ALBERT

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 12 January 2020〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Bert Chapman〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Article 1 of the US Constitution assigns the US Congress numerous responsibilities. These include creating new laws, revising existing laws, funding government programs, and conducting oversight of these programs' performance. Oversight of US Government agency space policy programs is executed by various congressional space policy committees including the House and Senate Science Committees, Armed Services, and Appropriations Committees. These committees conduct many public hearings on space policy, which invite expert witnesses to testify on US space policy programs and feature debate on the strengths and weaknesses of these programs. Documentation produced by these committees is widely available to the public, except for sensitive national security space policy matters. This assessment examines congressional committee oversight of US space policy programs during the 115th Congress (2017–2018) and reflects the variety of developments in space policy receiving congressional scrutiny.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 1 February 2020〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Carrie Anne Platt, Mal Jason, Curtis J. Sullivan〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 17 January 2020〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Ahmed Ayad, Ron Matthews, Ivan Vitanov〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Technology transfer involves the flow of knowledge from technology developers or possessors to technology acquirers that benefit from the knowledge. This article proposes a model for the evaluation of knowledge flow in complex technology transfer projects from developed to developing countries. The proposed knowledge flow model is built by combining the concepts of knowledge 〈em〉viscosity〈/em〉 and 〈em〉velocity〈/em〉 with the concepts of 〈em〉architectural〈/em〉 and 〈em〉component〈/em〉 knowledge. The model rests on the idea that the transfer of knowledge to resource-limited organizations such as those in developing countries requires a balance between viscosity and velocity on one hand and between architectural and component knowledge on the other. The knowledge flow model has been tested on data sourced from three Earth-observation small satellite collaborative projects leveraged by Algeria to acquire small satellite technology from abroad and build local capability. The implementation of the model revealed that the collaborative projects enabled only the acquisition of a shallow form of architectural knowledge detached from the local environment. The findings are reflective of the limitations of the collaborative projects mechanism and the challenge faced by the technology acquirer to strike the appropriate component/architectural and viscosity/velocity balance.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 19 February 2020〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Michael R. Migaud〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 17 February 2020〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Irmgard Marboe〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 5 July 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Bergit Uhran, Catharine Conley, J. Andy Spry〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Planetary protection, or the protection of celestial bodies from potentially harmful contamination, has been required by international law since the ratification of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space in 1967. At that time, scientists were concerned about the potential of contaminating the Moon or bringing back a life form of lunar origin when astronauts returned to Earth with samples. The evidence is that the Moon does not contain indigenous life, but other celestial bodies may. Mars is of particular concern because of its habitability and plans to carry out a robotic sample return mission and even potentially human crewed missions in the near future (next 20–30 years). This article (recognizing that other national and international tasks are ongoing with detailed studies of technical aspects of containment and sample analysis) provides an overview of the policy aspects of planetary protection and sample return, discussing the history of planetary protection, lessons learned from the Apollo missions, and a potential strategy to ensure prevention contamination if a robotic sample return mission is carried out. It is recommended that the capability performed in the 1960s by the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination be reestablished, that regulations be developed to allow quarantine of anyone exposed to the samples, that scientific and technical personnel be trained in a receiving laboratory for at least 2 years prior to sample return, and that a test protocol be established for examining the samples. This will protect our biosphere while enabling groundbreaking research into conditions on Mars and any possible signs of life.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 5 July 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Harald Köpping Athanasopoulos〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This article discusses the Moon Village concept within the context of the increasing momentum to return human beings to the surface of the Moon. The article follows a dual objective. Firstly, the Moon Village is probably the most misunderstood among the plethora of ideas to explore the Moon scientifically and commercially. The article is therefore intended to explore what the Moon Village actually is. Secondly, the article explores the strengths and weaknesses of the Moon Village. The article is divided into three sections. The first section reviews the current Moon projects of public and private space actors, including the United States, Russia, China, SpaceX and Blue Origin. It sets the scene for the argument that the Moon Village has entered global discourse on space within a positive political environment. The second section discusses the premises of ESA chief Jan Wörner’s Moon Village concept, putting forward that the Moon Village is intended as an open concept rather than as a concrete plan. It is a process rather than a project and it is meant to initiate a global conversation on humanity’s future on the Moon. As such, the world café is an appropriate metaphor to illustrate the idea behind the Moon Village. In the third and final section a SWAT/PEST analysis is conducted to assess the feasibility of the Moon Village, highlighting that one of the major opportunities of the project is to promote international cooperation. The article concludes by supporting the institutionalist hypothesis that the Moon Village is arguably a translation of the ESA system to the global level, as participation is voluntary and as it builds on the strengths of each cooperation partner. As such, the Moon Village in indeed a new way of doing space on the global level.