ALBERT

Description: 3-D reflection seismic imaging of the Hontomín structure in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Spain) Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1575-1614, 2013 Author(s): J. Alcalde, D. Martí, C. Juhlin, A. Malehmir, D. Sopher, E. Saura, I. Marzán, P. Ayarza, A. Calahorrano, A. Pérez-Estaún, and R. Carbonell The Basque-Cantabrian Basin of the Northern Iberia peninsula constitutes a unique example of a major deformation system, featuring a dome structure developed by extensional tectonics followed by compressional reactivation. The occurrence of natural resources in the area and the possibility of establishing a geological storage site for carbon dioxide motivated the acquisition of a 3-D seismic reflection survey in 2010, centered on the Jurassic Hontomín dome. The objectives of this survey were to obtain a geological model of the overall structure and to establish a baseline model for a possible geological CO 2 storage site. The 36 km 2 survey included approximately 5000 mixed (Vibroseis and explosives) source points recorded with a 25 m inline source and receiver spacing. The target reservoir is a saline aquifer, at approximately 1450 m depth, encased and sealed by carbonate formations. Acquisition and processing parameters were influenced by the rough topography and relatively complex geology. A strong near surface velocity inversion is evident in the data, affecting the quality of the data. The resulting 3-D image provides constraints on the key features of the geologic model. The Hontomín structure is interpreted to consist of an approximately 10 7 m 2 large elongated dome with two major W–E and NW–SE striking faults bounding it.

Description: Review of some significant claimed irregularities in Scandinavian postglacial uplift in time scales from tens to thousands of years: earthquakes? Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1615-1640, 2013 Author(s): S. Gregersen The postglacial uplift/subsidence in Scandinavia is regular. And the phenomenon is similar in time scales of tens, hundreds and thousands of years studied via geodesy, seismology and geology. Searches for irregularities in the form of earthquakes claimed in the scientific literature have disclosed many earthquakes right after the Ice Age and some later cases for further evaluation. In a previous report the present author has mentioned doubts about the validity of some of the most significant claimed irregularities. In the present paper a review is made of these significant claimed irregularities in the southwestern flank of the Scandinavian postglacial uplift/subsidence via literature studies of geodetic and geological claims of earthquakes as well as discussions in the field. Geodetic observations exist for all of Scandinavia. Those describe the phenomenon in 10s–100s of years scale. Earthquake observations in seismology are of relevance in the same time scales. Geological studies of dated shore lines describe the postglacial vertical earth-surface motion in a quite different time scale of 100s–1000s of years. There is a need for integration of these observations geographically. This is happening in the various time scales in the DynaQlim project. The review finds the claims improbable about the following: (1) geodynamical motion in the Copenhagen area, (2) a paleo-earthquake in Læsø and (3) the recently proposed water level discrepancy in the southern part of Denmark. The assessment is less certain, but falls to improbable concerning (4) proposed paleo-earthquakes by Hallandsåsen in southwestern Sweden.

Description: 3-D geomechanical modelling of a gas reservoir in the North German Basin: workflow for model building and calibration Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 767-788, 2013 Author(s): K. Fischer and A. Henk The optimal use of conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs depends, amongst others, on the local tectonic stress field. For example, wellbore stability, orientation of hydraulically induced fractures and – especially in fractured reservoirs – permeability anisotropies are controlled by the recent in situ stresses. Faults and lithological changes can lead to stress perturbations and produce local stresses that can significantly deviate from the regional stress field. Geomechanical reservoir models aim for a robust, ideally "pre-drilling" prediction of the local variations in stress magnitude and orientation. This requires a~numerical modelling approach that is capable to incorporate the specific geometry and mechanical properties of the subsurface reservoir. The workflow presented in this paper can be used to build 3-D geomechanical models based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) and ranging from field-scale models to smaller, detailed submodels of individual fault blocks. The approach is successfully applied to an intensively faulted gas reservoir in the North German Basin. The in situ stresses predicted by the geomechanical FE model were calibrated against stress data actually observed, e.g. borehole breakouts and extended leak-off tests. Such a validated model can provide insights into the stress perturbations in the inter-well space and undrilled parts of the reservoir. In addition, the tendency of the existing fault network to slip or dilate in the present-day stress regime can be addressed.

Description: Positive geothermal anomalies in oceanic crust of Cretaceous age offshore Kamchatka Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 453-476, 2011 Author(s): G. Delisle Heat flow measurements were carried out in 2009 offshore Kamchatka during the German-Russian joint-expedition KALMAR. An area with elevated heat flow in oceanic crust of Cretaceous age – detected ~30 years ago in the course of several Russian heat flow surveys – was revisited. One previous interpretation postulated anomalous lithospheric conditions or a connection between a postulated mantle plume at great depth (〉 200 km) as the source for the observed high heat flow. However, the positive heat flow anomaly – as our bathymetric data show – is closely associated with the fragmentation of the western flank of the Meiji Seamount into a horst and graben structure, initiated during descend of the oceanic crust into the subduction zone offshore Kamchatka. This paper offers an alternative interpretation, which connects high heat flow primarily with natural convection of fluids in the fragmented rock mass and, as a potential additional factor, high rates of erosion, for which evidence is available from our collected bathymetric image. Given high erosion rates, warm rock material at depth rises to nearer the sea floor, where it cools and causes temporary elevated heat flow.

Description: Metamorphic history and geodynamic significance of the Early Cretaceous Sabzevar granulites (Sabzevar structural zone, NE Iran) Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 477-526, 2011 Author(s): M. Nasrabady, F. Rossetti, T. Theye, and G. Vignaroli The Iranian ophiolites are part of the vast orogenic suture zones that mark the Alpine-Himalayan convergence zone. Few petrological and geochronological data are available from these ophiolitic domains, hampering a full assessment of the timing and regimes of subduction zone metamorphism and orogenic construction in the region. This paper describes texture, geochemistry and the pressure-temperature path of the Early Cretaceous granulites that occur within the Tertiary Sabzevar suture zone of NE Iran. The geochemical data set document that the granulites are remnants of a MORB-type oceanic crust and thus of a (Early Cretaceous ?) back-arc basin formed in the upper plate of the Neotethyan subduction and thus interpreted as portions of a dismembered dynamothermal sole formed during oceanic subduction. The metamorphic history of the granulites suggests an anticlockwise pressure-temperature loop, compatible with burial in a hot subduction zone followed by cooling during exhumation. This is interpreted as the evidence of a nascent subduction zone formed at the expenses of hot and hence young oceanic lithosphere. These data point to diachronous and independent tectonic evolutions of the different ophiolitic domains of central Iran, for which a growing heterogeneity in the timing of metamorphic equilibration and of pressure-temperature paths can be expected with further investigations.

Description: New zircon data supporting models of short-lived igneous activity at 1.89 Ga in the western Skellefte District, central Fennoscandian Shield Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 355-383, 2011 Author(s): P. Skyttä, T. Hermansson, J. Andersson, and P. Weihed New U-Th-Pb zircon data (SIMS) from three intrusive phases of the Palaeoproterozoic Viterliden intrusion in the western Skellefte District, central Fennoscandian Shield, dates igneous emplacement in a narrow time interval at about 1.89 Ga. A locally occurring quartz-plagioclase porphyritic tonalite, here dated at 1889 ± 3 Ma, is, based on the new age data and field evidence, considered the youngest of the intrusive units. This supports an existing interpretation of its fault-controlled emplacement after intrusion of the dominating hornblende-tonalite units, in this study dated at 1892 ± 3 Ma. The Viterliden magmatism was synchronous with the oldest units of the Jörn type early-orogenic intrusions in the eastern part of the district (1.89–1.88 Ga; cf. Gonzàles Roldán, 2010). A U-Pb zircon age for a felsic metavolcanic rock from the hanging-wall to the Kristineberg VMS deposit, immediately south of the Viterliden intrusion, is in this study constrained in the 1.89–1.88 Ga time interval. It provides a minimum age for the Kristineberg ore deposit and suggests contemporaneous igneous/volcanic activity throughout the Skellefte District. Furthermore, it supports the view that the Skellefte Group defines a laterally continuous belt throughout this "ore district". Tentative correlation of the 1889 ± 3 Ma quartz-plagioclase porphyritic tonalite with the Kristineberg "mine porphyry", which cuts the altered ore-hosting metavolcanic rocks, further constrain the minimum age for ore deposition at 1889 ± 3 Ma. Based on the new age determinations, the Viterliden intrusion may equally well have intruded into, or locally acted as a basement for the ore-hosting Skellefte Group volcanic rocks.

Description: In plain sight: the Chesapeake Bay crater ejecta blanket Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 363-428, 2012 Author(s): D. L. Griscom The discovery nearly two decades ago of a 90 km-diameter impact crater below the lower Chesapeake Bay has gone unnoted by the general public because to date all published literature on the subject has described it as "buried". To the contrary, evidence is presented here that the so-called "upland deposits" that blanket ∼5000 km 2 of the U.S. Middle-Atlantic Coastal Plain (M-ACP) display morphologic, lithologic, and stratigraphic features consistent with their being ejecta from the 35.4 Ma Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure (CBIS) and absolutely inconsistent with the prevailing belief that they are of fluvial origin. Specifically supporting impact origin are the facts that (i) a 95 %-pure iron ore endemic to the upland deposits of southern Maryland, eastern Virginia, and the District of Columbia has previously been proven to be impactoclastic in origin, (ii) this iron ore welds together a small percentage of well-rounded quartzite pebbles and cobbles of the upland deposits into brittle sheets interpretable as "spall plates" created in the interference-zone of the CBIS impact, (iii) the predominantly non-welded upland gravels have long ago been shown to be size sorted with an extreme crater-centric gradient far too large to have been the work of rivers, but well explained as atmospheric size-sorted interference-zone ejecta, (iv) new evidence is provided here that ~60 % of the non-welded quartzite pebbles and cobbles of the (lower lying) gravel member of the upland deposits display planar fractures attributable to interference-zone tensile waves, (v) the (overlying) loam member of the upland deposits is attributable to base-surge-type deposition, (vi) several exotic clasts found in a debris flow topographically below the upland deposits can only be explained as jetting-phase crater ejecta, and (vii) an allogenic granite boulder found among the upland deposits is deduced to have been launched into space and sculpted by hypervelocity air friction during reentry. An idealized calculation of the CBIS ejecta-blanket elevation profile minutes after the impact was carried out founded on well established rules for explosion and impact-generated craters. This profile is shown here to match the volume of the upland deposits ≥170 km from the crater center. Closer to the crater, much of the "postdicted" ejecta blanket has clearly been removed by erosion. Nevertheless the Shirley and fossil-free Bacons Castle Formations, located between the upland deposits and the CBIS interior and veneering the present day surface with units ∼10–20 m deep, are respectively identified as curtain- and excavation-phase ejecta. The neritic-fossil-bearing Calvert Formation external to the crater is deduced to be of Eocene age (as opposed to early Miocene as currently believed), preserved by the armoring effects of the overlying CBIS ejecta composed of the (distal) upland deposits and the (proximal) Bacons Castle Formation. The lithofacies of the in-crater Calvert Formation can only have resulted from inward mass wasting of the postdicted ejecta blanket, vestiges of which (i.e. the Bacons Castle and Shirley Formations) still overlap the crater rim and sag into its interior, consistent with this expectation. Because there appear to be a total of ∼10 000 km 2 of CBIS ejecta lying on the present-day surface, future research should center the stratigraphic, lithologic, and petrologic properties of these ejecta versus both radial distance from the crater center (to identify ejecta from different ejection stages) and circumferentially at fixed radial distances (to detect possible anisotropies relating the impact angle and direction of approach of the impactor). The geological units described here may comprise the best preserved, and certainly the most accessible, ejecta blanket of a major crater on the Earth's surface and therefore promise to be a boon to the field of impact geology. As a corollary, a major revision of the current stratigraphic column of the M-ACP will be necessary.

Description: Effects of fire on ash thickness in a Lithuanian grassland and short-term spatio-temporal changes Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1545-1584, 2012 Author(s): P. Pereira, A. Cerdà, X. Úbeda, J. Mataix-Solera, D. Martin, A. Jordán, and M. Burguet Ash thickness is a key variable in the protection of soil against erosion agents after planned and unplanned fires. Thicker ash provides better protection against raindrop impact and reduces the runoff response by retaining water and promoting water infiltration although little is known about the distribution and the evolution of the ash layer after the fires. Ash thickness measurements were conducted along two transects (flat and sloping areas) following a a grid experimental design. Both transects extended from the burned area into an adjacent unburned area. We analysed ash thickness evolution according to time and fire severity. In order to interpolate data with accuracy and identify the techniques with the least bias, several interpolation methods were tested in the grid plot. Overall, the fire had a low severity. The fire significantly reduced the ground cover, especially on sloping areas owing to the higher fire severity and/or less biomass previous to the fire. Ash thickness depends on fire severity and is thin where fire severity was higher and thicker in lower fire severity sites. The ash thickness decreased with time after the fire. Between 4 and 16 days after the fire, ash was transported by wind. The major reduction took place between 16 and 34 days after the fire as a result of rainfall, and was more efficient where fire severity was higher. Between 34 and 45 days after the fire no significant differences in ash thickness were identified among ash colours and only traces of the ash layer remained. The omni-directional experimental variograms shown that variable structure did not change importantly with the time, however, the most accurate interpolation methods were different highlighting the slight different patterns of ash thickness distribution with the time. The ash spatial variability increased with the time, particularly on the slope, as a result of water erosion.

Description: Quantification of magma ascent rate through rockfall monitoring at the growing/collapsing lava dome of Volcán de Colima, Mexico Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1-39, 2013 Author(s): S. B. Mueller, N. R. Varley, U. Kueppers, P. Lesage, G. Á. Reyes Davila, and D. B. Dingwell The most recent eruptive phase of Volcán de Colima, Mexico, started in 1998 and was characterized by episodic dome growth with a variable effusion rate, interrupted intermittently by explosive eruptions. Between November 2009 and June 2011, growth at the dome was limited to a lobe on the western side where it had previously started overflowing the crater rim, leading to the generation of rockfall events. This meant that no significant increase in dome volume was perceivable and the rate of magma ascent, a crucial parameter for volcano monitoring and hazard assessment, could no longer be quantified via measurements of the dome's dimensions. Here, we present alternative approaches to quantify the magma ascent rate. We estimate the volume of individual rockfalls through the detailed analysis of sets of photographs (before and after individual rockfall events). The relationship between volume and infrared images of the freshly exposed dome surface and the seismic signals related to the rockfall events was then investigated. Larger events exhibited a correlation between the previously estimated volume of a rockfall and the surface temperature of the freshly exposed dome surface as well as the mean temperature of rockfall masses distributed over the slope. We showed that for larger events, the volume of the rockfall correlates with the maximum temperature at the newly formed cliff as well as the seismic energy. By calibrating the seismic signals using the volumes estimated from photographs, the count of rockfalls over a certain period was used to estimate the magma extrusion flux for the period investigated. Over the course of the measurement period, significant changes were observed in number of rockfalls, rockfall volume and hence averaged extrusion rate. The extrusion rate was not constant: it increased from 0.008 m 3 s −1 to 0.02 m 3 s −1 during 2010 and dropped down to 0.008 m 3 s −1 again in March 2011. In June 2011, magma extrusion had come to a halt. The methodology presented represents a reliable tool to constrain the growth rate of domes that are repeatedly affected by partial collapses. There is a good correlation between thermal and seismic energies and rockfall volume. Thus it is possible to calibrate the seismic records associated with the rockfalls (a continuous monitoring tool) to improve both volcano monitoring at volcanoes with active dome growth and hazard management associated with rockfalls specifically.

