall-, Aschen- und Agglomerattuffen zusammengesetzt. Den hangenden, saueren Komplex nehmen Quarzporphyre und untergeordnet Tuffe der Lagorai-Quarzporphyr-Serie ein. Am Nord-, West- und Ostrand der Bozener Porphyr-Platte ist im großen ganzen eine ähnliche Zweiteilung beobachtbar. Hier entspricht der „Basalen Tuff-Serie“ des Trentiner Bereiches der „Trostburg-Melaphyr“-KomplexWolffs (1909). Dagegen sind der „Porphyr von St. Ulrich“, der „Eggentaler“, „Branzoller“, „Hocheppaner“ und der „Kasteiruther Porphyr“Wolffs (1909) nicht zeitlich nacheinander gebildete Lavaströme, sondern nur lokale Varietäten ein und derselben Ergußphase. Sie sind lithologisch und zeitlich dem Lagorai-Quarzporphyr des Südrandes gleichzusetzen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Früher als Quersättel gedeutete herzynische Großstrukturen spielen im Thüringisch-Vogtländischen Schiefergebirge eine besondere Rolle. Die Frankenwälder Querzone sowie die Triebeier, Tauschwitzer und Netzschkauer Horste und z. T. auch die Plauener Bögen sind Ausdruck des Querschollenbaues, der auch in vielen anderen Erdgebieten die Großtektonik stark mitbestimmt. Die Querelemente des westlichen Saxothuringikums folgen z. T. uralten vorvariszischen Lineamenten, haben sich z. T. frühvariszisch bemerkbar gemacht, sind aber wohl hauptsächlich während der sudetischen Orogenese, besonders durch Schollenbewegungen unter Ausweitung, kaum aber durch magmatische Aufbeulung, gebildet und durch nachfolgende Bewegungen weiter ausgeprägt worden. Neu diskutierte Probleme des vogtländischen Querschollenbaues werden genannt. Ein Ausblick auf die Querstrukturen anderer Regionen läßt deren theoretische und praktische Bedeutung erkennen. Diese Strukturen haben Magmatismus und Vererzung häufig die Wege vorgezeichnet und prägen zum Teil sogar Züge im Bild der Erde.

Notes: Abstract The copper, tin and gold deposits of Central Africa occupy the median part of an archaïc-paleozoic mountain ring extending from the Lower Congo to the Central Highlands and to South West Africa. Most of the metalliferous zone is sandwiched between the Western Rift Valley and the Karroo transgression of the Congo Basin. This “ribbon” is 2500 miles long, width varying from 100 to 400 miles. Deposits seem to follow ancient and often reccuring trends. At least three pre-cambrian mineralizing cycles should be distinguished: $$\begin{array}{*{20}c} {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {epoc} \\ {1.Kabalian} \\ {2.Urundian} \\ {3.Katangian} \\ \end{array} } & {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {metal} \\ {Au} \\ {Sn,Nb,W,Au} \\ {Cu,Co,U,Zn} \\ \end{array} } & {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {region} \\ {Ituri,Uele,Kivu,Tanganyika} \\ {Uganda,Ruanda,Maniema,Katanga} \\ {Katanga,Rhodesia} \\ \end{array} } \\ \end{array}$$

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die in geologischen Diagrammen, z. B. Karten, Mikroaufnahmen u. dgl., zusammengefaßte Richtungsverteilung gewisser linearer Elemente läßt sich mit Hilfe statistischer Verfahren einer mathematischen Analyse unterwerfen. Diese Methode wurde auf die Analyse zweier typischer Entwässerungssysteme angewandt.