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 13 August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Takuya Wakimoto〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Commercial space transportation (CST) will occur in the foreseeable future. After the success of Virgin Galactic's first suborbital commercial human spaceflight in 2004, many believed that our generation will explore another frontier of technology. Despite technological advancements, however, the international law currently in place is not prepared to regulate and secure the safety of CST including human spaceflights. Previous legal studies mainly focused on finding ways to accommodate CST under existing international laws, air law, or space law regime. Nevertheless, more than fifty years of legal discussion have yet to yield a decisive solution. Against the odds, CST will commence its business sooner or later. While national laws would be sufficient in many CST operations, some operations (e.g., international flight) would require international rules to secure a safe CST operation akin to what the aviation community developed for international air transport. That mechanism is encompassed in the technical standards created by the International Civil Aviation Organization. In this respect, this study aims to analyze a way to generate internationally harmonized technical standards on CST activities, with or without achieving an international law for CST. First, the article analyzes past legal discussion to understand the landscape of future aerospace activities. Then, the study reviews the history of the international aviation legal regime to find the implications of creating internationally harmonized technical standards for CSTs. The study suggests to the international community first, to forge a common ground across countries and second, that qualitative (not quantitative) international technical standards should arise based on this mutual understanding.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 5 August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Joel Marks〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 11 March 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Maria Libera Battagliere, Maria Virelli, Fabrizio Lenti, Davide Lauretta, Alessandro Coletta〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Constellation of Small Satellites for Mediterranean Basin Observation COSMO-SkyMed (CSK) is one of the most advanced and powerful assets in the Earth observation field in which Italy plays a key role at world level. CSK has been designed for dual-use purposes to fulfill both civilian and defense needs, providing useful scientific and commercial applications and strategic monitoring. Since 2008, thanks to its features, the Italian Constellation is able to provide a strong contribution in several application domains such as Geo-hazard Risk Management (seismic events, volcano eruptions, landslides monitoring, and so forth), Ocean and Marine Applications, Land Cover and Vegetation, Polar Research, Cultural Heritage Monitoring, Water Resources and Hydrology. The focus of this article is to analyze the CSK data exploitation to monitor the trend over the last 4 years (2014-2017). Specifically, statistics have been provided based on different acquisition modes, application domains, and the geographic area of interest. The article also highlights the role of the CSK system in the context of international cooperation, focusing on the ongoing partnerships and agreements signed by the Italian Space Agency to facilitate CSK data exploitation.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 11 March 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Yun Zhao, Shengli Jiang〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Armed conflict in outer space could happen in two scenarios: first, a state may rely on relevant data obtained from the satellites to strengthen the effectiveness of its military action and second, a state may use either space-based or ground-based space weapons to attack a military target. Legally speaking, the above two scenarios constitute the use of force as defined in international law rules. From jurisprudential point of view, the extension of the right to self-defense to armed conflict in outer space provides a potential legitimate basis for the use of force in outer space, which is indirectly confirmed in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. In view of the potentially serious consequences arising from armed conflicts in outer space, general principles and rules in international humanitarian law (including the limitation principle, the distinction principle, and the proportionality principle), together with the soft law rules and draft conventions arising from the ongoing regulatory efforts, shall provide a basic regulatory framework for armed conflict in outer space.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 47〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): 〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 20 March 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Dejian Kong〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉GNSS-related activities qualify as ʻspace activities’, and it thus make international space law applicable. However, it is quite reticent to broadly interpret GNSS signals under the term ʻspace object’, due to the lack of material and physical properties. The discussions on whether GNSS damage qualifies as indirect damage, and whether the Liability Convention cover that indirect damage, are irrelevant to the applicability of GNSS damage to the outer space treaties. GNSS damage may apply Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty and the Liability Convention as long as the causal link between the damage and GNSS satellites (not GNSS signals) is unbroken, logical, foreseeable and not too remote under the sense of general international law.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 25 June 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Matjaz Vidmar〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The global space industry has recently seen a structural transformation through the emergence of ‘New Space’, i.e., a significant expansion of the development of smaller, cheaper, and more modular space-related products in services. One example of this expansion is the emergence of a world-leading cluster of New Space industry in Scotland (UK). Critically, this development is being pitched as a new approach to innovation ecosystem, which the players refer to as ‘Agile Space’, based on a consolidation of cross-sector competences within loose value chain integration. However, I argue, in particular, that the emergence of the Scottish New Space Sector is crucially linked to the Living Laboratories (Living Lab) conceptualisation of the innovation practices and processes within the Agile Space approach. Hence, this article maps the key features of the emergence and development of the New Space Industry in Scotland and analyses the key feature of the Agile Space Living Lab paradigm, before proposing a critical further research agenda suggesting several much-needed strands of enquiry.