Description: Kinematics of the South Atlantic rift Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 41-116, 2013 Author(s): C. Heine, J. Zoethout, and R. D. Müller The South Atlantic rift basin evolved as branch of a large Jurassic-Cretaceous intraplate rift zone between the African and South American plates during the final breakup of western Gondwana. While the relative motions between South America and Africa for post-breakup times are well resolved, many issues pertaining to the fit reconstruction and particular the relation between kinematics and lithosphere dynamics during pre-breakup remain unclear in currently published plate models. We have compiled and assimilated data from these intraplated rifts and constructed a revised plate kinematic model for the pre-breakup evolution of the South Atlantic. Based on structural restoration of the conjugate South Atlantic margins and intracontinental rift basins in Africa and South America, we achieve a tight fit reconstruction which eliminates the need for previously inferred large intracontinental shear zones, in particular in Patagonian South America. By quantitatively accounting for crustal deformation in the Central and West African rift zone, we have been able to indirectly construct the kinematic history of the pre-breakup evolution of the conjugate West African-Brazilian margins. Our model suggests a causal link between changes in extension direction and velocity during continental extension and the generation of marginal structures such as the enigmatic Pre-salt sag basin and the São Paulo High. We model an initial E–W directed extension between South America and Africa (fixed in present-day position) at very low extensional velocities until Upper Hauterivian times (≈126 Ma) when rift activity along in the equatorial Atlantic domain started to increase significantly. During this initial ≈17 Myr-long stretching episode the Pre-salt basin width on the conjugate Brazilian and West African margins is generated. An intermediate stage between 126.57 Ma and Base Aptian is characterised by strain localisation, rapid lithospheric weakening in the equatorial Atlantic domain, resulting in both progressively increasing extensional velocities as well as a significant rotation of the extension direction to NE–SW. From Base Aptian onwards diachronous lithospheric breakup occurred along the central South Atlantic rift, first in the Sergipe-Alagoas/Rio Muni margin segment in the northernmost South Atlantic. Final breakup between South America and Africa occurred in the conjugate Santos–Benguela margin segment at around 113 Ma and in the Equatorial Atlantic domain between the Ghanaian Ridge and the Piauí-Ceará margin at 103 Ma. We conclude that such a multi-velocity, multi-directional rift history exerts primary control on the evolution of this conjugate passive margins systems and can explain the first order tectonic structures along the South Atlantic and possibly other passive margins.

Description: Land-use change effects on soil quality in Montilla-Moriles DO, Southern Spain Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 163-187, 2013 Author(s): M. Martín-Carrillo, L. Parras-Alcántara, and B. Lozano-García The agricultural Mediterranean areas are dedicated to arable crops (AC), but in the last few decades, a significant number of AC has a land use change (LUC) to olive grove cultivations (OG) and vineyards (V). A field study was conducted to determine the long-term effects (46 yr) of LUC (AC by OG and V) and to determine soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), C:N ratio and their stratification across the soil entire profile, in Montilla-Moriles denomination of origin (DO), in Calcic-Chromic Luvisols (LVcc/cr), an area under semiarid Mediterranean conditions. The experimental design consisted of studying the LUC on one farm between 1965 and 2011. Originally, only AC was farmed in 1965, but OG and V were farmed up to now (2011). This LUC principally affected the thickness horizon, texture, bulk density, pH, organic matter, organic carbon, total nitrogen and C:N ratio. The LUC had a negative impact in the soil, affecting the SOC and TN stocks. The conversion from AC to V and OG involved the loss of the SOC stock (52.7% and 64.9% to V and OG, respectively) and the loss of the TN stock (42.6% and 38.1% to V and OG, respectively). With respect to the soil quality, the effect was opposite; 46\,yr after LUC improved the soil quality, increasing the stratification ratio (in V and OG) of SOC, TN and C:N ratio.

Description: Application of soil quality indices to assess the status of agricultural soils irrigated with treated wastewaters Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1485-1509, 2012 Author(s): A. Morugán-Coronado, V. Arcenegui, F. García-Orenes, J. Mataix-Solera, and J. Mataix-Beneyto The supply of water is limited in some parts of the Mediterranean region, such as southeastern Spain. The use of treated wastewater for the irrigation of agricultural soils is an alternative to using better-quality water, especially in semi-arid regions. On the other hand, this practice can modify some soil properties, change their relationships, the equilibrium reached and influence soil quality. In this work two soil quality indices were used to evaluate the effects of irrigation with treated wastewater in soils. The indices were developed studying different soil properties in undisturbed soils in SE Spain, and the relationships between soil parameters were established using multiple linear regressions. This study was carried out in three areas of Alicante Province (SE Spain) irrigated with wastewater, including four study sites. The results showed slight changes in some soil properties as a consequence of irrigation with wastewater, the obtained levels not being dangerous for agricultural soils, and in some cases they could be considered as positive from an agronomical point of view. In one of the study sites, and as a consequence of the low quality wastewater used, a relevant increase in soil organic matter content was observed, as well as modifications in most of the soil properties. The application of soil quality indices indicated that all the soils of study sites are in a state of disequilibrium regarding the relationships between properties independent of the type of water used. However, there were no relevant differences in the soil quality indices between soils irrigated with wastewater with respect to their control sites for all except one of the sites, which corresponds to the site where low quality wastewater was used.

Description: Influence of a component of solar irradiance on radon signals at 1 km depth, Gran Sasso, Italy Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1511-1544, 2012 Author(s): G. Steinitz, O. Piatibratova, and N. Charit-Yaari Exploratory monitoring of radon is conducted at one location at the deep underground Gran Sasso National Laboratory (LNGS). Measurements (15-min resolution) are performed over a time span of ca. 600 days in the air of the surrounding calcareous country rock. Utilizing both alpha and gamma-ray detectors systematic and recurring radon signals are recorded. Two primary signal types are determined: (a) non-periodic Multi-Day (MD) signals lasting 2–10 days, and (b) Daily Radon (DR) signals – which are of a periodic nature exhibiting a primary 24-h cycle. The local ancillary environmental conditions ( P , T ) seem not to affect radon in air monitored at the site. Long term patterns of day-time measurements are different from the pattern of night-time measurements indicating a day-night modulation of gamma radiation from radon in air. The phenomenology of the MD and DR signals is similar to situations encountered at other locations where radon is monitored with a high time resolution in geogas at upper crustal levels. In accordance with recent field and experimental results it is suggested that a components of solar irradiance is affecting the radiation from radon in air, and this influence is further modulated by the diurnal rotation of Earth. The occurrence of these radon signals in the 1 km deep low radiation underground geological environment of LNGS provides new information on the time variation of the local radiation environment. The observations and results place the LNGS facility as a high priority location for performing advanced investigations of these geophysical phenomena, due to its location and its infrastructure.

Description: Seismic imaging of sandbox experiments – laboratory hardware setup and first reflection seismic sections Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1317-1344, 2012 Author(s): C. M. Krawczyk, M.-L. Buddensiek, O. Oncken, and N. Kukowski With the study and technical development introduced here, we combine analogue sandbox simulation techniques with seismic physical modelling of sandbox models. For that purpose, we designed and developed a new mini-seismic facility for laboratory use, comprising a seismic tank, a PC-driven control unit, a positioning system, and piezo-electric transducers used here the first time in an array mode. To assess the possibilities and limits of seismic imaging of small-scale structures in sandbox models, different geometry setups were tested in the first experiments that also tested the proper functioning of the device and studied the seismo-elastic properties of the granular media used. Simple two-layer models of different materials and layer thicknesses as well as a more complex model comprising channels and shear zones were tested using different acquisition geometries and signal properties. We suggest using well sorted and well rounded grains with little surface roughness (glass beads). Source receiver-offsets less than 14 cm for imaging structures as small as 2.0–1.5 mm size have proven feasible. This is the best compromise between wide beam and high energy output, and being applicable with a consistent waveform. Resolution of the interfaces of layers of granular materials depends on the interface preparation rather than on the material itself. Flat grading of interfaces and powder coverage yields the clearest interface reflections. Finally, sandbox seismic sections provide images of very good quality showing constant thickness layers as well as predefined channel structures and fault traces from shear zones. Since these can be regarded in sandbox models as zones of decompaction, they behave as reflectors and can be imaged. The multiple-offset surveying introduced here improves the quality with respect to S/N-ratio and source signature even more; the maximum depth penetration in glass bead layers thereby amounts to 5 cm. Thus, the presented mini-seismic device is already able to resolve structures within simple models of saturated porous media, so that multiple-offset seismic imaging of shallow sandbox models, that are structurally evolving, is generally feasible.

Description: The link between great earthquakes and the subduction of oceanic fracture zones Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1229-1280, 2012 Author(s): R. D. Müller and T. C. W. Landgrebe Giant subduction earthquakes are known to occur in areas not previously identified as prone to high seismic risk. This highlights the need to better identify subduction zone segments potentially dominated by relatively long (up to 1000 yr and more) recurrence times of giant earthquakes. We construct a model for the geometry of subduction coupling zones and combine it with global geophysical data sets to demonstrate that the occurrence of great (magnitude ≥ 8) subduction earthquakes is strongly biased towards regions associated with intersections of oceanic fracture zones and subduction zones. We use a computational recommendation technology, a type of information filtering system technique widely used in searching, sorting, classifying, and filtering very large, statistically skewed data sets on the internet, to demonstrate a robust association and rule out a random effect. Fracture zone-subduction zone intersection regions, representing only 25% of the global subduction coupling zone, are linked with 13 of the 15 largest (magnitude ( M w ≥ 8.6) and half of the 50 largest, magnitude ≥ 8.4) earthquakes. In contrast, subducting volcanic ridges and chains are only biased towards smaller earthquakes (magnitude 〈 8). The associations captured by our statistical analysis can be conceptually related to physical differences between subducting fracture zones and volcanic chains/ridges. Fracture zones are characterized by laterally continuous, uplifted ridges that represent normal ocean crust with a high degree of structural integrity, causing strong, persistent coupling in the subduction interface. Smaller volcanic ridges and chains, not have a relatively fragile heterogeneous internal structure and are separated from the underlying ocean crust by a detachment interface, resulting in weak coupling and relatively small earthquakes, explaining the observed dichotomy.

Description: Energy of plate tectonics calculation and projection Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 135-161, 2013 Author(s): N. H. Swedan Mathematics and observations suggest that the energy of the geological activities resulting from plate tectonics is equal to the latent heat of melting, calculated at mantle's pressure, of the new ocean crust created at midocean ridges following sea floor spreading. This energy varies with the temperature of ocean floor, which is correlated with surface temperature. The objective of this manuscript is to calculate the force that drives plate tectonics, estimate the energy released, verify the calculations based on experiments and observations, and project the increase of geological activities with surface temperature rise caused by climate change.

Description: Regional wave propagation using the discontinuous Galerkin method Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1129-1164, 2012 Author(s): S. Wenk, C. Pelties, H. Igel, and M. Käser We present an application of the discontinuous Galerkin (DG) method to regional wave propagation. The method makes use of unstructured tetrahedral meshes, combined with a time integration scheme solving the arbitrary high-order derivative (ADER) Riemann problem. The ADER-DG method is high-order accurate in space and time, beneficial for reliable simulations of high-frequency wavefields over long propagation distances. Due to the ease with which tetrahedral grids can be adapted to complex geometries, undulating topography of the Earth's surface and interior interfaces can be readily implemented in the computational domain. The ADER-DG method is benchmarked for the accurate radiation of elastic waves excited by an explosive and a shear dislocation source. We compare real data measurements with synthetics of the 2009 L'Aquila event (central Italy). We take advantage of the geometrical flexibility of the approach to generate a European model composed of the 3-D EPcrust model, combined with the depth-dependent ak135 velocity model in the upper-mantle. The results confirm the applicability of the ADER-DG method for regional scale earthquake simulations, which provides an alternative to existing methodologies.

Description: Organic carbon stocks in Mediterranean soil types under different land uses (Southern Spain) Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1095-1128, 2012 Author(s): M. Muñoz-Rojas, A. Jordán, L. M. Zavala, D. De la Rosa, S. K. Abd-Elmabod, and M. Anaya-Romero Soil C sequestration through changes in land use and management is one of the sustainable and long-term strategies to mitigate climate change. This research explores and quantifies the role of soil and land use as determinants of the ability of soils to store C along Mediterranean systems. Detailed studies of soil organic C (SOC) dynamics are necessary in order to identify factors determining fluctuations and intensity of changes. In this study, SOC contents from different soil and land use types have been investigated in Andalusia (S Spain). We have used soil information from different databases, as well as land use digital maps, climate databases and digital elevation models. The average SOC content for each soil control section (0–25, 25–50 and 50–75 cm) was determined and SOC stocks were calculated for each combination of soil and land use type, using soil and land cover maps. The total organic C stock in soils of Andalusia is 415 Tg for the upper 75 cm, with average values ranging from 15.9 Mg C ha −1 (Solonchaks under "arable land") to 107.6 Mg C ha −1 (Fluvisols from "wetlands"). Up to 55% of SOC accumulates in the top 25 cm of soil (229.7 Tg). This research constitutes a preliminary assessment for modelling SOC stock under scenarios of land use and climate change.

Description: Dynamics of interplate domain in subduction zones: influence of rheological parameters and subducting plate age Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 943-992, 2012 Author(s): D. Arcay The properties of the subduction interplate domain are likely to affect not only the seismogenic potential of the subduction area but also the overall subduction process, as it influences its viability. Numerical simulations are performed to model the long-term equilibrium state of the subduction interplate when the diving lithosphere interacts with both the overriding plate and the surrounding convective mantle. The thermomechanical model combines a non-Newtonian viscous rheology and a pseudo-brittle rheology. Rock strength here depends on depth, temperature and stress, for both oceanic crust and mantle rocks. I study the evolution through time of, on one hand, the kinematic decoupling depth, z dec and, on the other hand, of the brittle-ductile transition (BDT) depth, z BDT , simulated along the subduction interplate. The results reveal that z BDT mainly depends on the friction coefficient characterising the interplate channel and on the viscosity at the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. The influence of the weak material activation energy is of second order but not negligible. z BDT becomes dependent on the ductile strength increase with depth (activation volume) if the BDT occurs at the interplate deocupling depth. Regarding the interplate decoupling depth, it is basically a function of (1) mantle viscosity at asthenospheric wedge tip, (2) difference in mantle and interplate activation anergy, and (3) activation volume. Specific conditions yielding z BDT = z dec are discussed. I then present how the subducting lithosphere age affects the brittle-ductile transition depth and the kinematic decoupling depth in this model. Simulations show that a rheological model in which the respective activation energies of mantle and interplate material are too close impedes strain localization during incipient subduction of a young (20 Myr old) and soft lithosphere under a thick upper plate. Finally, both the BDT depth and the decoupling depth are a function of the subducting plate age, but are not influenced in the same fashion: cool and old subducting plates deepen the BDT but shallow the interplate decoupling depth. Even if BDT and kinematic decoupling are instrinsically related to different mechanisms of deformation, this work shows that they are able to interact closely.

Description: A critical discussion of the electromagnetic radiation (EMR) method to determine stress orientations within the crust Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 993-1024, 2012 Author(s): M. Krumbholz, M. Bock, S. Burchardt, U. Kelka, and A. Vollbrecht In recent years, the ElectroMagnetic Radiation (EMR) method has been used to detect faults and to determine main horizontal stress directions from variations in intensities and directional properties of electromagnetic emissions, which are assumed to be generated during micro-cracking. Based on a large data set taken from an area of about 250 000 km 2 in Northern Germany, Denmark, and Southern Sweden with repeated measurements at one location during a time span of about 1.5 yr, the method was systematically tested. Reproducible observations of temporary changes in the signal patterns, as well as a strongly concentric spatial pattern of the main directions of the magnetic component of the EMR point to VLF transmitters as the main source and hence raise serious concerns about the applicability of the method to determine recent crustal stresses. We conclude that the EMR method, at its current stage of development, does not allow determination of the main horizontal stress directions.