Notes: Summary Recent exploration in northern Australia has discovered three shallow water oolitic iron formations, one of Permian age, and two of Upper Proterozoic age. The Permian formation resembles the oxidized oolitic chamositic formations of south-eastern England, but contains more detrital quartz and felspar. The two Precambrian iron formations, consist, below the zone of weathering, of oolites of hematite and of a chamosite-like substance, in a siderite cement, together with well-rounded quartz grains, and are interlayered with sandstones with a chamosite-like cement. Within the zone of weathering the siderite and chamosite are more or less completely replaced by quartz, but with preservation in detail of original textures.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Mit Hilfe des Zustandsdiagramms wird gezeigt, daß basaltische Magmen aus einer subkrustalen Zone stammen, die aus geschmolzenem, hochviskosem und daher „seismisch festem“ Olivinbasaltmagma besteht. Der Unterschied zwischen Deckenbasalten und Ophiolithen wird durch eine Aufstiegsdifferentiation erklärt, derzufolge nur in der Tiefsee ein peridotitischer Kristallbrei gefördert werden kann, der durch Autohydrothermalisierung in Serpentin umgewandelt wird. In lokalen Herden innerhalb der Erdkruste entwickeln sich aus dem primären Basaltmagma durch gravitative, pneumatolytische und komplexe Differentiationen atlantische und durch Assimilation von magmatischen oder sedimentären Karbonatgesteinen mediterrane Teilmagmen. Rhyolithische, dazitische und verwandte Magmen der pazifischen Sippen sind sekundäre, durch Ultrametamorphose und Anatexis aus sialischen Gesteinen entstandene Schmelzen. Ihre Entstehung wird am Zustandsdiagramm eines granodioritischen Materials erläutert, wobei die Ausbildung der Conrad-Diskontinuität auf metamorphe Differenzierung (Granitisierung und Entgranitisierung) zurückgeführt wird.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der subsequente Magmatismus im Anschluß an die varistische Hauptfaltung beginnt in Sachsen bereits im Oberkarbon und geht nicht über das Unterrotliegende hinaus. Sichere oberkarbonische Vulkanite sind: 1. ein Quarzporphyr-Erguß im Westfal B/C bei Flöha, 2. ein Melaphyr-Erguß im ältesten Westfal D bei Zwickau, 3. ein Quarzporphyr-Erguß im Westfal B/C bei Schönfeld im Osterzgebirge. Wahrscheinlich stefanisch ist die Intrusion der großen Granitmassen im Westerzgebirge (Eibenstock, Kirchberg usw.). Im Osterzgebirge sind Teplitzer und andere Quarzporphyre, Granitporphyr und die Zinngranite von Altenberg und Zinnwald wahrscheinlich auch stefanisch.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Magmatismus der Mitteldeutschen Hauptscholle beginnt an ihrem Südrande im Erzgebirge bereits in der Westfälischen Stufe. Sein Schwerpunkt verlagert sich im Stefan und Unterrotliegenden nach Norden. Er verklingt mit Melaphyrergüssen an der Basis der Tambacher und der Hornburger Schichten. Die stratigraphischen Unterlagen für diese Altersfolge der magmatischen Ereignisse sind zwar noch nicht in vollem Umfange gefestigt, jedoch ist das Wandern des Magmatismus von Süden nach Norden bereits mit großer Sicherheit erkennbar. Es wird darauf hingewiesen, daß die Hornburger und Tambacher Schichten auf Grund ihrer Paläogeographie, Tektonik und ihres Magmatismus dem Unterrotliegenden, d. h. den Schichten unter der saalischen Diskordanz, näher stehen als den Eislebener Schichten über der saalischen Diskordanz.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Eine stratigraphische Aufeinanderfolge, die für die ganze Tafel gilt, kann im einzelnen nicht angegeben werden, da die permisch-vulkanische Tätigkeit zahlreiche Lavaergüsse und wiederholte Überdeckungen durch Tuffe hervorrief, welche infolge der Vielfalt der Ausbruchsstellen in komplizierter Weise übereinander gelagert sind. Immerhin können die verschiedenen Erscheinungen in zwei Hauptzyklen der vulkanischen Tätigkeit zusammengefaßt werden. Der erste Zyklus weist einen im Mittel quarzdioritischen Chemismus auf und führte zur Bildung zahlreicher Arten in verschiedener Weise unter Tuffen eingelagerter Porphyrite. Der zweite ist durch einen leukogranitischen Chemismus gekennzeichnet und brachte die großen Ergüsse Quarzporphyre sowie die dazwischen gelagerten, ebenfalls stark sauren Tuffe. Diesen beiden Zyklen folgte die intensive Einwirkung hydrothermaler Lösungen, durch die an fast allen erwähnten vulkanischen Produkten tiefgehende Veränderungen, die Kristallisierung von Mineralien neuer Bildung sowie Auswaschungen von Kationen, besonders solcher von Na und Ca, hervorgerufen wurden.