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 19 March 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Konrad Szocik, Riccardo Campa, Margaret Boone Rappaport, Christopher Corbally〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long spaceflights would also expose crew to prolonged microgravity conditions, in addition to radiation. The result could well be osteoporosis, bone fractures, and disability. In this article, we do not contest the validity of bone loss studies. Rather, we question a seemingly tacit assumption about the immutability of human nature. Indeed, new, invasive, and noninvasive techniques of human enhancement already allow humans to enjoy modifications that will enable lengthy space missions. The alteration of human DNA has not only aided cancer patients but, for example, by using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing procedure, can also help to prevent damage to limbs and joints that a prolonged Mars mission could cause for the crew. Possible ethical objections to this solution are discussed, and trade-offs between risks and benefits outlined.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 12 August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Charles S. Cockell〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The extreme conditions of all extraterrestrial environments restrict freedom of movement and encourage social, political and economic arrangements friendly to tyranny. However, deliberately engineered measures might be taken to maximise liberty in the space environment. For example, space settlements can be engineered to maximise the number of oxygen, food, water and power systems to disallow coercive regimes the opportunity to control single machines on which entire settlements depend. Spacesuits can be engineered to be easily manufactured and maintained, thus maximising the number available to occupants of a settlement and minimising the extent to which bespoke and difficult-to-service suits restrict freedom of movement. Other examples of this approach to engineering are provided, which we might term ‘freedom engineering’. Although attempts to deliberately engineer freedom into a settlement turn on the definition of ‘freedom’, it is suggested that objective criteria in the enhancement of certain types of individual and collective liberty can be used to determine when an act of freedom engineering is likely to be beneficial for a settlement. The space policy implications of these ideas are discussed.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: May 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 48〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): 〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 10 June 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Mohammad Sadegh Mahjoom, Asghar Moshabaki Isfahani, Asadollah Kordnaeij, Seyed Hamid Khodadad Hosseini〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Iran has a long-standing and increasingly comprehensive space program. Given the current technological and political developments worldwide, a logical next step is to start commercializing some of the country's space activities. After first reviewing the literature on the commercialization of technology, this article describes Iran's space program and the various organizations involved in it, before presenting research based on interviews with 15 experts in the field of space commercialization. The results suggest that there are eight areas that Iran should concentrate on but that there are also currently several barriers to commercialization of the country's space industry. A conclusion provides recommendations for facilitating commercialization in the future.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 7 June 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Daniel Capper〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Current calls to protect the Martian environment with “Planetary Parks” maintain environmental merit. However, they lack a sufficiently urgent timeframe for initiating protection and a robust scientific method for the establishment of noteworthy Martian natural landmarks as natural reserves. In response, if we return to the seminal environmental preservation teachings of Aldo Leopold and John Muir, we encounter the importance of grounding Martian preservation efforts on the fundamental environmental science method of a base-datum of normality, or baseline ecology. This method establishes natural reserves that feature both minimal human interference and known origination dates, thereby providing longitudinal environmental control samples for scientific use. Applied before humans appear on Mars, preserved baseline ecologies thereby aid our scientific understanding of human environmental impacts, both now and well into the future, while they enhance a variety of other outcomes in terms of Martian protection. However, the baseline ecology method requires that, through international agreements, we establish these reserves as quickly as possible and certainly before humans arrive on the planet.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 21 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Mingyan Nie〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The Belt and Road (B&R) initiative has been put forward by China as a comprehensive and multifaceted plan that also touches on the space industry. One significant project aimed by the B&R framework is to establish the B&R Space Information Corridor (B&R-SIC). The Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO), which was initially created by China as the platform to lead Asian space cooperation, has been recognized as a qualified participant of the B&R-SIC to co-build relevant programs and provide services. However, the existing legal mechanisms both internal and external to APSCO are insufficient to ensure the progress of its activities involving B&R space projects. It is necessary to explore a legal arrangement between APSCO and the responsible administrations of B&R space projects, at the same time of improving the legal framework of APSCO itself. More comprehensive implementation of the “fair return” principle could play an important role because it is helpful to generate a sustainable cooperation mechanism by equally respecting all member states' contributions. Also, a legal framework to accommodate increased commercial activities of APSCO will be beneficial.