Description: Insight into collision zone dynamics from topography: numerical modelling results and observations Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 889-917, 2012 Author(s): A. D. Bottrill, J. van Hunen, and M. B. Allen Dynamic models of subduction and continental collision are used to predict dynamic topography changes on the overriding plate. The modelling results show a distinct evolution of topography on the overriding plate, during subduction, continental collision and slab break-off. A prominent topographic feature is a temporary (few Myrs) deepening in the area of the back arc-basin after initial collision. This collisional mantle dynamic basin (CMDB) is caused by slab steepening drawing material away from the base of the overriding plate. Also during this initial collision phase, surface uplift is predicted on the overriding plate between the suture zone and the CMDB, due to the subduction of buoyant continental material and its isostatic compensation. After slab detachment, redistribution of stresses and underplating of the overriding plate causes the uplift to spread further into the overriding plate. This topographic evolution fits the stratigraphy found on the overriding plate of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone in Iran and south east Turkey. The sedimentary record from the overriding plate contains Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene marine carbonates deposited between terrestrial clastic sedimentary rocks, in units such as the Qom Formation and its lateral equivalents. This stratigraphy shows that during the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene the surface of the overriding plate sank below sea level before rising back above sea level, without major compressional deformation recorded in the same area. This uplift and subsidence pattern correlates well with our modelled topography changes.

Description: Three-dimensional thermal structure of subduction zones: effects of obliquity and curvature Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 919-941, 2012 Author(s): A. K. Bengtson and P. E. van Keken Quantifying the precise thermal structure of subduction zones is essential for understanding the nature of metamorphic dehydration reactions, arc volcanism, and intermediate depth seismicity. High resolution two-dimensional (2-D) models have shown that the rheology of the mantle wedge plays a critical role and establishes strong temperature gradients in the slab. The influence of three-dimensional (3-D) subduction zone geometry on thermal structure is however not yet well characterized. A common assumption for 2-D models is that the cross-section is taken normal to the strike of the trench with a corresponding velocity reduction in the case of oblique subduction, rather than taken parallel to velocity. A comparison between a full 3-D Cartesian model with oblique subduction and selected 2-D cross-sections demonstrates that the trench-normal cross-section provides a better reproduction of the slab thermal structure than the velocity-parallel cross-section. An exception is found in the case of strongly curved subduction, such as in the Marianas, where strong 3-D flow in the mantle wedge is generated. In this case it is shown that the full 3-D model should be evaluated for an accurate prediction of the slab thermal structure.

Description: Subduction to the lower mantle – a comparison between geodynamic and tomographic models Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 851-887, 2012 Author(s): B. Steinberger, T. H. Torsvik, and T. W. Becker It is generally believed that subduction of lithospheric slabs is a major contribution to thermal heterogeneity in Earth's entire mantle and provides a main driving force for mantle flow. Mantle structure can, on the one hand, be inferred from plate tectonic models of subduction history and geodynamic models of mantle flow. On the other hand, seismic tomography models provide important information on mantle heterogeneity. Yet, the two kinds of models are only similar on the largest (1000s of km) scales and are quite different in their detailed structure. Here, we provide a quantitative assessment how good a fit can be currently achieved with a simple viscous flow geodynamic model. The discrepancy between geodynamic and tomography models can indicate where further model refinement could possibly yield an improved fit. Our geodynamical model is based on 300 Myr of subduction history inferred from a global plate reconstruction. Density anomalies are inserted into the upper mantle beneath subduction zones, and flow and advection of these anomalies is calculated with a spherical harmonic code for a radial viscosity structure constrained by mineral physics and surface observations. Model viscosities in the upper mantle beneath the lithosphere are ~10 20 Pas, and viscosity increases to ~10 23 Pas in the lower mantle above D". Comparison with tomography models is assessed in terms of correlation, both overall and as a function of depth and spherical harmonic degree. We find that, compared to previous geodynamic and tomography models, correlation is improved significantly, presumably because of improvements in both plate reconstructions and mantle flow computation. However, high correlation is still limited to lowest spherical harmonic degrees. An important ingredient to achieve high correlation – in particular at spherical harmonic degree two – is a basal chemical layer. Subduction shapes this layer into two rather stable hot but chemically dense "piles", corresponding to the Pacific and African Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces. Visual comparison along cross sections indicates that sinking speeds in the geodynamic model are somewhat too fast, and should be 2±0.8 cm yr −1 to achieve a better fit.

Description: Segmentation of the Izu-Bonin and Mariana plates based on the analysis of the Benioff seismicity distribution and regional tomography results Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 823-850, 2012 Author(s): K. Jaxybulatov, I. Koulakov, and N. L. Dobretsov We present a new model of P- and S-velocity anomalies in the mantle down to 1300 km depth beneath the Izu-Bonin and Mariana (IBM) arcs. This model is derived based on tomographic inversion of global travel time data from the revised ISC catalogue. The results of inversion are thoroughly verified using a series of different tests. The obtained model is generally consistent with previous studies of different authors. We also present the distribution of relocated deep events projected to the vertical surface along the IBM arc. Unexpectedly, the seismicity form elongated vertical clusters instead of horizontal zones indicating phase transitions in the slab. We propose that these vertical seismicity zones mark zones of intense deformation and boundaries between semi-autonomous segments of the subducting plate. The P- and S-seismic tomography models consistently display the slab as prominent high-velocity anomalies coinciding with the distribution of deep seismicity. Based on joint consideration of the tomography results and the seismicity distribution we propose a scenario of the subduction evolution in the IBM zone during the recent time. We can distinguish at least four segments which subduct differently. The northernmost segment of the Izu-Bonin arc has the gentlest angle of dipping which is explained by backward displacement of the trench. In the second segment, the trench stayed at the same location, and we observe the accumulation of the slab material in the transition zone and its further descending to the lower mantle. In third segment, the trench is moving forward that causes steepening of the slab. Finally, for the Mariana segment, despite the backward displacement of the arc, the subducting slab is nearly vertical. We propose that it might be due to the high density of the slab which is responsible for turning any inclined subduction to the vertical position. Between the Izu-Bonin and Mariana arcs we clearly observe a gap which is traced down to about 400 km depth.

Description: Triplicated P-wave measurements for waveform tomography of the mantle transition zone Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 783-821, 2012 Author(s): S. C. Stähler, K. Sigloch, and T. Nissen-Meyer Triplicated body waves sample the mantle transition zone more extensively than any other wave type, and interact strongly with the discontinuities at 410 km and 660 km. Since the seismograms bear a strong imprint of these geodynamically interesting features, it is highly desirable to invert them for structure of the transition zone. This has rarely been attemped, due to the mismatch between the complex and bandlimited data and the (ray-theoretical) modeling methods. Here we present a data processing and modeling strategy to harness such broadband seismograms for finite-frequency tomography. We include triplicated P-waves (epicentral distance range between 14 and 30°) across their entire broadband frequency range, for both deep and shallow sources. We show that it is possible to predict the complex sequence of arrivals in these seismograms, but only after a careful effort to estimate source time functions and other source parameters from data, variables that strongly influence the waveforms. Modeled and observed waveforms then yield decent cross-correlation fits, from which we measure finite-frequency traveltime anomalies. We discuss two such data sets, for North America and Europe, and conclude that their signal quality and azimuthal coverage should be adequate for tomographic inversion. In order to compute sensitivity kernels at the pertinent high body-wave frequencies, we use fully numerical forward modelling of the seismic wavefield through a spherically symmetric earth.

Description: Using open sidewalls for modelling self-consistent lithosphere subduction dynamics Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 707-744, 2012 Author(s): M. Chertova, T. Geenen, A. van den Berg, and W. Spakman Subduction modelling in regional model domains, in 2-D or 3-D, is commonly done using closed, vertical boundaries. In this paper we investigate the merits of using open boundaries for 2-D modelling of lithosphere subduction but with implication for 3-D modelling. Open sidewalls allow for lateral in- and outflow consistent with the internal dynamics of the model and may simulate the real-mantle environment of subduction much better than closed boundaries, which induce return flows. Our experiments are focused on using open and closed (free-slip) sidewalls while comparing results for two model aspect ratios of 3:1 and 6:1. Slab buoyancy driven subduction with open boundaries immediately develops into strong rollback with high trench retreat velocities. Mantle asthenosphere flow forced by rollback is predominantly laminar and facilitated by the open boundaries. In contrast, free-slip sidewalls proof restrictive on subduction rollback evolution unless the lithosphere plates are allowed to move away from the sidewalls. This, however, initiates return flows pushing both plates toward the subduction zone speeding up subduction. Increasing the aspect ratio to 6:1 does not change the overall flow pattern when using open sidewalls. Again, in contrast, for free-slip boundaries, the slab evolution does change with respect to the 3:1 aspect ratio and does not resemble the 6:1 evolution obtained with open boundaries. We notice a general drop in the amplitude of mantle flow when changing to the 6:1 aspect ratio, which is caused by the increasing shear friction between mantle and lithosphere while the driving slab buoyancy is the same. Based on energy-dissipation arguments we applied a flow speed scaling to convert between flow fields of different model aspect ratios. This proved succesful for the open boundary model. We have also investigated the effect of far-field stress conditions in our open boundary models. Applying realistic normal stress conditions to the strong part of the overriding plate we show that "intra-plate" stresses control subduction dynamics resulting in slab roll-back, stationary or advancing subduction. We conclude that open boundaries are to be preferred for modelling subduction evolution (rollback, stationary or advancing). The relative independence of model aspect ratio avoids the need to place sidewalls at large distance and allows to focus all computational resources on a smaller modelling domain. Open boundaries simulate the natural subduction environment better and avoid the adverse effects (e.g. forced return flows) of free-slip boundaries.

Description: Up the down escalator: the exhumation of (ultra)-high pressure terranes during on-going subduction Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 745-781, 2012 Author(s): C. J. Warren The exhumation of high and ultra-high pressure rocks is ubiquitous in Phanerozoic orogens created during continental collisions, and is common in many ocean-ocean and ocean-continent subduction zone environments. Three different tectonic environments have previously been reported, which exhume deeply buried material by different mechanisms and at different rates. However it is becoming increasingly clear that no single mechanism dominates in any particular tectonic environment, and the mechanism may change in time and space within the same subduction zone. In order for buoyant continental crust to subduct, it must remain attached to a stronger and denser substrate, but in order to exhume, it must detach (and therefore at least locally weaken) and be initially buoyant. Denser oceanic crust subducts more readily than more buoyant continental crust but exhumation must be assisted by entrainment within more buoyant and weak material such as serpentinite or driven by the exhumation of structurally lower continental crustal material. Weakening mechanisms responsible for the detachment of crust at depth include strain, hydration, melting, grain size reduction and the development of foliation. These may act locally or may act on the bulk of the subducted material. Metamorphic reactions, metastability and the composition of the subducted crust all affect buoyancy and overall strength. Subduction zones change in style both in time and space, and exhumation mechanisms change to reflect the tectonic style and overall force regime within the subduction zone. Exhumation events may be transient and occur only once in a particular subduction zone or orogen, or may be more continuous or occur multiple times.

Description: Influence of a single lightning on the intensity of an air electric field and acoustic emission of near surface rocks Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 627-640, 2012 Author(s): S. E. Smirnov and Y. V. Marapulets The effect of a single lightning discharge on electric field intensity in the near ground atmosphere was investigated. The effect appeared as a sharp fall of electric field potential gradient from 80 V m −1 up to −21 V m −1 . The process of intensity recovery is described by flat capacitor model with characteristic time of recovery of 17 c. Simultaneously with electric field, the acoustic emission response in the near surface rocks on lightning discharge was registered in the frequency range of 6.5–11 kHz.

Description: Nature of orogenesis and volcanism in the Caucasus region based on results of regional tomography Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 641-662, 2012 Author(s): I. Koulakov, I. Zabelina, I. Amanatashvili, and V. Meskhia In the paper we discuss the problem of continental collision and related volcanism in the Caucasus and surrounding areas based on analysis of the upper mantle seismic structure in a recently derived model by Koulakov (2011). This model, which includes P- and S-velocity anomalies down to 1000 km depth, was obtained from tomographic inversion of worldwide travel time data from the catalogue of the International Seismological Center. It can be seen that the Caucasus region is squeezed between two continental plates, Arabian to the south and European to the north, which are displayed in the tomographic model as high-velocity bodies down to about 200–250 km depth. On the contrary, a very bright low-velocity anomaly beneath the collision area implies that the lithosphere in this zone is very thin, which is also supported by strong deformations indicating weak properties of the lithosphere. In the contact between stable continental and collision zones we observe a rather complex alternation of seismic anomalies having the shapes of sinking drops. We propose that the convergence process causes crustal thickening and transformation of the lower crust material into the dense eclogite. When achieving a critical mass, the dense eclogitic drops trigger detachment of the mantle lithosphere and its delamination. The observed high-velocity bodies in the upper mantle may indicate the parts of the descending mantle lithosphere which were detached from the edges of the continental lithosphere plates. Very thin or even absent mantle part of the lithosphere leads to the presence of hot asthenosphere just below the crust. The crustal shortening and eclogitization of the lower crustal layer leads to the dominantly felsic composition of the crust which is favorable for the upward heat transport from the mantle. This, and also the factor of frictional heating, may cause to the origin of volcanic centers in the Caucasus and surrounding collisional areas.

Description: Application of titanium-in-quartz thermobarometry to greenschist facies veins and recrystallized quartzites in the Hsüehshan range, Taiwan Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 663-706, 2012 Author(s): S. Kidder, J.-P. Avouac, and Y.-C. Chan The accuracy, reliability and best practices of Ti-in-quartz thermobarometry ("TitaniQ") in greenschist facies rocks have not been established. To address these issues we measured Ti concentrations in rutile-bearing samples of moderately deformed, partially recrystallized quartzite and vein quartz from Taiwan's Hsüehshan range. The spread of Ti concentrations of recrystallized grains in quartzite correlates with recrystallized grain size. Recrystallized quartz (grain size ~300 μm) that formed during early deformation within the biotite stability field shows a marked increase in intermediate Ti-concentration grains (~1–10 ppm) relative to detrital porphyroclasts (Ti ~0.1–200 ppm). Fine recrystallized quartz (~5% of the samples by area, grain size ~10–20 μm) has a further restricted Ti concentration peaking at 0.8–2 ppm. This trend suggests equilibration of Ti in recrystallized quartz with a matrix phase during deformation and cooling. Vein emplacement and quartzite recrystallization are independently shown to have occurred at 250–350 °C and 300–410 °C respectively, lithostatic pressure ~5 kbar, and hydrostatic fluid pressure. Estimates of the accuracy of TitaniQ at these conditions depend on whether lithostatic or fluid pressure is used in the TitaniQ calibration. Using lithostatic pressure, Ti concentrations predicted by the Thomas et al. (2010) TitaniQ calibration are within error of Ti concentrations measured by SIMS. If fluid pressure is used, predicted temperatures are ~30–40 °C too low. TitaniQ has potential to yield accurate PT information for vein emplacement and dynamic recrystallization of quartz at temperatures as low as ~250 °C, however clarification of the relevant pressure term and further tests in rutile-present rocks are warranted.

Description: Heat-flow and subsurface temperature history at the site of Saraya (eastern Senegal) Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 599-626, 2012 Author(s): F. Lucazeau and F. Rolandone New temperature measurements from eight boreholes in the West African Craton (WAC) reveal superficial perturbations down to 100 meters below the alteration zone. These perturbations are both related to a recent increase of the surface air temperature (SAT) and to the site effects caused by fluids circulations and/or the lower conduction in the alterites. The ground surface temperature (GST) inverted from the boreholes temperatures is stable in the past (1700–1940) and then dramatically increases in the most recent years (1.5 °C since 1950). This is consistent with the increase of the SAT recorded at two nearby meteorological stations (Tambacounda and Kedougou), and more generally in the Sahel with a coeval rainfall decrease. Site effects are superimposed to the climatic effect and interpreted by advective (circulation of fluids) or conductive (lower conductivity of laterite and of high-porosity sand) perturbations. We used a 1-D finite differences thermal model and a Monte-Carlo procedure to find the best estimates of these sites perturbations: all the eight boreholes temperatures logs can be interpreted with the same basal heat-flow and the same surface temperature history, but with some realistic changes of thermal conductivity and/or fluid velocity. The GST trend observed in Senegal can be confirmed by two previous boreholes measurements made in 1983 in other locations of West Africa, the first one in an arid zone of northern Mali and the second one in a subhumid zone in southern Mali. Finally, the background heat-flow is low (30 ± 1 m Wm −2 ), which makes this part of the WAC more similar with the observations in the southern part (33 ± 8 m Wm −2 ) rather than with those in the northern part and in the PanAfrican domains where the surface heat-flow is 15–20 m Wm −2 higher.

Description: Seismicity at the Rwenzori Mountains, East African Rift: earthquake distribution, magnitudes and source mechanisms Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 565-598, 2012 Author(s): M. Lindenfeld, G. Rümpker, A. Batte, and A. Schumann We have analysed the microseismic activity within the Rwenzori Mountains area in the western branch of the East African Rift. Seismogram recordings from a temporary array of up to 27 stations reveal approximately 800 events per month with local magnitudes ranging from –0.5 to 5.1. The earthquake distribution is highly heterogeneous. The majority of located events lie within faults zones to the East and West of the Rwenzoris with the highest seismic activity observed in the northeastern area, where the mountains are in contact with the rift shoulders. The hypocentral depth distribution exhibits a pronounced peak of seismic energy release at 15 km depth. The maximum extent of seismicity ranges from 20 to 32 km and correlates well with Moho depths that were derived from teleseismic receiver functions. We observe two general features: (i) beneath the rift shoulders seismicity extends from the surface down to ca. 30 km depth; (ii) beneath the rift valley seismicity is confined to depths greater than 10 km. From the observations there is no indication for a crustal root beneath the Rwenzori Mountains. The magnitude frequency distribution reveals a b-value of 1.1, which is consistent with the hypothesis that part of the seismicity is caused by magmatic processes within the crust. Fault plane solutions of 304 events were derived from P-polarities and SV/P amplitude ratios. More than 70 % of the source mechanisms exhibit pure or predominantly normal faulting. T-axis trends are highly uniform and oriented WNW-ESE, which is perpendicular to the rift axis and in good agreement with kinematic rift models. At the northernmost part of the region we observe a rotation of the T-axis trends to NEN-SWS, which may be indicative of a local perturbation of the regional stress field.

Description: Floating sandstones off El Hierro (Canary Islands, Spain): the peculiar case of the October 2011 eruption Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 975-999, 2011 Author(s): V. R. Troll, A. Klügel, M.-A. Longpré, S. Burchardt, F. M. Deegan, J. C. Carracedo, S. Wiesmaier, U. Kueppers, B. Dahren, L. S. Blythe, T. Hansteen, C. Freda, D. A. Budd, E. M. Jolis, E. Jonsson, F. Meade, S. Berg, L. Mancini, and M. Polacci The eruption that started off the south coast of El Hierro, Canary Islands, in October 2011 has emitted intriguing eruption products found floating in the sea. These specimens appeared as floating volcanic "bombs" that have in the meantime been termed "restingolites" (after the close-by village of La Restinga) and exhibit cores of white and porous pumice-like material. Currently the nature and origin of these "floating stones" is vigorously debated among researchers, with important implications for the interpretation of the hazard potential of the ongoing eruption. The "restingolites" have been proposed to be either (i) juvenile high-silica magma (e.g. rhyolite), (ii) remelted magmatic material (trachyte), (iii) altered volcanic rock, or (iv) reheated hyaloclastites or zeolite from the submarine slopes of El Hierro. Here, we provide evidence that supports yet a different conclusion. We have collected and analysed the structure and composition of samples and compared the results to previous work on similar rocks found in the archipelago. Based on their high silica content, the lack of igneous trace element signatures, and the presence of remnant quartz crystals, jasper fragments and carbonate relicts, we conclude that "restingolites" are in fact xenoliths from pre-island sedimentary rocks that were picked up and heated by the ascending magma causing them to partially melt and vesiculate. They hence represent messengers from depth that help us to understand the interaction between ascending magma and crustal lithologies in the Canary Islands as well as in similar Atlantic islands that rest on sediment/covered ocean crust (e.g. Cape Verdes, Azores). The occurrence of these "restingolites" does therefore not indicate the presence of an explosive high-silica magma that is involved in the ongoing eruption.

Description: Numerical models of trench migration in continental collision zones Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 429-458, 2012 Author(s): V. Magni, J. van Hunen, F. Funiciello, and C. Faccenna Continental collision is an intrinsic feature of plate tectonics. The closure of an oceanic basin leads to the onset of subduction of buoyant continental material, which slows down and eventually stops the subduction process. We perform a parametric study of the geometrical and rheological influence on subduction dynamics during the subduction of continental lithosphere. In 2-D numerical models of a free subduction system with temperature and stress-dependent rheology, the trench and the overriding plate move self-consistently as a function of the dynamics of the system (i.e. no external forces are imposed). This setup enables to study how continental subduction influences the trench migration. We found that in all models the trench starts to advance once the continent enters the subduction zone and continues to migrate until few million years after the ultimate slab detachment. Our results support the idea that the trench advancing is favoured and, in part provided by, the intrinsic force balance of continental collision. We suggest that the trench advance is first induced by the locking of the subduction zone and the subsequent steepening of the slab, and next by the sinking of the deepest oceanic part of the slab, during stretching and break-off of the slab. The amount of trench advancing ranges from 40 to 220 km and depends on the dip angle of the slab before the onset of collision.

Description: The strength and permeability of tuffisite-bearing andesite in volcanic conduits Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 459-473, 2012 Author(s): S. Kolzenburg, M. J. Heap, Y. Lavallée, J. K. Russell, P. G. Meredith, and D. B. Dingwell Tuffisites result from volcanically-induced subsurface fragmentation, transport and deposition, and are common in explosive volcanic environments. Their study provides direct insight to explosive volcanic processes operating within volcanic conduits. Here we report the influence of tuffisite veins on the fundamental physical properties of andesitic rocks. We find that: (1) strength is unaffected by the presence and/or orientation of tuffisites, (2) permeability doubles when tuffisites are oriented favorable (45 degrees to fluid flow), and (3) seismic wave velocities show a continuous increase with depth, independent of vein orientation. Although the influence of tuffisites on andesitic rock properties is modest, we emphasize that the material tested represents the post-eruptive state of tuffisite. Thus, these results delineate the upper boundary of strength and lower boundary of permeability and porosity. All evidence suggests that tuffisites become compacted and lithified on relatively short time scales, restoring the strength of the rock to their initial host rock values.

Description: Phanerozoic black shales and the Wilson Cycle Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 743-768, 2011 Author(s): J. Trabucho-Alexandre, W. W. Hay, and P. L. de Boer The spatial and temporal distribution of black shales is related to the development of the environments in which they accumulate and to a propitious combination of environmental variables. Whereas much has been done in recent years to improve our understanding of the mechanisms behind the temporal distribution of black shales in the Phanerozoic, the interpretation of the palaeogeographical distribution of black shales is still dominated by an oversimplistic set of three uniformitarian depositional models that do not capture the complexity and dynamics of environments of black shale accumulation. These three models, the restricted circulation, the (open) ocean oxygen minimum and the continental shelf models, are in fact a uniformitarian simplification of the variety of depositional environments that arise and coexist throughout the course of a basin's Wilson Cycle, i.e. the dynamic sequence of events and stages that characterise the evolution of an ocean basin, from the opening continental rift to the closing orogeny. We examine the spatial distribution of black shales in the context of the Wilson Cycle using examples from the Phanerozoic. It is shown that the geographical distribution of black shales, their position in the basin infill sequence and their nature (e.g. type of organic matter, lithology) depend on basin evolution because the latter controls the development of sedimentary environments where black shales may be deposited.

Description: Bio-chemostratigraphy of the Barremian–Aptian shallow-water carbonates of the southern Apennines (Italy): pinpointing the OAE1a in a Tethyan carbonate platform Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 789-838, 2011 Author(s): M. Di Lucia, M. Mutti, and M. Parente Low resolution and lack of chronostratigraphic calibration of carbonate platform biostratigraphy hinder precise correlation with coeval deep-water successions. This is the main obstacle when studying the record of Mesozoic oceanic anoxic events in carbonate platforms. In this paper we use carbon isotope stratigraphy to produce the first chronostratigraphic calibration of the Barremian–Aptian biostratigraphy of the Apenninic carbonate platform of southern Italy. According to our calibration, the "Selli level" black shales of epicontinental and oceanic basins corresponds in the southern Apenninic carbonate platform to the interval between the "Orbitolina level", characterized by the association of Mesorbitolina parva and Mesorbitolina texana , and the second acme of Salpingoporella dinarica . The biocalcification crisis of nannoconids corresponds to the interval going from the first acme of S. dinarica to just above the top of the "Orbitolina level". Since these bioevents have been widely recognized beyond the Apenninic platform, our calibration can be used to pinpoint the interval corresponding to the Early Aptian oceanic anoxic event in other carbonate platforms of central and southern Tethys.

Description: Constraining fault interpretation through tomographic velocity gradients: application to Northern Cascadia Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 839-856, 2011 Author(s): K. Ramachandran Spatial gradients of tomographic velocities are seldom used in interpretation of subsurface fault structures. This study shows that spatial velocity gradients can be used effectively in identifying subsurface discontinuities in the horizontal and vertical directions. Three-dimensional velocity models constructed through tomographic inversion of active source and/or earthquake traveltime data are generally built from an initial 1-D velocity model that varies only with depth. Regularized tomographic inversion algorithms impose constraints on the roughness of the model that help to stabilize the inversion process. Final velocity models obtained from regularized tomographic inversions have smooth three-dimensional structures that are required by the data. Final velocity models are usually analyzed and interpreted either as a perturbation velocity model or as an absolute velocity model. Compared to perturbation velocity model, absolute velocity model has an advantage of providing constraints on lithology. Both velocity models lack the ability to provide sharp constraints on subsurface faults. An interpretational approach utilizing spatial velocity gradients applied to northern Cascadia shows that subsurface faults that are not clearly interpretable from velocity model plots can be identified by sharp contrasts in velocity gradient plots. This interpretation resulted in inferring the locations of Tacoma Fault, Seattle Fault, Southern Whidbey Island Fault, and Darrington Devils Mountain fault much clearly. The Coast Range Boundary Fault, previously hypothesized on the basis of sedimentological and tectonic observations, is inferred clearly from the gradient plots. Many of the fault locations imaged from gradient data correlate with earthquake hypocenters indicating their seismogenic nature.

Description: Erosion rates deduced from Seasonal mass balance along an active braided river in Tianshan Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 541-589, 2011 Author(s): Y. Liu, F. Métivier, J. Gaillardet, B. Ye, P. Meunier, C. Narteau, E. Lajeunesse, T. Han, and L. Malverti We report measurements performed during two complete flow seasons on the Urumqi River, a proglacial mountain stream in the northeastern ank of the Tianshan, an active mountain range in Central Asia. This survey of flow dynamics and sediment transport (dissolved, suspended and bed loads), together with a 25-year record of daily discharge, enables the assessment of secular denudation rates on this high mountain catchment of Central Asia. Our results show that chemical weathering accounts for more than one third of the total denudation rate. Sediment transported as bed load cannot be neglected in the balance given that sand and gravel transport accounts for one third of the solid load of the river. Overall, the mean denudation rates are low, averaging 46 t × km −2 × yr −1 (17–18 m Myr −1 ). We furthermore analyse the hydrologic record to show that the long-term sediment budget is not dominated by extreme and rare events but by the total amount of rainfall or annual runoff. The rates we obtain are in agreement with rates obtained from the mass balance reconstruction of the Plio-Quaternary gravely deposits of the foreland but signicantly lower than the rates recently obtained from cosmogenic dating of river sand. We show that the resolution of this incompatibility has an important consequence for our understanding of the interplay between erosion and tectonics in the semi-humid ranges of Central Asia.

Description: Using spectral analysis to detect singular events such as jerks in the geomagnetic field time series Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 615-654, 2011 Author(s): B. Duka, A. De Santis, M. Mandea, A. Isac, and E. Qamili In this study we have applied two spectral techniques in terms of Fourier and wavelet analysis to geomagnetic field time series and compared the results with those obtained from analogous analyses to synthetic data. Then, an algorithm has been proposed to detect the geomagnetic jerks in time series, mainly being considered by the Eastern component secular variation. Applying such analysis to time series generated from global models has allowed us to depict the most important space-time features of the geomagnetic jerks on global scale, since the beginning of XXth century. Finally, a spherical harmonic analysis of the secular acceleration power spectrum has been computed since 1960 to 2000, bringing new insights in understanding these rapid changes of the geomagnetic field and their origin.

Description: Pore formation during dehydration of polycrystalline gypsum observed and quantified in a time-series synchrotron radiation based X-ray micro-tomography experiment Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 857-900, 2011 Author(s): F. Fusseis, C. Schrank, J. Liu, A. Karrech, S. Llana-Fúnez, X. Xiao, and K. Regenauer-Lieb We conducted an in-situ X-ray micro-computed tomography heating experiment at the Advanced Photon Source (USA) to dehydrate an unconfined 2.3 mm diameter cylinder of Volterra Gypsum. We used a purpose-built X-ray transparent furnace to heat the sample to 388 K for a total of 310 min to acquire a three-dimensional time-series tomography dataset comprising nine time steps. The voxel size of 2.2 μm 3 proved sufficient to pinpoint reaction initiation and the organization of drainage architecture in space and time. We observed that dehydration commences across a narrow front, which propagates from the margins to the centre of the sample in more than four hours. The advance of this front can be fitted with a square-root function, implying that the initiation of the reaction in the sample can be described as a diffusion process. Novel parallelized computer codes allow quantifying the geometry of the porosity and the drainage architecture from the very large tomographic datasets (6.4 × 10 9 voxel each) in unprecedented detail. We determined position, volume, shape and orientation of each resolvable pore and tracked these properties over the duration of the experiment. We found that the pore-size distribution follows a power law. Pores tend to be anisotropic but rarely crack-shaped and have a preferred orientation, likely controlled by a pre-existing fabric in the sample. With on-going dehydration, pores coalesce into a single interconnected pore cluster that is connected to the surface of the sample cylinder and provides an effective drainage pathway. Our observations can be summarized in a model in which gypsum is stabilized by thermal expansion stresses and locally increased pore fluid pressures until the dehydration front approaches to within about 100 μm. Then, the internal stresses are released and dehydration happens efficiently, resulting in new pore space. Pressure release, the production of pores and the advance of the front are coupled in a feedback loop. We discuss our findings in the context of previous studies.

Description: The fate of fluids released from subducting slab in northern Cascadia Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 943-962, 2011 Author(s): K. Ramachandran and R. D. Hyndman Large amounts of water carried down in subduction zones are driven upward into the overlying forearc upper mantle and crust as increasing temperature and pressure dehydrate the subducting crust. Through seismic tomography velocities we show that, (a) the overlying forearc mantle in Northern Cascadia is hydrated to serpentinite, and (b) the low Poisson's ratio at the base of the forearc lower crust that may represent silica deposited from the rising fluids. From the velocities observed in the forearc mantle, the volume of serpentinite estimated is ~30 %. This mechanically weak hydrated forearc region has important consequences in limits to great earthquakes and to collision tectonics. An approximately 10 km thick lower crustal layer of low Poisson's ratio (σ = 0.22) in the forearc is estimated to represent a maximum addition of ~14 % by volume of quartz (σ = 0.09). If this quartz is removed from rising silica-saturated fluids over long times it represents a significant addition of silica to the continental crust and an important contributor to its average composition.

Description: Shallow water carbonate platforms (Late Aptian, Southern Apennines) in the context of supraregional to global changes Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 901-942, 2011 Author(s): A. Raspini A preliminary study based on the comparison of recently published δ 13 C record of the Late Aptian Monte Tobenna and Monte Faito sections (Southern Italy) with reference carbon isotope curves reveals how sea-level fluctuations played a fundamental role in regolating the carbonate sedimentation in the inner lagoonal environments of the Apenninic platform and the occurrence of some peculiar facies during a time of increasing volcano-tectonic activity and trophic levels of the water. During the lowering of the sea level, microbial carbonates were a common product of the shallow marine ecosystem in a general context of deterioration of the inner lagoon environmental conditions. When trophic levels were too high, due to the decisive contribution of a supraregional dictator (e.g. increase of the precipitation rate), and the environmental conditions were unsuitable for the main carbonate producers of the inner lagoonal settings, the Orbitolina ( Mesorbitolina parva and Mesorbitolina texana ) level formed, just before the minimum accommodation space on the platform was reached and fresh/brackish water environments spread. In deposits underlying the orbitolinid-rich facies of the carbonates studied, Salpingoporella dinarica alga is widespread, possibly due to the seawater's chemical composition that could have encouraged the development of its low-Mg calcite skeleton. On the contrary, during periods of sea level rise (and early highstand) no or minor microbial carbonates formed in the shallow lagoonal settings that were not influenced by the paleoenvironmental changes mostly induced by the mid-Cretaceous volcanism, and therefore easily remained in a healthy state.