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 25 January 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Kelly Whealan George〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉 〈p〉The market structure of government investment domination in the space industry is being disrupted as commercial companies began working in the commercial space sector. As the 1960s was known as a government-funded space race, the 21st century may be known as a private interest space race. U.S. policy intended to speed innovation and drive costs down by expanding the role of commercial space companies. Hence, the 2018 orbiting sports car, yet more importantly, reusable rockets, satellites, and associated services developed as a result of the deliberate shift in government policy starting with the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984.〈/p〉 〈p〉As growth is expected to accelerate, input-output analysis is useful to predict what industries will benefit and inform the government in their policy decisions. Using a benchmarked growth rate, this research constructed the projected economic impact of yearly growth in commercial space on the U.S. and Florida economies and industries. Growth in the sector not only spurs growth in higher labor income jobs but also causes growth in jobs in other sectors, some of which also have higher than average labor income. Furthermore, growing these types of jobs would have a positive influence on the U.S. and Florida's economy and tax revenues.〈/p〉 〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 16 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Jennifer Burwell〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉As it has accrued meaning over time, outer space has become as much a social construct as a physical reality. Because space is a product of the imagination, its contours are not stable, and are subject to needs and desires that shift and evolve according to social, political, and economic priorities. This article examines differing relationships to space that shed light on the social and political dynamics that defined their historical moments—in particular the different iterations of the democratic impulse that these relationships express. This article compares the emergence of the dualistic and nation-based discourse of the late 1950s and 1960s cold war era out of the first satellite and rocket launches to present-day ‘NewSpace,’ which is characterized by free enterprise and the logic of commodification. In the process it touches on the 1986 by the Challenger mission and the emblematic figure of school teacher Christa McAuliffe, however attention is paid primarily to how she represented a transitional moment between the global, nation-building priorities of the cold war, and the contemporary profit-driven individualism of NewSpace. The article concentrates on cold war space flight and contemporary space tourism respectively because they offer in the most vivid way a glimpse into how society's own projections have populated the universe.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 5 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Quentin Verspieren〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Space-based remote sensing is playing a prominent role for disaster management and socioeconomic development in Asia-Pacific. However, the unequal access to space technology in the region prompts the establishment of regional data-sharing agreements. This situation provides an opportunity for the region's leading space powers to enhance their regional influence. By invoking the concept of concept of 〈em〉Normative Power〈/em〉 from the field of international relations, this article demonstrates (1) the applicability of this concept in the space sector, through an analysis of the European space sector and (2) the usefulness for decision-makers in advanced space powers to follow its methodological framework to design efficient strategies for enhanced regional influence. In particular, this paper argues that a tight collaboration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations on space data sharing could participate in an ambitious Japanese diplomatic strategy of enhancement of its normative influence over the Asian space sector, in times marked by the rise of other powerful regional space actors.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 2 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Nathalie Kerstens, Christina Giannopapa, Sharon Dolmans, Isabelle Reymen〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The space and energy sector have similar sustainable ambitions and face similar technological difficulties, providing numerous occasions for learning, collaborating and creating economic and societal value. Adopting space technology and applications within the energy sector offers many high-potential opportunities worth exploring. Space can serve as an enabler for revolutionizing the energy sector by providing information on renewable energy sources and energy efficiency to facilitate the energy transition and support decision and policy-makers in developing, implementing, and monitoring various energy policy areas such as energy resource management and energy transport. Political interest in this topic is rising, and multiple high-level discussions took place in Europe in 2018 to gain a deeper understanding of the opportunities and enablers for space as a tool to support European energy policy. This article draws on the insights from two dedicated events to highlight the most prominent opportunities and enablers. The outcomes of these events provide a source of inspiration for policy development, investment decisions, and R&D proposals to further stimulate space as an enabler for sustainable economic growth in the energy sector.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 29 January 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): C. Priyant Mark, Surekha Kamath〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This article gives an overview of the active space debris removal methods that are currently in development. Orbital debris removal has become a very critical part of the commercial and scientific space management. It is an aggregating risk which needs to be immediately addressed to prevent loss of spacecraft to debris collision. The various concepts and methods which tend to bring the accumulating risk to a halt have been classified and reviewed. They are classified into collective, laser-based, ion-beam shepherd-based, tether-based, sail-based, satellite-based, unconventional, and dynamical systems-based methods. The dynamical systems-based method is a contemporary concept, which is developing at a rapid pace. Recent trends were analyzed to ascertain the evolution of the active space debris removal programs. State-of-the-art methods are essentially required to address the various sizes of space debris that need to be removed. This brings a huge opportunity in the area, which includes discovering commercially viable options, cleaning orbital regions, and optimizing crowded satellite orbits.