Description: Geophysical characterisation of two segments of the Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex, Mid-Norway Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 159-186, 2011 Author(s): A. Nasuti, C. Pascal, J. Ebbing, and J. F. Tønnesen The Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex (MTFC) has controlled the tectonic evolution of Mid-Norway and its shelf for the past 400 Myr through repeated reactivations during Paleozoic, Mesozoic and perhaps Cenozoic times, the very last phase of reactivation involving normal to oblique slip faulting. Despite its pronounced signature in the landscape, its deep structure has remained unresolved until now. We focused on two specific segments of the MTFC (i.e. the so-called "Tjellefonna" and "Bæverdalen" faults) and acquired multiple geophysical data sets (i.e. gravity, magnetic, resistivity and shallow refraction profiles). A 100–200 m wide zone of gouge and/or brecciated bedrock dipping steeply to the south is interpreted as being the "Tjellefonna Fault" stricto sensu . The fault appears to be flanked by two additional but minor damage zones. A secondary normal fault also steeply dipping to the south but involving indurated breccias was detected ~1 km farther north. The "Bæverdalen Fault" is interpreted as a ~700 m wide and highly deformed zone involving fault gouge, breccias and lenses of intact bedrock, as such it is probably the most important fault segment in the studied area and accommodated most of the strain during presumably late Jurassic normal faulting. Our geophysical data are indicative of a "Bæverdalen Fault" dipping steeply towards the south, in agreement with the average orientation of the local tectonic grain. Our findings suggest that the influence of Mesozoic normal faulting along the MTFC on landscape development is more complex than previously anticipated.

Description: The role of karst in engineering and environmental geosciences Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 149-158, 2011 Author(s): H. C. Ho Karst is a unique landform developed by soluble rock. It usually relates to groundwater drainage system, and provides important water resources. Current researches indicate that karst is closely related to the earth system and environmental protection, and it can also create potential natural hazard such as sinkhole flooding and land subsidence in urban area. Its relationship with hydrogeology has also been an important factor for studying water pollution, and nutrient cycles on engineering geosciences and agricultural geology.

Description: Measurement of absolute gravity acceleration in Firenze Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 43-64, 2011 Author(s): M. de Angelis, F. Greco, A. Pistorio, N. Poli, M. Prevedelli, G. Saccorotti, F. Sorrentino, and G. M. Tino This paper reports the results from the accurate measurement of the acceleration of gravity g taken at two separate premises in the Polo Scientifico of the University of Firenze (Italy). In these laboratories, two separate experiments aiming at measuring the Newtonian constant and testing the Newtonian law at short distances are in progress. Both experiments require an independent knowledge on the local value of g . The only available datum, pertaining to the italian zero-order gravity network, was taken more than 20 years ago at a distance of more than 60 km from the study site. Gravity measurements were conducted using an FG5 absolute gravimeter, and accompanied by seismic recordings for evaluating the noise condition at the site. The absolute accelerations of gravity at the two laboratories are (980 492 160.6 ± 4.0) μGal and (980 492 048.3 ± 3.0) μGal for the European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS) and Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, respectively. Other than for the two referenced experiments, the data here presented will serve as a benchmark for any future study requiring an accurate knowledge of the absolute value of the acceleration of gravity in the study region.

Description: 3-D thermo-mechanical laboratory modelling of plate-tectonics Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 105-147, 2011 Author(s): D. Boutelier and O. Oncken We present an experimental apparatus for 3-D thermo-mechanical analogue modelling of plate-tectonics processes such as oceanic and continental subductions, arc-continent or continental collisions. The model lithosphere, made of temperature-sensitive elasto-plastic with softening analogue materials, is submitted to a constant temperature gradient producing a strength reduction with depth in each layer. The surface temperature is imposed using infrared emitters, which allows maintaining an unobstructed view of the model surface and the use of a high resolution optical strain monitoring technique (Particle Imaging Velocimetry). Subduction experiments illustrate how the stress conditions on the interplate zone can be estimated using a force sensor attached to the back of the upper plate and changed because of the density and strength of the subducting lithosphere or the lubrication of the plate boundary. The first experimental results reveal the potential of the experimental set-up to investigate the three-dimensional solid-mechanics interactions of lithospheric plates in multiple natural situations.

Description: Re-evaluation of the Mentelle Basin, a polyphase rifted margin basin, offshore south-west Australia: new insights from integrated regional seismic datasets Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 65-103, 2011 Author(s): D. Maloney, C. Sargent, N. G. Direen, R. W. Hobbs, and D. R. Gröcke Vintage 2-D (two dimensional) seismic reflection surveys from the sparsely explored Mentelle Basin (western Australian margin) have been re-processed and integrated with recent high quality seismic survey, and stratigraphic borehole data. Interpretation of these data sets allows the internal geometry of the Mentelle Basin fill and depositional history to be reanalysed with a greater degree of confidence. Basin stratigraphy can be subdivided into several seismically defined megasequences, separated by major unconformities related to both the Valanginian breakup between India-Madagascar and Australia-Antarctica, and tectonically-driven switches in deposition through the Albian. Resting on the Valanginian unconformity are several kilometre-scale mounded structures that formed during late Jurassic to early Cretaceous extension. These have previously been interpreted as volcanic edifices, although direct evidence of volcanic feeder systems is lacking. An alternative interpretation is that these features may be carbonate build-ups. The latter interpretation carries significant climatic ramifications, since carbonate build-ups would have formed at high palaeolatitude, ~60° S. Soon after breakup, initial subsidence resulted in a shallow marine environment and Barremian-Aptian silty-sandy mudstones were deposited. As subsidence continued, thick Albian ferruginous black clays were deposited. Internally, black clay megasequences show previously unresolved unconformities, onlapping and downlapping packages, which reflect a complex depositional, rifting and subsidence history, at odds with their previous interpretation as open marine sediments. Southwestwards migration of the Kerguelen hotspot led to thermal contraction and subsidence to the present day water depth (~3000 m). This was accompanied by Turonian-Santonian deposition of massive chalk beds, which are unconformably overlain by pelagic Palaeocene-Holocene sediments. This substantial unconformity is related to the diachronous breakup and onset of slow spreading between Australia and Antarctica, which may have led to the reactivation and inversion of basement faults, followed by rapid seafloor spreading from the middle Eocene to the present.

Description: Domains of Archean mantle lithosphere deciphered by seismic anisotropy – initial results from the LAPNET array in northern Fennoscandia Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 655-678, 2011 Author(s): J. Plomerová, L. Vecsey, V. Babuška, and LAPNET Working Group An international LAPNET array (2007–2009, http://www.oulu.fi/sgo-oty/lapnet ) of the POLENET/LAPNET sub-project of the POLENET-IPY consortium, related to POLENET seismic and geodetic studies in the Arctic regions, consisted of about 60 broadband seismic stations located on the territory of northern Finland and adjacent parts of Sweden, Norway and Russia. We analyze relative P-wave travel-time deviations evaluated for a subset of 90 teleseismic events recorded by the LAPNET array and show examples of lateral variations of shear-wave splitting to demonstrate variability of fabrics of the Archean mantle lithosphere. The initial results clearly demonstrate the Archean mantle lithosphere consists of domains with consistent fabrics reflecting fossil anisotropic structures. 3-D self-consistent anisotropic models with inclined symmetry axes accommodate two independent sets of body-wave anisotropic observations. Individual domains are delimited by boundaries (sutures), where the anisotropic parameters change. The results obtained from the LAPNET array fill a gap in structural studies of the upper mantle beneath northern Fennoscandia.

Description: Paleointensities on 8 ka obsidian from Mayor Island, New Zealand Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 679-711, 2011 Author(s): A. Ferk, R. Leonhardt, K.-U. Hess, and D. B. Dingwell The 8 ka B.P. (6050 BCE) pantelleritic obsidian flow on Mayor Island, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, has been investigated using 30 samples from two sites. Due to a very high paramagnetic/ferromagnetic ratio it was not possible to determine the remanence carriers. This is despite the fact that the samples were studied intensively at low, room and high temperatures. We infer that a stable remanence within the samples is carried by single- or close to single-domain particles. Experiments to determine the anisotropy of thermoremanence tensor and the dependency on cooling rate were hampered due to alteration resulting from the repeated heating of the samples to temperatures just below the glass transition. Nonetheless, a well-defined mean paleointensity of 57.0 ± 1.0 μT, based on individual high quality paleointensity determinations, was obtained. This field value compares very well to a paleointensity of 58.1 ± 2.9 μT which Tanaka et al. (2009) obtained for 5500 BCE at a site 100 km distant. Agreement with geomagnetic field models, however, is poor. Thus, gathering more high-quality paleointensity data for the Pacific region and for the Southern Hemisphere in general to better constrain global field models is very important.

Description: The 11 May 2011 earthquake at Lorca (SE Spain) viewed in a structural-tectonic context Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 527-540, 2011 Author(s): R. L. M. Vissers and B. M. L. Meijninger The Lorca earthquake of 11 May 2011 in the Betic Cordillera of SE Spain occurred almost exactly on the Alhama de Murcia fault, a marked fault that forms part of a NE-SW trending belt of faults and thrusts. The fault belt is reminiscent of a strike-slip corridor, but recent structural studies have provided clear evidence for reverse motions on these faults. Focal mechanisms of the main earthquake but also of a foreshock are strikingly consistent with structural observations on the Alhama de Murcia fault. This strengthens the conclusion that, rather than a strike-slip fault, the fault is at present a contractional fault with an oblique reverse sense of motion, presumably in response to NW directed motion of Africa with respect to Europe.

Description: Electromagnetic signals of crust creep motion Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 335-354, 2011 Author(s): V. N. Uvarov, G. I. Drushin, and D. V. Sannikov A method of registration and allocation of the nearest located sources of natural electromagnetic radiation is developed. Most likely, these sourses in seismically active regions originate from lithisperes. A short description of this method is given. We have carried out a field experiment in the region with small levels of technical noise and high levels of micro-seismic activity (Kamchatka, r. Karimschyna). A number of fragments of the received data are analysed. A large variety of registered signals are shown. It is shown that the most probable source of these signals has lithospheres origin.

Description: Relative chronology in high-grade crystalline terrain of the Eastern Ghats, India: new insights Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 1-17, 2011 Author(s): S. Bhattacharya, R. Kar, A. K. Saw, and P. Das The two major lithology or gneiss components in the polycyclic granulite terrain of the Eastern Ghats, India, are the supracrustal rocks, commonly described as khondalites, and the charnockite-gneiss. Many of the workers considered the khondalites as the oldest component with unknown basement and the charnockite-protoliths as intrusive into the khondalites. However, geochronological data do not corroborate the aforesaid relations. The field relations of the hornblende- mafic granulite with the two gneiss components together with geocronological data indicate that khondalite sediments were deposited on older mafic crustal rocks. We propose a different scenario: Mafic basement and supracrustal rocks were subsequently deformed and metamorphosed together at high to ultra-high temperatures – partial melting of mafic rocks producing the charnockitic melt; and partial melting of pelitic sediments producing the peraluminous granitoids. This is compatible with all the geochronological data as well as the petrogenetic model of partial melting for the charnockitic rocks in the Eastern Ghats Belt.

Description: A re-evaluation of the Italian historical geomagnetic catalogue: implications for paleomagnetic dating at active Italian volcanoes Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 19-42, 2011 Author(s): F. D'Ajello Caracciolo, A. Pignatelli, F. Speranza, and A. Meloni Paleomagnetism is proving to represent one of the most powerful dating tools of volcanics emplaced in Italy during the last few centuries/millennia. This method requires that valuable proxies of the local geomagnetic field (paleo)secular variation ((P)SV) are available. To this end, we re-evaluate the whole Italian geomagnetic directional data set, consisting of 833 and 696 declination and inclination (respectively) measurements carried out since 1640 AD at several localities. All directions were relocated via virtual geomagnetic pole method to Stromboli (38.8° N, 15.2° E), rough centre of the active Italian volcanoes. For declination-only measurements, missing inclinations were derived (always by pole method) by French data (for period 1670–1789), and by nearby Italian sites/years (for periods 1640–1657 and 1790–1962). Using post-1805 declination values, we obtain a 0.46 ± 0.19 °/yr westward drift of the geomagnetic field for Italy. Original observation years were modified considering such drift value to derive a drift-corrected relocated data set. Both data sets were found to be in substantial agreement with directions derived from the field models by Jackson et al. (2000) and Pavon-Carrasco et al. (2009). However, the drift-corrected data set minimizes the differences between the Italian data and both field models, and eliminates a persistent 1.6° shift of 1933–1962 declination values from Castellaccio with respect to other nearly coeval Italian data. The relocated data sets were used to calculate two post-1640 Italian SV curves, with mean directions calculated every 30 and 10 years before and after 1790, respectively. Curve comparison suggests that the regional model by Pavon-Carrasco et al. (2009) yields the best available SV curve to perform paleomagnetic dating of 1600–1800 AD Italian volcanics, while the Italian drift-corrected curve is probably preferable for the XIX century. For the XX century, the global model by Jackson et al. (2000) yields more accurate inclination values, while the declinations from our drift-corrected curve seem to better represent the local field evolution, at least for the first half of the century.

Description: An open marine record of the Toarcian oceanic anoxic event Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 385-410, 2011 Author(s): D. R. Gröcke, R. S. Hori, J. Trabucho-Alexandre, D. B. Kemp, and L. Schwark Oceanic anoxic events were time intervals in the Mesozoic characterized by widespread distribution of marine organic-rich sediments (black shales) and significant perturbations in the global carbon cycle. The expression of these perturbations is globally recorded in sediments as excursions in the carbon isotope record irrespective of lithology or depositional environment. During the Early Toarcian, black shales were deposited on the epi- and peri-continental shelves of Pangaea and these sedimentary rocks are associated with a pronounced (ca. 7‰) negative (organic) carbon isotope excursion (CIE) which is thought to be the result of a major perturbation in the global carbon cycle. For this reason, the Early Toarcian is thought to represent an oceanic anoxic event (the T-OAE). Associated with this event, there were pronounced perturbations in global weathering rates and seawater temperatures. Although it is commonly asserted that the T-OAE is a global event and that the distribution of black shales is likewise global, an isotopic and/or organic-rich expression of this event has as yet only been recognized on epi- and peri-continental Pangaean localities. To address this issue, the carbon isotope composition of organic matter ( δ 13 C org ) of Early Toarcian cherts from Japan that were deposited in the open Panthalassa Ocean was analysed. The results show the presence of a major (〉6‰) negative excursion in δ 13 C org that, based on radiolarian biostratigraphy, is a correlative of the Early Toarcian negative CIE known from European epicontinental strata. Furthermore, a secondary ca. −2‰ excursion in δ 13 C org is also recognized lower in the studied succession that, within the current biostratigraphical resolution, is likely to represent the excursion that occurs close to the Pliensbachian/Toarcian boundary and which is also recorded in European epicontinental successions. These results from the open ocean realm suggest that, in conjunction with other previously published datasets, these major Early Jurassic carbon cycle perturbations affected all active global reservoirs of the exchangeable carbon cycle (deep marine, shallow marine, atmospheric). An extremely negative δ 13 C org value (−57‰) during the peak of the T-OAE is also reported, which suggests that the inferred open ocean mid-water oxygen minimum layer within which these sediments are thought to have been deposited was highly enriched in methanotrophic bacteria, since these organisms are the only plausible producers of such 12 C-enriched organic matter.

Description: The thermal structure of Israel Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 431-452, 2011 Author(s): E. Shalev, V. Lyakhovsky, Y. Weinstein, and Z. Ben-Avraham Heat flux at the Arabian Shield is a significant component in reconstructing tectonic, seismic, and hydrologic models. In this paper we analyze temperature data from all the available oil and water wells in Israel. We show that the average heat flux in Israel is 40–45 mW m −2 . A supporting evidence for the low heat flux is the relatively deep seismicity, extending almost to the mantle in the region. A Heat flux anomaly that exists in Northern Israel and Jordan could be attributed to groundwater flow or young magmatic activity (~100 000 years) that is common in this area. Xenoliths that yield relatively steep geothermal gradients could be the result of local heating by magmas or by lithospheric necking and shear heating. The higher Heat flux in Southern Israel and Jordan probably reflects the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Eilat and does not reflect the average value of the Arabian Shield.

Description: First experimental evidence for the CO 2 -driven origin of Stromboli's major explosions Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 411-430, 2011 Author(s): A. Aiuppa, M. Burton, P. Allard, T. Caltabiano, G. Giudice, S. Gurrieri, M. Liuzzo, and G. Salerno We report on the first detection of CO 2 flux precursors of the till now unforecastable larger than normal ("major") explosions that intermittently occur at Stromboli volcano (Italy). Automated survey of the crater plume emissions in the period 2006–2010, during which 12 such explosions happened, demonstrate that these events are systematically preceded by a brief phase of increasing CO 2 /SO 2 weight ratio (up to 〉40) and CO 2 flux (〉1300 t/d) with respect to the time-averaged values of 3.7 and ~500 t/d typical for standard Stromboli's activity. These signals are best explained by the accumulation of CO 2 -rich gas at a discontinuity of the plumbing system (decreasing CO 2 emission at the surface), followed by increasing gas leakage prior to the explosion. Our observations thus support the recent model of Allard (2010) for a CO 2 -rich gas trigger of recurrent major explosions at Stromboli, and demonstrate the possibility to forecast these events in advance from geochemical precursors. These observations and conclusions have clear implications for monitoring strategies at other open-vent basaltic volcanoes worldwide.

Description: Optical method for measuring bed topography and flow depth in an experimental flume Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 187-215, 2011 Author(s): A. Limare, M. Tal, M. D. Reitz, E. Lajeunesse, and F. Métivier We describe an optical method known as moiré for acquiring quasi-simultaneous measurements of bed topography and flow depth in laboratory experiments. The moiré method is based on projecting a fringe pattern (grating) on the bed and analyzing the deformation of the pattern caused by the topography with respect to a reference plane. The height of the object is encoded in the phase of the pattern and can be retrieved either through Fourier transform or phase shifting algorithms. The methodology enables image-based non-contact measurements over a continuous surface at very high spatial and temporal resolutions. We use a commercial software package of a moiré method called Light3D to map bed topography and flow depth in an experimental braided channel and demonstrate how the method can be used to characterize a full range of statistics not previously possible.

Description: Exploring the potentials and limitations of the time-reversal imaging of finite seismic sources Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 217-248, 2011 Author(s): S. Kremers, A. Fichtner, G. B. Brietzke, H. Igel, C. Larmat, L. Huang, and M. Käser The characterisation of seismic sources with time-reversed wave fields is developing into a standard technique that has already been successful in numerous applications. While the time-reversal imaging of effective point sources is now well-understood, little work has been done to extend this technique to the study of finite rupture processes. This is despite the pronounced non-uniqueness in classic finite source inversions. The need to better constrain the details of finite rupture processes motivates the series of synthetic and real-data time reversal experiments described in this paper. We address questions concerning the quality of focussing in the source area, the localisation of the fault plane, the estimation of the slip distribution and the source complexity up to which time-reversal imaging can be applied successfully. The frequency band for the synthetic experiments is chosen such that it is comparable to the band usually employed for finite source inversion. Contrary to our expectations, we find that time-reversal imaging is useful only for effective point sources, where it yields good estimates of both the source location and the origin time. In the case of finite sources, however, the time-reversed field does not provide meaningful characterisations of the fault location and the rupture process. This result cannot be improved sufficiently with the help of different imaging fields, realistic modifications of the receiver geometry or weights applied to the time-reversed sources. The reasons for this failure are manifold. They include the incomplete recording of wave field information at the surface, the excitation of large-amplitude surface waves that deteriorate the depth resolution, the absence of a sink that should absorb energy radiated during the later stages of the rupture process, the invisibility of small slip and the neglect of prior information concerning the fault geometry. The condensed conclusion of our study is that the limitations of time-reversal imaging – at least in the frequency band considered here – start where the seismic source stops being effectively point-localised.

Description: Dynamical geochemistry of the mantle Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 249-333, 2011 Author(s): G. F. Davies Despite progress in reconciling refractory trace elements and isotopes with the structure and dynamics of the mantle inferred from geophysical constraints and dynamical modelling, mass balances of key elements and observations of noble gases in the mantle have remained enigmatic. This paper reviews arguments that most issues can be resolved if the full implications of the major-element heterogeneity of the mantle are taken into account. A reconciliation of refractory trace elements and their isotopes with the dynamical mantle, proposed and quantified by Hofmann, White and Christensen, has been strengthened by work over the past decade. The apparent age of lead isotopes and the broad refractory-element differences among and between ocean island basalts (OIBs) and mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs) can now be quantitatively accounted for with some assurance. It has been proposed recently that noble gases reside in a so-called hybrid pyroxenite assemblage that is the result of melt from fusible pods reacting with surrounding refractory peridotite and refreezing. Hybrid pyroxenite that is off-axis may not remelt and erupt at MORs, so its volatile constituents would recirculate within the mantle. Hybrid pyroxenite is likely to be denser than average mantle, and thus some would tend to settle in the D " zone at the base of the mantle, along with some old subducted oceanic crust. Residence times in D " are longer, so the hybrid pyroxenite there would be less degassed. Plumes would sample both the degassed, enriched old oceanic crust and the gassy, less enriched hybrid pyroxenite and deliver them to OIBs. This model can account quantitatively for the main He, Ne and Ar isotopic observations, and for the poor correlation of unradiogenic gases with refractory-element enrichment in OIBs. The difficulty with mass balances can be traced to the common inference that the MORB source is strongly depleted of incompatible elements, which leaves a deficit of key elements and seems to require a hidden reservoir that is enriched and undegassed. However it has recently been argued that conventional estimates of the MORB source composition fail to take full account of mantle heterogeneity, and in particular focus on an ill-defined "depleted" mantle component while neglecting less common enriched components. Recent estimates have also been tied to the composition of peridotites, but these probably do not reflect the full complement of incompatible elements in the heterogeneous mantle. New estimates that account for enriched mantle components are capable of satisfying mass balance requirements, although some additional uncertainties apply to argon. The result is that the MORB source is depleted by only about a factor of 2, relative to the primitive Earth.

Description: Variations of soil profile characteristics due to varying time spans since ice retreat in the inner Nordfjord, western Norway Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 91-118, 2014 Author(s): A. Navas, K. Laute, A. A. Beylich, and L. Gaspar In the Erdalen and Bødalen drainage basins located in the inner Nordfjord in western Norway the soils have been formed after deglaciation. The climate in the uppermost valley areas is sub-arctic oceanic and the lithology consists of Precambrian granitic orthogneisses on which Leptosols and Regosols are the most common soils. The Little Ice Age glacier advance affected parts of the valleys with the maximum glacier extent around AD 1750. In this study five sites on moraine and colluvium materials were selected to examine the main soil properties to assess if soil profile characteristics and pattern of fallout radionuclides (FRNs) and environmental radionuclides (ERNs) are affected by different stages of ice retreat. The Leptosols on the moraines are shallow, poorly developed and vegetated with moss and small birches. The two selected profiles show different radionuclide activities and grain size distribution. The sampled soils on the colluviums outside the LIA glacier limit became ice-free during the Preboral. The Regosols present better-developed profiles, thicker organic horizons and are fully covered by grasses. Activity of 137 Cs and 210 Pb ex concentrate at the topsoil and decrease sharply with depth. The grain size distribution of these soils also reflects the difference in geomorphic processes that have affected the colluvium sites. Significant lower mass activities of FRNs are found in soils on the moraines than on colluviums. Variations of ERNs activities in the valleys are related to characteristics soil mineralogical composition. These results indicate differences in soil development that are consistent with the age of ice retreat. In addition, the pattern distribution of 137 Cs and 210 Pb ex activities differs in the soils related to the LIA glacier limits in the drainage basins.

Description: Observation of a local gravity isosurface by airborne LIDAR of Lake Balaton, Hungary Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 119-144, 2014 Author(s): A. Zlinszky, G. Timár, R. Weber, B. Székely, C. Briese, C. Ressl, and N. Pfeifer Airborne LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a remote sensing method commonly used for mapping surface topography in high resolution. A water surface in hydrostatic equilibrium theoretically represents a gravity isosurface. Here we compare LIDAR-based ellipsoidal water surface height measurements all around the shore of a major lake with a local high resolution geoid model. The ellipsoidal heights of the 87 km 2 we sampled all around the shore of the 597 km 2 lake surface vary by 0.8 m and strong spatial correlation with the geoid undulation was calculated ( R 2 =0.91). After subtraction of the local geoid undulation from the measured ellipsoidal water surface heights, their variation was considerably reduced. This demonstrates that the water surface heights of the lake were truly determined by the local gravity potential. We conclude that the accuracy of airborne LIDAR is sufficient for identifying the spatial variations of gravity potential over large inland water surfaces.

Description: Future Antarctic bed topography and its implications for ice sheet dynamics Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 191-228, 2014 Author(s): S. Adhikari, E. Ivins, E. Larour, H. Seroussi, M. Morlighem, and S. Nowicki The Antarctic bedrock is evolving as the solid Earth responds to the past and ongoing evolution of the ice sheet. A~recently improved ice loading history suggests that the Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS) is generally losing its mass since the last glacial maximum (LGM). In a sustained warming climate, the AIS is predicted to retreat at a greater pace primarily via melting beneath the ice shelves. We employ the glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) capability of the Ice Sheet System Model (ISSM) to combine these past and future ice loadings and provide the new solid Earth computations for the AIS. We find that the past loading is relatively less important than future loading on the evolution of the future bed topography. Our computations predict that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) may uplift by a few meters and a few tens of meters at years 2100 and 2500 AD, respectively, and that the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) is likely to remain unchanged or subside minimally except around the Amery Ice Shelf. The Amundsen Sea Sector in particular is predicted to rise at the greatest rate; one hundred years of ice evolution in this region, for example, predicts that the coastline of Pine Island Bay approaches roughly 45 mm yr −1 in viscoelastic vertical motion. Of particular importance, we systematically demonstrate that the effect of a pervasive and large GIA uplift in the WAIS is associated with the flattening of reverse bed, reduction of local sea depth, and thus the extension of grounding line (GL) towards the continental shelf. Using the 3-D higher-order ice flow capability of ISSM, such a migration of GL is shown to inhibit the ice flow. This negative feedback between the ice sheet and the solid Earth may promote the stability to marine portions of the ice sheet in future.

Description: Practical analytical solutions for benchmarking of 2-D and 3-D geodynamic Stokes problems with variable viscosity Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 2203-2281, 2013 Author(s): I. Yu. Popov, I. S. Lobanov, S. I. Popov, A. I. Popov, and T. V. Gerya Geodynamic modeling often involves challenging computations involving solution of Stokes and continuity equations under condition of highly variable viscosity. Based on new analytical approach we developed generalized analytical solutions for 2-D and 3-D incompressible Stokes flows with both linearly and exponentially variable viscosity. We demonstrated how these generalized solutions can be converted into 2-D and 3-D test problems suitable for benchmarking numerical codes aimed at modeling various mantle convection and lithospheric dynamics problems. Main advantage of this new generalized approach is that large variety of benchmark solutions can be generated including relatively complex cases with open model boundaries, non-vertical gravity and variable gradients of viscosity and density fields, which are not parallel to Cartesian axes. Examples of respective 2-D and 3-D MatLab codes are provided with this paper.

Description: Maskevarri Ráhppát in Finnmark, North Norway – is it an earthquake induced landform complex? Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 321-338, 2014 Author(s): R. Sutinen, I. Aro, P. Närhi, M. Piekkari, and M. Middleton The Sami word ráhppát means rough bouldery/stony terrain with sharp-relief topography in Finnmark, North Norway. Ráhppáts are common features in the region of the Younger Dryas landforms, yet their origin has remained obscure. The timing of the Younger Dryas is concomitant with the maximum neotectonic fault instability in Fennoscandia, hence earthquake activity was one of the contributing factors for the Younger Dryas morphologies. Ráhppát on the Maskevarri fell, classified as a part of Tromsø-Lyngen sub-stage of the Younger Dryas, was studied by means of geomorphology and measurements of electrical-sedimentary anisotropy. Ráhppát was found to be built up of a network of stony ridges and mounds on fell terraces bordered with arch-shaped and sinusoidal ridges. These bordering ridges exhibit sedimentary (azimuthal soil electrical conductivity) anisotropy parallel-to-ridge trends and were interconnected to meltwater gullies suggesting generation through short-lived conduit infills. We did not find electrical-sedimentary evidence to support the concept of englacial thrusting and/or compression, often described for Younger Dryas moraines. Maskevarri Ráhppát is typified by ~ 500 ponds and small lakes on three different terrace elevations descending in an up-ice direction. These escarpments may have generated trough late glacial earthquake(s) contributing to subglacial deformation of Maskevarri Ráhppát.

Description: Modelling complex geological angular data with the Projected Normal distribution and mixtures of von Mises distributions Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 2181-2202, 2013 Author(s): R. M. Lark, D. Clifford, and C. N. Waters Angular data are commonly encountered in the earth sciences and statistical descriptions and inferences about such data are necessary in structural geology. In this paper we compare two statistical distributions appropriate for complex angular data sets: the mixture of von Mises and the projected normal distribution. We show how the number of components in a mixture of von Mises distribution may be chosen, and how one may chose between the projected normal distribution and mixture of von Mises for a particular data set. We illustrate these methods with some structural geological data, showing how the fitted models can complement geological interpretation and permit statistical inference. One of our data sets suggests a special case of the projected normal distribution which we discuss briefly.

Description: Seismic structure of the lithosphere beneath the ocean islands near the mid-oceanic ridges Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1641-1657, 2013 Author(s): C. Haldar, P. Kumar, and M. Ravi Kumar Deciphering the seismic character of the young lithosphere near the mid-oceanic ridges (MOR) is a challenging endeavor. In this study, we determine the seismic structure of the oceanic plate near the MORs, using the P -to- s conversions isolated from good quality data recorded at 5 broadband seismological stations situated on the ocean Islands in their vicinity. Estimates of the crustal and lithospheric thickness values from waveform modeling of the P receiver function stacks reveal that the crustal thickness varies between 6 and 8 km with the corresponding depths to the lithosphere asthenosphere boundary (LAB) varying between 43 and 68 km. However, the depth to the LAB at Macquire Island is intriguing in view of the observation of a thick (~ 87 km) lithosphere beneath a relatively young crust. At three other stations i.e., Ascension Island, Sao Jorge and Easter Island, we find evidence for an additional deeper low velocity layer probably related to the presence of a hotspot.