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 15 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Bohumil Dobos, Jakub Prazak〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Outer space is a congested strategic domain. The issue of space debris mitigation is one of the key issues of safe space traffic. However, active debris removal (ADR) systems may raise concerns about their dual-use capabilities. In this article, the authors have analyzed the ADR systems focusing on their potential as space weapons. The article concludes that ADR systems can be utilized for harmful purposes, although with limited impact. This limited potential of ADR systems to become antisatellite weapons allow for the development of such systems keeping in place basic confidence and trust building measures. The authors believe the further commercialization of space sector could enhance the space debris mitigation efforts.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 11 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Cláudio Santos, Sharbanon Abubakar, Ana Cristina Barros, Joana Mendonça, Gustavo Dalmarco, Janet Godsell〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Governmental investments on the development of high-tech clusters are among the main policies for socioeconomic development, enabling countries to be part of global value networks. Our objective is to identify which are the strategies of countries that want to join global aerospace value networks, by means of an abductive case research. Countries were divided in 3 groups (A; B; C) according to their global aerospace exports share. The analytical framework used to identify the strategies has 3 dimensions: network structure, network governance, and network dynamics. Results show different strategies according to the country's global exports share. While for countries in group A (exports above 1%), a strategy focused on the dimension network structure indicated a sustained high-tech sector. Countries in group C tend to focus on specialization, taking advantage of shifts in technological paradigms to upgrade their development level. The dimension network governance is mainly related to governmental efforts toward the creation of clusters and associations, promoting specialization and collaborative work. Finally, the dimension network dynamics describes the attraction of foreign companies to qualify the clusters at countries who belong to group C, while countries at group A reinforce their research and development activities. The comparison between countries is helpful for governmental representatives who want to develop strategies toward increasing participation in an industrial global value network and for supply chain managers to help selecting the locations for their operations.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 14 February 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Syeun Kim, Eun-Jung Choi, Sungki Cho, Jeong Yoo Hong〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This article reviews South Korea's response model for space object impacts, re-entries, and collisions. These are countermeasure models that are prepared for natural or artificial space objects falling in South Korea or colliding in space, and they employ the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT) to perform 4 stages that include prevention, preparation, response, and restoration. However, the article suggests that this process is inefficient given that the MSIT specializes in research and development but is expected to perform disaster response tasks in the event of natural or manmade space object impacts and re-entries. The research presents 2 alternative models to the current ones: the first model specifies that the MSIT and the Ministry of the Interior and Safety (MOIS) work together, and the second model designates the MOIS as the only agency responsible for the disaster response. These alternative models would more effectively handle disaster management than would the current models.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 20 April 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): W. Henry Lambright〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Robert Lightfoot served as Acting Administrator of NASA a record-busting 15 months from January 2017 to April 2018. He led NASA through two budget cycles and coped with the tumultuous transition from President Obama to President Trump. Unusually for an Acting Administrator, he made a difference in policy. Not only did he help raise NASA's budget during his time in office, but he was central in two major decisions. One was the decision not to accelerate a crewed flight around the Moon and the other was the choice to make the Gateway project an official new start for NASA.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 12 June 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Peter Martinez, Peter Jankowitsch, Kai-Uwe Schrogl, Simonetta Di Pippo, Yukiko Okumura〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The Outer Space Treaty (OST), which entered into force on 10th October 1967, has served as a foundation of international space law since the second decade of the Space Age. To mark the 50th anniversary of the Treaty's entry into force, a special panel event was organized during the 68th International Astronautical Congress held in Adelaide, Australia, from 25th–29th September 2017. The authors of this viewpoint were invited to share their perspectives on the governance framework for outer space activities underpinned by the OST and to reflect on the prospects for the future of global space governance, and the opportunities presented by UNISPACE+50, which will mark the 50th anniversary of the first UNISPACE conference in June 2018. This viewpoint begins with a retrospective reflection of 3 panellists on the contributions of the OST to global space governance in the past 50 years and the challenges facing the OST at present. The fourth reflection focuses on the potentials of UNISPACE+50 in 2018 to strengthen global cooperative space governance for the next 50 years of the space age.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 1 September 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Philipp Olbrich〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Media, industry, and academia frequently depict the commercialization of satellite imagery as geospatial revolution with transformational effects on global politics. In doing so, they follow an understanding that isolates technology from politics. While this division is still prevalent in international relations, recent scholarship has promoted the intricate relationship of technology with politics as socio-material. Adding to this literature, I draw on the sociology of expectations to propose an alternative reading of nongovernmental remote sensing. For this purpose, the notion of technopolitical barriers is introduced to trace controversies about technological expectations of satellite imagery. Based on expert interviews and document analysis, I identify three waves of enthusiasm, which are characterized by particularly salient expectations and techno-political barriers. The first wave is fueled by an enthusiasm about the general benefits of visual transparency as opposed to Cold War secrecy. The second wave turns toward nongovernmental imagery intelligence for human security. In the third wave, satellite imagery joins multiple data streams to support political and business decisions. Taken together, the three-wave model distorts the linear understanding of a revolutionary development but reveals the political and controversial nature of the ongoing commercialization of satellite imagery. As a part of this, nongovernmental remote sensing has experienced a focus shift from visual transparency toward geospatial big data. Moreover, the three-wave model highlights the persistence of expectations and techno-political barriers in the nongovernmental sector with important implications for policymaking and the global impact of commercial satellite imagery.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 17 August 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Travis S. Cottom〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Vietnam is slowly expanding its presence in space and to better understand where Vietnam is going in the future, a thorough examination that incorporates several factors must be completed. This article examines Vietnam's history in space, its space strategy, the organizational structure of its space program, how Vietnam is expanding its presence in space, and how Vietnam plans to use space for national security purposes. The article also reviews Vietnam's cooperation with other space nations where they are substantially benefiting from programs aimed at advancing the capabilities of emerging space nations. The article ends with potential areas that Vietnam and the United States can cooperate to advance both states capabilities in space while at the same time limiting Chinese influence in Vietnam.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 25 September 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Christopher Johnson〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 20 July 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Nancy Colleton〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 18 September 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Gemma Cirac-Claveras〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This article examines the contested process through which satellite weather data collection is being transformed from a governmental mission to one increasingly carried out by the private sector. As illustration of this controversial transformation, it addresses the debates raised in the United States between some members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Congress, private firms, academic meteorology and international observers between 2006 and 2017 regarding the commercialisation of data obtained from radio occultations using the Global Navigation Satellite System. It looks, in particular, at the arguments, discourses, viewpoints and perspectives of these involved actors. By focusing on one particular site of controversy—policies and practices of data distribution—this case study emphasises a clash of values between conventional norms of meteorology and commercial imperatives driving the private sector with respects to data sharing. The main interest of this article pertains to the broader issue of changing the current model for data gathering, using and sharing in the face of growing commercialisation of weather satellites.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 24 August 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): W. Henry Lambright〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉How does a nation geared to short-term politics achieve technological goals that stretch over decades? That is a cardinal question of U.S. space policy. The International Space Station (ISS) provides an important case study. Known originally as Space Station Freedom, it was initiated in 1984 by President Ronald Reagan to project U.S. leadership and compete with the Soviet Union’s space station program. NASA subsequently brought in Europe, Japan, and Canada as partners. The Clinton-Gore Administration reinvented “Freedom” as the International Space Station in 1993, enlisting Russia as NASA’s post-Cold War senior partner. ISS construction was completed in 2011 under President Barack Obama, who extended its utilization period until 2024. President Donald Trump has proposed ending funding in 2025 in favor of commercial take-over. This article uses a policy history of the space station for insights about how NASA Administrators advanced or impeded this long-term program. It employs the concept of “relay leadership” to show how a leader moved this program from one state of evolution, and another continued it to the next point. To accomplish any future long-term technological program, such as a Moon base or mission to Mars, NASA will need to apply policy lessons from the ISS experience.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 2 November 2018〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Rafał Kopeć〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉 〈p〉The development of the antisatellite (ASAT) weapons is a crucial process of the second era of space militarization. As a result, outer space loses the status of a sanctuary. However, this process does not steam only from the technological advance but also from strategic circumstances. The increasing number of space actors makes the system less stable. The degree of dependency on space assets is significantly different in different countries, what creates the vulnerability gap. What is more, the capability to defend a space infrastructure is profoundly limited due to physical and technological limitations, favoring offensive actions. Outer space is turning into offense-dominant domain.〈/p〉 〈p〉The growing risk of using ASAT weapons and the paramount importance of satellites in supporting armed forces prompt a search for protecting space infrastructure. Therefore, the space deterrence seems to be an attractive tool of increasing the security of space assets. So far, this branch of deterrence has been in the margins of strategic studies as the possibilities of undertaking action against space assets were very limited.