Description: Seismogenic frictional melting in the magmatic column Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1659-1686, 2013 Author(s): J. E. Kendrick, Y. Lavallée, K.-U. Hess, S. De Angelis, A. Ferk, H. E. Gaunt, D. B. Dingwell, and R. Leonhardt Lava dome eruptions subjected to high extrusion rates commonly evolve from endogenous to exogenous growth and limits to their structural stability hold catastrophic potential as explosive eruption triggers. In the conduit, strain localisation in magma, accompanied by seismogenic failure, marks the onset of brittle magma ascent dynamics. The rock record of exogenous dome structures preserves vestiges of cataclastic processes (Cashman et al., 2008; Kennedy and Russell, 2011) and of thermal anomalies (Kendrick et al., 2012), key to unravelling subsurface processes. Here, a combined structural, thermal and magnetic investigation of a shear band crosscutting a large block erupted in 2010 at Soufrière Hills volcano (SHV) reveals evidence of faulting and frictional melting within the magmatic column. The mineralogy of this pseudotachylyte vein offers confirmation of complete recrystallisation with an isothermal remanent magnetisation signature that typifies local electric currents in faults. The pseudotachylyte presents an impermeable barrier, which is thought to have influenced the degassing pathway. Such melting events may be linked to the step-wise extrusion of magma accompanied by repetitive long-period (LP) drumbeat seismicity at SHV (Neuberg et al., 2006). Frictional melting of SHV andesite in a high velocity rotary shear apparatus highlights the small slip distances ( 〈 15 cm) required to bring 800 °C magma to melting point at upper conduit stress conditions (10 MPa). We conclude that frictional melting is an inevitable consequence of seismogenic, conduit-dwelling magma fracture during dome building eruptions and that it may have an important influence on magma ascent dynamics.

Description: Testing the effects of the numerical implementation of water migration on models of subduction dynamics Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1771-1815, 2013 Author(s): M. E. T. Quinquis and S. J. H. Buiter Subduction of oceanic lithosphere brings water into Earth's upper mantle. Previous numerical studies have shown how slab dehydration and mantle hydration can impact the dynamics of a subduction system by allowing a more vigorous mantle flow and promoting localisation of deformation in lithosphere and mantle. The depths at which dehydration reactions occur in the hydrated portions of the slab are well constrained in these models by thermodynamic calculations. However, the mechanism by which free water migrates in the mantle is incompletely known. Therefore, models use different numerical schemes to model the migration of free water. We aim to show the influence of the numerical scheme of free water migration on the dynamics of the upper mantle and more specifically the mantle wedge. We investigate the following three migration schemes with a finite-element model: (1) element-wise vertical migration of free water, occurring independent of the material flow; (2) an imposed vertical free water velocity; and (3) a Darcy velocity, where the free water velocity is calculated as a function of the pressure gradient between water and the surrounding rocks. In addition, the material flow field also moves the free water in the imposed vertical velocity and Darcy schemes. We first test the influence of the water migration scheme using a simple Stokes flow model that simulates the sinking of a cold hydrated cylinder into a hot dry mantle. We find that the free water migration scheme has only a limited impact on the water distribution after 1 Myr in these models. We next investigate slab dehydration and mantle hydration with a thermomechanical subduction model that includes brittle behaviour and viscous water-dependent creep flow laws. Our models show how the bound water distribution is not greatly influenced by the water migration scheme whereas the free water distribution is. We find that a water-dependent creep flow law results in a broader area of hydration in the mantle wedge which feeds back to the dynamics of the system by the associated weakening. This supports using dynamic time evolution models to investigate the effects of (de)hydration. We also show that hydrated material can be transported down to the base of the upper mantle at 670 km. Although (de)hydration processes influence subduction dynamics, we find that the exact numerical implementation of free water migration is not important. This implies that a simple implementation of water migration would be sufficient for studies that focus on larger-scale features of subduction dynamics.

Description: The location of lithospheric-scale transfer faults and their control on the Cu-Au deposits of New Guinea Solid Earth Discussions, 5, 1687-1720, 2013 Author(s): L. T. White, M. P. Morse, and G. S. Lister The location of major Cu-Au deposits on the island of New Guinea are considered to be controlled by a series of transfer faults that strike N–S to NE–SW, perpendicular to the long axis of the island. The premise is that these faults dilate perpendicular to the regional stress field, forming conduits for metalliferous bearing fluids and gas to deposit. However, the data on which this idea was first proposed was often not presented, or when it was, is of poor quality or low resolution. We therefore present a review of the existing structural interpretations and compare these with several recently published geophysical datasets (gravity, magnetics and seismic tomography) to determine if the Cu-Au controlling transfer faults could be observed. These data were used to produce a new lineament map of New Guinea. A comparison of the lineaments with the location of major Cu-Au deposits indicates there is a link between the arc-normal structures and mineralization. However, it is only those deposits that are less than 4.5 million years old that could be associated with these structures. Gravity and seismic tomography data indicate that some of these structures could penetrate deep levels of the lithosphere, providing some support to the earlier idea that the arc-normal transfer faults act as conduits for the younger mineral deposits of New Guinea. The gravity data can also be used to infer the location of igneous intrusions at depth, which could have brought metal-bearing fluids and gases closer to the Earth's surface. These regions might be of interest for future exploration campaigns, particularly those areas that are crosscut by deep, vertical faults. However, new exploration models are needed to explain the location of the deposits that are older than 5 Ma.

Description: Physicochemical changes in pyrogenic organic matter (biochar) after 15 months field-aging Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 731-760, 2014 Author(s): A. Mukherjee, A. R. Zimmerman, R. Hamdan, and W. T. Cooper Predicting the effects of pyrogenic organic matter (OM) addition (either natural or intentional as in the case of biochar amendment) on soil chemistry and crop yields has been hampered by a lack of understanding of how pyrogenic OM evolves in the environment over time. This work compared the physicochemical characteristics of newly-made and 15 month field-aged biochars and biochar-soil mixtures. After aging, biochars made by pyrolysis of wood and grass at 250, 400 and 650 °C exhibited 5-fold increases in cation exchange capacity (CEC), on average, appearance of anion exchange capacity (AEC) and significant decreases in pH, ash content and nanopore surface area. Cross polarization 13 C-NMR analyses indicated relative increases in O-containing functional groups including substituted aryl, carboxyl and carbonyl C, likely via abiotic and microbial oxidation and losses of O-alkyl groups, likely via leaching. Similar chemical trends were observed for soil-biochar mixtures suggesting the same biochar aging processes occurred in the soil environment. However, there was evidence for a major role of soil OM-microbe-biochar interaction during aging. Field-aging of soil with biochar resulted in large increases in C and N content (up to 124 and 143%, respectively) and exchange capacity (up to 43%) beyond that calculated by the weighted addition of the properties of biochar and soil aged separately. These beneficial interactive effects varied greatly with soil and biochar type. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) images of biochar particles, both aged alone and with soil, showed colonization by microbes and widespread surficial deposits that were likely OM. Thus, sorption of both microbially-produced and soil OM are likely processes that enhanced biochar aging. Among the important implications of these findings are that biochar's full beneficial effects on soil properties only occur over time and proper assignment of C sequestration credits to biochar users will require consideration of soil-biochar interactions.

Description: Mapping soil erosion using magnetic susceptibility. A case study in Ukraine Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 831-848, 2014 Author(s): P. Nazarok, O. Kruglov, O. Menshov, M. Kutsenko, and A. Sukhorada The intrinsic element grouping of the magnetic susceptibility (MS) values is conducted. The relation between MS values and erosion index is shown. The objective of the investigation is study of the information about magnetic susceptibility of soils as a diagnostic criterion to erodibility. The investigations were conducted in the limits of Tcherkascy Tishki territory, Kharkiv district. The soils of the territory are presented by catenary row of chernozems. The study area was used in the field crop rotation. The soil conservation technologies have not been applied. The data analyze confirmed high correlation of the MS, erosive index and humus content. The possibility of MS cartogram using at the soil erodibility map is presented. The magnetic methods can be extensively used at the soil erosion investigations thanks to the speed and low cost.

Description: Plate tectonic raster reconstruction in GPlates Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 793-830, 2014 Author(s): J. Cannon, E. Lau, and R. D. Müller We describe a novel method implemented in the GPlates plate tectonic reconstruction software to interactively reconstruct arbitrarily high-resolution raster data to past geological times using a rotation model. The approach is based on the projection of geo-referenced raster data into a cube map followed by a reverse projection onto rotated tectonic plates on the surface of the globe. This decouples the rendering of a geo-referenced raster from its reconstruction, providing a number of benefits including a simple implementation and the ability to combine rasters with different geo-referencing or inbuilt raster projections. The cube map projection is accelerated by graphics hardware in a wide variety of computer systems manufactured over the last decade. Furthermore, by integrating a multi-resolution tile partitioning into the cube map we can provide on-demand tile streaming, level-of-detail rendering and hierarchical visibility culling enabling researchers to visually explore essentially unlimited resolution geophysical raster data attached to tectonic plates and reconstructed through geological time. This capability forms the basis for interactively building and improving plate reconstructions in an iterative fashion, particularly for tectonically complex regions.

Description: Crustal heat flow measurements in western Anatolia from borehole equilibrium temperatures Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 403-426, 2014 Author(s): K. Erkan Results of a crustal heat flow analysis in western Anatolia based on borehole equilibrium temperatures and rock thermal conductivity data are reported. The dataset comprises 113 borehole sites that were collected in Southern Marmara and Aegean regions of Turkey in 1995–1999. The measurements are from abandoned water wells with depths of 100–150 m. Data were first classed in terms of quality, and the low quality data, including data showing effects of hydrologic disturbances on temperatures, were eliminated. For the remaining 34 sites, one meter resolution temperature-depth curves were carefully analyzed for determination of the background geothermal gradients, and any effects of terrain topography and intra-borehole fluid flow were corrected when necessary. Thermal conductivities were determined either by direct measurements on representative surface outcrop or estimated from the borehole lithologic records. The calculated heat flow values are 85–90 mW m −2 in the northern and central parts of the Menderes horst-graben system. Within the system, the highest heat flow values (〉 100 mW m −2 ) are observed in the northeastern part of Gediz Graben, near Kula active volcanic center. The calculated heat flow values are also in agreement with the results of studies on the maximum depth of seismicity in the region. In the Menderes horst-graben system, surface heat flow is expected to show significant variations as a result of active sedimentation and thermal refraction in grabens, and active erosion on horst detachment zones. High heat flow values (90–100 mW m −2 ) are also observed in the peninsular (western) part of Çanakkale province. The heat flow anomaly here may be an extension of the high heat flow zone previously observed in the northern Aegean Sea. Moderate heat flow values (60–70 mW m −2 ) are observed in eastern part of Çanakkale and central part of Balıkesir provinces.

Description: Using the Nordic Geodetic Observing System for land uplift studies Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 377-401, 2014 Author(s): M. Nordman, M. Poutanen, A. Kairus, and J. Virtanen Geodetic observing systems have been planned and developed during the last decade. An ideal observing system consists of a network of geodetic observing stations with several techniques at the same site, publicly accessible databases, and as a product delivers data time series, combination of techniques or some other results obtained from the datasets. Globally, there is the IAG GGOS (Global Geodetic Observing System), and there are ongoing attempts to create also regional observing systems. In this paper we introduce one regional system, NGOS (Nordic Geodetic Observing System) hosted by the Nordic Geodetic Commission (NKG). Data availability and accessibility are one of the major issues today. We discuss on general data-related topics, and introduce a pilot database project of NGOS. As a demonstration of the use of such database, we apply it for postglacial rebound studies in the Fennoscandian area. We compare land uplift values from three techniques, GNSS, tide gauges and absolute gravimeter, with the Nordic NKG2005LU land uplift model. The purpose is to evaluate the data obtained from different techniques and different sources and get the most reliable values for the uplift using publicly available data. It is also important to consider the relation between geodetic observing systems and specific projects like DynaQlim (Upper Mantle Dynamics and Quaternary Climate in Cratonic Areas) or EPOS (European Plate Observing System). The natural aim of observing systems will be to produce data and other products needed by such multidisciplinary projects, but their needs may currently exceed the scope of an observing system. We discuss what requirements the projects pose to observing systems and their development.

Description: Models of postseismic deformation after megaearthquakes: the role of various rheological and geometrical parameters of the subduction zone Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 427-466, 2014 Author(s): O. Trubienko, J.-D. Garaud, and L. Fleitout The postseismic deformations following subduction megaearthquakes are characterized by a horizontal velocity which, once non-dimensionalized by the coseismic displacement, increases with distance to the trench then presents an almost constant value for distances between 500 and 1500 km. The vertical velocity features a strong narrow peak on the trenchward side of the volcanic arc. Subsidence is observed in the far-field. In order to understand better the implications of these observations, the influence of the geometry of low viscosity regions in subduction zones on the postseismic deformations is analyzed using a 2-D finite element model with viscoelastic rheologies. The slab dip in the top 80 km Θ top , and deeper Θ bottom and the locking depth all have a limited impact on the ratio of horizontal postseismic velocity over coseismic displacement. The smaller Θ bottom , the smaller the amplitude of the predicted vertical velocity in the middle-field (200–500 km from the trench). The presence of the slab at asthenospheric depths affects very significantly both the horizontal and vertical velocities. Models with an 80 km thick lithosphere, where the relaxation occurs only in the asthenosphere, are characterized by a trenchward horizontal velocity decreasing very moderately in the middle-field and an uplift maximum on the continental side of the volcanic arc, at odds with the observations. A low viscosity channel (LVCh) over the deep parts of the subduction interface or a low viscosity wedge (LVW) have a considerable impact on the middle-field horizontal and vertical velocities: the trenchward horizontal velocities are very significantly increased while the vertical velocities are characterized by strong uplift over the deep parts of the subduction interface. In the case of a low viscosity wedge, a marked subsidence further away from the trench, on the continent side of the volcanic arc is predicted. While the low-viscosity wedge affects little the far-field horizontal velocities, the LVCh increases them significantly. The thicknesses of the lithosphere and the asthenosphere also have a strong impact on both the middle-field and the far-field velocities. The larger they are, the further from the trench are the maxima of the ratio of the postseismic over coseismic horizontal displacement and of the far-field subsidence. 3-D modeling with a geometry as precise as possible of the various zones with postseismic creep associated with each megaearthquake is necessary to derive more precise conclusions. However, the 2-D modeling results obtained here, compared with postseismic data, point towards lithospheres and asthenospheres surprisingly similar in various areas of the world, with thicknesses around 70 and 200 km respectively and towards the presence of a LVW and/or a LVCh. The systematic description of the role of each parameter presented here will facilitate the choice of the parameters to vary in 3-D models.

Description: Permafrost-Affected Soils of the Russian Arctic and their Carbon Pools Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 619-655, 2014 Author(s): S. Zubrzycki, L. Kutzbach, and E.-M. Pfeiffer Permafrost-affected soils have accumulated enormous pools of organic matter during the Quaternary Period. The area occupied by these soils amounts to more than 8.6 million km 2 , which is about 27% of all land areas north of 50° N. Therefore, permafrost-affected soils are considered to be one of the most important cryosphere elements within the climate system. Due to the cryopedogenic processes that form these particular soils and the overlying vegetation that is adapted to the arctic climate, organic matter has accumulated to the present extent of up to 1024 Pg (1 Pg = 10 15 g = 1 Gt) of soil organic carbon stored within the uppermost three meters of ground. Considering the observed progressive climate change and the projected polar amplification, permafrost-affected soils will undergo fundamental property changes. Higher turnover and mineralization rates of the organic matter are consequences of these changes, which are expected to result in an increased release of climate-relevant trace gases into the atmosphere. As a result, permafrost regions with their distinctive soils are likely to trigger an important tipping point within the global climate system, with additional political and social implications. The controversy of whether permafrost regions continue accumulating carbon or already function as a carbon source remains open until today. An increased focus on this subject matter, especially in underrepresented Siberian regions, could contribute to a more robust estimation of the soil organic carbon pool of permafrost regions and at the same time improve the understanding of the carbon sink and source functions of permafrost-affected soils.