〈/p〉 〈p〉The aim of the article is to analyze the adequacy of the development of the space deterrence concept, with the respect for strategic and technological circumstances and to compare it to nuclear deterrence as being one of the most examined deterrence concepts. The starting point for the analysis is the general characteristics of deterrence concept with special regard to nuclear deterrence as an example of its effective application (even though the capability to generate deterrent effect is still in dispute). This article subsequently examines the reasons making the space deterrence a current and important issue – the end of sanctuary and the creation of new battlefield in outer space, resulting from the pursuit of operational deployment of ASAT weapons. The strategic consideration is taken into account, including asymmetric dependence on space assets and, consequently, unfavorable to US military benefit-risk balance of space warfare. The difficulties in protecting the space infrastructure, favoring offensive action, are examined. The parallelism between nuclear and space deterrence is indicated two key differences – the lack of existential threat and retaliation credibility characterizes space deterrence. Based on these theoretical frameworks, the sample of escalation ladder in space is proposed. It should be stressed that the ladder refers only to the attack on space infrastructure (and the attack from space at the top of the ladder). The subsequent section thus attempts to answer the question where an attack on satellites should be placed on the escalation ladder. Should the hypothetical retaliation be limited to space infrastructure? The key conclusion of the analysis is that building space deterrence as an independent construct is not justified.〈/p〉 〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 23 August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Quentin Verspieren, Hideaki Shiroyama〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Data collection and information sharing are at the core of any traffic control system. In particular, Maritime Situational Awareness—restricted in this article to one of its main components, the automatic identification system (AIS)—and Space Situational Awareness (SSA) are the backbones of, respectively, maritime and space traffic control frameworks. While the AIS has been initiated by civil authorities for civil purposes and is now being adopted by navies around the world, SSA, originally developed by the military to protect national security assets in outer space is progressively transferred to civil actors. This article shows how and why the intrinsically different nature and history of maritime and space traffics generated a totally reverse approach towards information and responsibility sharing in support to traffic control, while presenting current proposals for the evolution of SSA.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 49〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): 〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: August 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 49〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Carrie Christensen〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 20 December 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Małgorzata Polkowska〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The main goals of the article are to describe space situational awareness (SSA) for safety and security purposes and to place SSA in the context of national and regional security law and policy. Building national or regional SSA systems should guarantee the security of people and infrastructure in outer space and on Earth from threats from space. Military aspects are also considered in the SSA system, because they reflect sensitive and fundamental security and defence issues. The SSA system is crucial for human security, and it is the responsibility of the states to understand the need to implement it correctly into national policy and law. SSA and its systems will evolve, building on already existing state activities and taking into account international cooperation frameworks. The practical example of the international use of SSA is the creation of the EU Consortium (with Poland on board), which will require internal and external cooperation from their member states for security purposes.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 50〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Zhihui Zhang, Bruce Seely〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Space collaboration has become quite common in recent years, thanks in large part to the high cost of such endeavors. This article reviews a rather early example of space collaboration, the partnership between China and the United States (U.S.) during the period 1978–2000. The collaboration began with general discussions and grew to include the use of Chinese rockets to launch U.S. satellites into orbit. We discuss where this collaboration worked successfully, where it did not, and why it ended. The ultimate collapse of the collaboration highlights the complexity of joint international projects for the factors that caused failure included the Cold War dynamic of geopolitical competition for international military and economic dominance and its continuance into the 1990s in Sino-U.S. relations; the domestic political landscape in both countries, which included bitter Democratic-Republican party rivalries in the U.S. and the top-down centralized decision-making system in China with significant influence by the People's Liberation Army; and the economic interests of U.S. aerospace contractors. But the issue that most directly ended cooperation in space was U.S. concerns about the transfer to China of sensitive satellite and rocket technology. For this history, we draw upon existing English language materials and Chinese language sources that have not been available to English-speaking scholars to illuminate China's involvement in this collaboration. We also describe subsequent Chinese space activities to pursue additional collaboration and offer comments about possible future Sino-U.S. space cooperation, against this backdrop of long-running national security concerns about transfers of knowledge and technology.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 50〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): David Ashford〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This article describes a launch vehicle development roadmap that uses only proven technology and that could lead to a thousand-fold reduction in the cost of sending people to orbit within about 15 years. It could reduce the cost of the first lunar base by very approximately ten times. This would clearly revolutionise spaceflight and create a new space age. The roadmap involves a combination of full reusability, aeroplane-like vehicle design and high traffic levels, especially from space tourism, to provide economies of scale. This line of development could have started some fifty years ago, and the failure to do this has led to a corporate groupthink that is probably now the biggest obstacle to progress.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 21 November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): A. Senthil Kumar, Sergio Camacho, Nancy D. Searby, Joost Teuben, Werner Balogh〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Space science, technology, and its applications have the potential to make essential contributions to the implementation of global development agendas which encompass the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. Member States of the United Nations are ultimately responsible for implementing the development agendas at the national level. The use of Earth observation tools can provide timely and reliable input data to the Global Indicator Framework to directly follow-up and review some of the sustainable development goals 169 targets. The continued user of these tools gives Member States the capability to evaluate the effectiveness of actions taken to reach specific targets and to report on progress achieved or shortcomings that need to be addressed. For many countries, capacity development is an essential factor for making optimal use of solutions offered by space activities. A large number of stakeholders, including international, regional, and national entities, are providing relevant capacity development activities. This article provides a pragmatic conceptual framework for improved collaboration and coordination of capacity development to assist Member States to fully utilize the contributions of space science, technology, and its applications to implement the global development agendas and to benefit society. The proposed coordination of capacity development needs to be integrated into an overall results-based management approach for optimizing the use of space science, technology, and its applications in support of global development agendas.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 5 January 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Miqdad Mehdi, Jinyuan Su〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉Pakistan was among the first 10 countries to start a space programme. Its space programme started upon the appointment of Dr. Abdus Salam (Noble Prize Winner) as the Chairman of the Space Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) in 1961. Owing to the prevailing unfavourable economic and political environment, coupled with regional instability and other factors, this programme could not persist for long. Recent efforts to overcome these mistakes and hurdles through an improved domestic strategy and smarter international relations are promising. Notably, success in this area can be ensured only with sustained political commitment to space development. To promote its space activities, Pakistan successfully conducted international cooperation with different countries and organisations. This article examines the Pakistan space programme and its cooperation with other countries, in particular, the shift in partnership from the United States to China.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 50〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): 〈/p〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 12 November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Monica Vidaurri, Alia Wofford, Jonathan Brande, Gabriel Black-Planas, Shawn Domagal-Goldman, Jacob Haqq-Misra〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉The prioritization and improvement of ethics, planetary protection, and safety standards in the astrosciences is the most critical priority as our scientific and exploratory capabilities progress, both within government agencies and the private sector. These priorities lie in the belief that every single science mission—crewed or non-crewed, ground-based or not—should heed strict ethical and safety standards starting shortly after mission conception. Given the inevitability of the private sector in influencing future crewed missions both in and beyond low-Earth orbit, it is essential to the science community to agree on universal standards of safety, ethics, planetary protection, and especially antiimperialism. These issues will impact all areas of space science, and even matters related to national defense and biodefense. Delegation of power and strict communication standards not only to protect the lives of the explorers but protect the environments of wherever humanity decides to venture. Opening up the multidisciplinary approach of space exploration to international law and governance regarding planetary protection, safety, and creating comprehensive and ethical standards across all space faring institutions is needed for the future of space exploration. Agreement and enforcement by the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs and the cooperation of participating governments in setting guidelines will prove critical in improving standards for future science missions. Ultimately, moving international space law and domestic space policy from a reactive nature to a proactive one will ensure the future of space exploration is one that is ethical, transparent, and antiimperialist. The prioritization of safety, planetary protection, and ethical practices of space exploration and its subsets is heavily dependent on a clear, progressive, and precautionary approach to international and domestic space law and must be executed by both individuals as practice and by governments as policy, simultaneously.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: November 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy, Volume 50〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): David T. Burbach〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉This study tests the congruence between public opinion toward funding US space exploration and previously theorized rationales to justify space activities and examines how those motivations differ by political party and how they vary from 1973 to 2016. General Social Survey data are used to measure correlations between space spending preferences and other spending categories that proxy proposed rationales, with mixed effects and ordinal logit regressions. Consistent with the scientific discovery rationale, support for funding space correlates with positive attitudes toward science. During the Cold War, a national security frame prevailed: Space and military preferences were correlated, with “hawks” supporting defense and space spending and “doves” opposing both. After the Cold War, Republicans continue to show strong space-military correlation, but for Democrats, space funding support now correlates with environmental protection preferences and not their military spending views. Both parties show slight negative correlations between space and social welfare spending. Overall partisan differences in funding preferences have not greatly increased, but diverging motivations have implications for future space politics.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉

Description: 〈p〉Publication date: Available online 14 September 2019〈/p〉 〈p〉〈b〉Source:〈/b〉 Space Policy〈/p〉 〈p〉Author(s): Loizos Heracleous, Douglas Terrier, Steven Gonzalez〈/p〉 〈div xml:lang="en"〉 〈h5〉Abstract〈/h5〉 〈div〉〈p〉We discuss how the space industry moved from a government dominated field to a commercially driven field. In the context of this industry shift, we explore how NASA's capabilities developed from its early hierarchical model to the intergovernmental and then commercial network models. We refer in particular to NASA's organizational, cultural, relational, and technological capabilities. These developments over time suggest that these are dynamic capabilities that respond to the demands of the external environment and to mission imperatives.〈/p〉〈/div〉 〈/div〉