Description: Methodological interference of biochar in the determination of extracellular enzyme activities in composting samples Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 919-935, 2014 Author(s): K. Jindo, K. Matsumoto, C. García Izquierdo, T. Sonoki, and M. A. Sanchez-Monedero Biochar application has received increasing attention as a means to trap recalcitrant carbon and enhance soil fertility. Hydrolytic enzymatic assays, such as β-glucosidase and phosphatase activities, are used for the assessment of soil quality and composting process, which are based on use of p -nitrophenol (PNP) derivatives as substrate. However, sorption capacity of biochar can interfere colorimetric determination of the hydrolysed PNP, either by the sorption of the substrate or the reaction-product of hydrolysis into biochar surface. The aim of the present work is to study the biochar sorption capacity for PNP in biochar-blended composting mixtures in order to assess its impact on the estimation of the colorimetric-based enzymatic assays. A retention test was conducted by adding a solution of known amounts of PNP in universal buffer solution (pH = 5, 6.5 and 11, corresponding to the β-glucosidase, acid and alkaline phosphatase activity assays, respectively), in samples taken at the initial stage and after maturation stage from 4 different composting piles (two manure composting piles (PM: poultry manure, CM: cow manure) and two other similar piles containing 10% of additional biochar (PM + B, CM + B)). The results show that biochar blended composts (PM + B, CM + B) generally exhibited low enzymatic activities, compared to manure compost without biochar (PM, CM). In terms of the difference between the initial and maturation stage of composting process, the PNP retention in biochar was shown more clearly at maturation stage, caused by an enlarged proportion of biochar inside compost mixture after the selective degradation of easily decomposable organic matter. The retention of PNP was more pronounced at low pH (5 and 6.5) than at high pH (11), 3 reflecting on pH dependency of sorption 49 capacity of biochar and/or PNP 50 solubility.

Description: Did Adria rotate relative to Africa? Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 937-983, 2014 Author(s): D. J. J. van Hinsbergen, M. Mensink, C. G. Langereis, M. Maffione, L. Spalluto, M. Tropeano, and L. Sabato The first and foremost boundary condition for kinematic reconstructions of the Mediterranean region is the relative motion between Africa and Eurasia, constrained through reconstructions of the Atlantic Ocean. The Adria continental block is in a downgoing plate position relative to the strongly curved Central Mediterranean subduction-related orogens, and forms the foreland of the Apennines, Alps, Dinarides, and Albanides-Hellenides. It is connected to the African plate through the Ionian Basin, likely with lower Mesozoic oceanic lithosphere. If the relative motion of Adria vs. Africa is known, its position relative to Eurasia can be constrained through the plate circuit, and hard boundary conditions for the reconstruction of the complex kinematic history of the Mediterranean are obtained. Kinematic reconstructions for the Neogene motion of Adria vs. Africa interpreted from the Alps, and from Ionian Basin and its surroundings, however, lead to scenarios involving vertical axis rotation predictions ranging from ∼0 to 20° counterclockwise. Here, we provide six new paleomagnetic poles from Adria, derived from the Lower Cretaceous to Upper Miocene carbonatic units of the Apulian peninsula (southern Italy). These, in combination with published poles from the Po Plain (Italy), the Istria peninsula (Croatia), and the Gargano promontory (Italy), document a post-Eocene 9.5 ± 8.7° counterclockwise vertical axis rotation of Adria. This result provides no support for models invoking significant Africa–Adria rotation differences between the Early Cretaceous and Eocene. The Alpine and Ionian Basin end-member kinematic models are both permitted within the documented rotation range, yet are mutually exclusive. This apparent enigma can be solved only if one or more of the following conditions (requiring future research) are satisfied: (i) Neogene shortening in the western Alps has been significantly underestimated (by as much as 150 km); (ii) Neogene extension in the Ionian Basin has been significantly underestimated (by as much as 420 km); and/or (iii) a major sinistral strike-slip zone has decoupled North and South Adria in Neogene time. Here we present five alternative reconstructions of Adria at 20 Ma that highlight the enigma: they fit the inferred rotation pattern from this study or previously proposed kinematic reconstructions from the surrounding.

Description: Bromine monoxide/sulphur dioxide ratios in relation to volcanological observations at Mt. Etna 2006–2009 Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 475-505, 2012 Author(s): N. Bobrowski and G. Giuffrida Over a three year period, from 2006 to 2009, frequent scattered sun light DOAS measurements were conducted at Mt. Etna in a distance of around six kilometres downwind from the summit craters. During the same period and in addition to these measurements, volcanic observations were made by regularly visiting various parts of Mt. Etna. Results from these measurements and observations are presented and their relation is discussed. The focus of the investigation is the bromine monoxide/sulphur dioxide (BrO/SO 2 ) ratio, and its variability in relation to volcanic processes. That the halogen/sulphur ratio can serve as a precursor or indicator for the onset of eruptive activity was already proposed by earlier works (e.g. Noguchi and Kamiya, 1963; Menyailov, 1975; Pennisi and Cloarec, 1998; Aiuppa, 2002). However, there is still a limited understanding today because of the complexity with which halogens are released, depending on magma composition and degassing conditions. Our understanding of these processes is far from complete, for example of the rate and mechanism of bubble nucleation, growth and ascent in silicate melts (Carroll and Holloway, 1994), the halogen vapour-melt partitioning and the volatile diffusivity in the melt (Aiuppa et al., 2009). With this study we aim to add one more piece to the puzzle of what halogen/sulphur ratios might tell about volcanic activities. Our data set shows an increase of the BrO/SO 2 ratio several weeks prior to an eruption, followed by a decline before and during the initial phase of eruptive activities. Towards the end of activity or short afterwards, the ratio increases to baseline values again and remains more or less constant during quiet phases. To explain the observed evolution of the BrO/SO 2 ratio, a first empirical model is proposed. This model suggests that bromine, unlike chlorine and fluorine, is less soluble in the magmatic melt than sulphur. By using the DOAS method to determine SO 2 , we actually observe most of the emitted sulphur of Mt. Etna. Regarding bromine however, we are aware that by determining only the bromine monoxide (BrO) radical we might just observe a small or even a variable fraction of the total emitted bromine. Therefore we present first studies to justify the assumption that despite the disadvantage just mentioned, the BrO/SO 2 ratio can nevertheless serve as a new parameter to indicate the state of a volcano, when measurements are conducted under certain, but rather convenient conditions.

Description: Dynamic magma mixing revealed by the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 591-613, 2011 Author(s): O. Sigmarsson, I. Vlastelic, R. Andreasen, I. Bindeman, J.-L. Devidal, S. Moune, J. K. Keiding, G. Larsen, A. Höskuldsson, and Th. Thordarson Injection of basaltic magmas into silicic crustal holding chambers and subsequent mixing of the two components is a process that has been recognised since the late seventies to have resulted in explosive eruptions. Detailed reconstruction and assessment of the mixing process caused by such intrusion is now possible because of the exceptional time-sequence sample suite available from the tephra fallout of the 2010 summit eruption at Eyjafjallajökull volcano in South Iceland. From 14 to 19 April the tephra contains three glass types of basaltic, intermediate, and silicic compositions recording rapid magma mingling without homogenisation, involving evolved FeTi-basalt and dacite with composition identical to that produced by the 1821–1823 AD Eyjafjallajökull summit eruption. The time-dependent change in the magma composition suggests a binary mixing process with changing end-member compositions and proportions, or dynamic magma mixing. Beginning of May, a new injection of deep-derived basalt was recorded by deep seismicity, appearance of magnesium-rich olivine phenocrysts together with high sulphur output and presence of sulphide crystals. Thus the composition of the basaltic injection became more primitive and hotter with time prowoking changes in the silicic mixing end-member from pre-existing melt to the solid carapace of the magma chamber. Decreasing proportions of the mafic end-member with time in the erupted mixed-magma, demonstrate that injections of Mg-rich basalt was the motor of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull explosive eruption, and that its decreasing inflow terminated the eruption. Significant quantity of silicic magma is thus still present in the interior of the volcano. Our results show that detailed sampling during the entire eruption was essential for deciphering the complex magmatic processes at play, namely the dynamic magma mixing. Finally, the rapid compositional changes in the eruptive products suggest that magma mingling occurs on a timescale of few hours to days whereas the interval between the first detected magma injection and eruption was several months.

Description: The regulation of the air: a hypothesis Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 769-788, 2011 Author(s): E. G. Nisbet, C. M. R. Fowler, and R. E. R. Nisbet We propose the hypothesis that natural selection, acting on the specificity of rubisco (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) for carbon dioxide over oxygen, has controlled the CO 2 :O 2 ratio of the atmosphere since the evolution of photosynthesis and has also sustained the Earth's greenhouse-set surface temperature. Rubisco works in partnership with the nitrogen-fixing enzyme nitrogenase to control atmospheric pressure. Together, these two enzymes control global surface temperature and indirectly the pH and oxygenation of the ocean. Thus, the co-evolution of these two enzymes may have produced clement conditions on the Earth's surface, allowing life to be sustained.

Description: Effect of glacial-interglacial sea-level changes on the displacement and stress field in the forearc and along the plate interface of subduction zones Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 1001-1019, 2011 Author(s): T. Li and A. Hampel Combined seismological, space-geodetic and numerical studies have shown that the seismicity at subduction zones may be modulated by tides and glacier fluctuations on timescales of 1–100 a, because these changes in loads on Earth's surface are able to alter the stress field in the upper plate and along the plate interface. Here we use a two-dimensional finite-element model of a subduction zone to investigate how glacial-interglacial sea-level changes affect the forearc region and the plate interface. The model results show that a sea-level fall by 125 m over 100 ka causes up to 0.7 m of vertical displacement, with the maximum uplift occurring between the trench and the coast. The uplift signal induced by the sea-level fall decreases to zero ~20 km landward of the coastline. A subsequent sea-level rise by 125 m over 20 ka causes subsidence, which is again most pronounced in the submarine part of the forearc. The sea-level changes cause horizontal displacements of up to 0.12 m, which are directed seaward during sea-level fall and landward during sea-level rise. With respect to the stress field, the sea-level changes lead to variations in the vertical stress and the shear stress of up to 1.23 MPa and 0.4 MPa, respectively. The shear stress variations are highest beneath the coast, i.e. in the area where the sea-level changes cause the strongest flexure. The resulting Coulomb stress changes on the plate interface are of the order of 0.2–0.5 MPa and indicate that earthquakes are promoted during sea-level fall and delayed during sea-level rise. Our findings imply that eustatic sea-level changes during glacial-interglacial periods may have induced displacements and stress changes that were large enough to affect the seismic cycle of subduction thrusts.

Description: Tomography of the 2011 Iwaki earthquake (M 7.0) and Fukushima nuclear power plant area Solid Earth Discussions, 3, 1021-1036, 2011 Author(s): P. Tong, D. Zhao, and D. Yang High resolution tomographic images of the crust and upper mantle in and around the area of the 2011 Iwaki earthquake (M 7.0) and the Fukushima nuclear power plant are determined by inverting a large number of high-quality arrival times with both the finite-frequency and ray tomography methods. The Iwaki earthquake and its aftershocks mainly occurred in a boundary zone with strong variations in seismic velocity and Poisson's ratio. Prominent low-velocity and high Poisson's ratio zones are revealed under the Iwaki source area and the Fukushima nuclear power plant, which may reflect fluids released from the dehydration of the subducting Pacific slab under Northeast Japan. The 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake (Mw 9.0) caused static stress transfer in the overriding Okhotsk plate, resulting in the seismicity in the Iwaki source area that significantly increased immediately following the Tohoku-oki mainshock. Our results suggest that the Iwaki earthquake was triggered by the ascending fluids from the Pacific slab dehydration and the stress variation induced by the Tohoku-oki mainshock. The similar structures under the Iwaki source area and the Fukushima nuclear power plant suggest that the security of the nuclear power plant site should be strengthened to withstand potential large earthquakes in the future.

Description: Earth's rotation variations and earthquakes 2010–2011 Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 33-130, 2012 Author(s): L. Ostřihanský In contrast to unsuccessful searching (lasting over 150 years) for correlation of earthquakes with biweekly tides, the author found correlation of earthquakes with sidereal 13.66 days Earth's rotation variations expressed as length of a day (LOD) measured daily by International Earth's Rotation Service. After short mention about earthquakes M 8.8 Denali Fault Alaska 3 November 2002 triggered on LOD maximum and M 9.1 Great Sumatra earthquake 26 December 2004 triggered on LOD minimum and the full Moon, the main object of this paper are earthquakes of period 2010–June 2011: M 7.0 Haiti (12 January 2010 on LOD minimum, M 8.8 Maule Chile 12 February 2010 on LOD maximum, map constructed on the Indian plate revealing 6 earthquakes from 7 on LOD minimum in Sumatra and Andaman Sea region, M 7.1 New Zealand Christchurch 9 September 2010 on LOD minimum and M 6.3 Christchurch 21 February 2011 on LOD maximum, and M 9.1 Japan near coast of Honshu 11 March 2011 on LOD minimum. It was found that LOD minimums coincide with full or new Moon only twice in a year in solstices. To prove that determined coincidences of earthquakes and LOD extremes stated above are not accidental events, histograms were constructed of earthquake occurrences and their position on LOD graph deeply in the past, in some cases from the time the IERS (International Earth's Rotation Service) started to measure the Earth's rotation variations in 1962. Evaluations of histograms and the Schuster's test have proven that majority of earthquakes are triggered in both Earth's rotation deceleration and acceleration. Because during these coincidences evident movements of lithosphere occur, among others measured by GPS, it is concluded that Earth's rotation variations effectively contribute to the lithospheric plates movement. Retrospective overview of past earthquakes revealed that the Great Sumatra earthquake 26 December 2004 had its equivalent in the shape of LOD graph, full Moon position, and character of aftershocks 19 years earlier in difference only one day to 27 December 1985 earthquake, proving that not only sidereal 13.66 days variations but also that the 19 years Metons cycle is the period of the earthquakes occurrence. Histograms show the regular change of earthquake positions on branches of LOD graph and also the shape of histogram and number of earthquakes on LOD branches from the mid-ocean ridge can show which side of the ridge moves quicker.

Description: The lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary observed with USArray receiver functions Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 1-31, 2012 Author(s): P. Kumar, X. Yuan, R. Kind, and J. Mechie The dense deployment of seismic stations so far in the western half of the United States within the USArray project provides the opportunity to study in greater detail the structure of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system. We use the S receiver function technique for this purpose which has higher resolution than surface wave tomography, is sensitive to seismic discontinuities and has no problems with multiples like P receiver functions. Only two major discontinuities are observed in the entire area down to about 300 km depth. These are the crust-mantle boundary (Moho) and a negative boundary which we correlate with the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) since a low velocity zone is the classical definition of the seismic observation of the asthenosphere by Gutenberg (1926). Our S receiver function LAB is at a depth of 70–80 km in large parts of westernmost North America. East of the Rocky Mountains its depth is generally between 90 and 110 km. Regions with LAB depths down to about 140 km occur in a stretch from northern Texas over the Colorado Plateau to the Columbia Basalts. These observations agree well with tomography results in the westernmost USA and at the east coast. However, in the central cratonic part of the USA the tomography LAB is near 200 km depth. At this depth no discontinuity is seen in the S receiver functions. The negative signal near 100 km depth in the central part of the USA is interpreted by Yuan and Romanowicz (2010) or Lekic and Romanowicz (2011) as a recently discovered mid lithospheric discontinuity (MLD). A solution for the discrepancy between receiver function imaging and surface wave tomography is not yet obvious and requires more high resolution studies at other cratons before a general solution may be found. Our results agree well with petrophysical models of increased water content in the asthenosphere, which predict a sharp and shallow LAB also in continents (Mierdel et al., 2007).

Description: Geomagnetic jerks characterization via spectral analysis Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 131-172, 2012 Author(s): B. Duka, A. De Santis, M. Mandea, A. Isac, and E. Qamili In this study we have applied spectral techniques to analyze geomagnetic field time-series provided by observatories, and compared the results with those obtained from analogous analyses of synthetic data estimated from models. Then, an algorithm is here proposed to detect the geomagnetic jerks in time-series, mainly occurring in the Eastern component of the geomagnetic field. Applying such analysis to time-series generated from global models has allowed us to depict the most important space-time features of the geomagnetic jerks all over the globe, since the beginning of XXth century. Finally, the spherical harmonic power spectra of the third derivative of the main geomagnetic field has been computed from 1960 to 2002.5, bringing new insights to understanding the spatial evolution of these rapid changes of the geomagnetic field.

Description: New developments in the analysis of volcanic pyroclastic density currents through numerical simulations of multiphase flows Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 173-202, 2012 Author(s): S. Lepore and C. Scarpati A granular multiphase model has been used to evaluate the action of differently sized particles on the dynamics of fountains and associated pyroclastic density currents. The model takes into account the overall disequilibrium conditions between a gas phase and several solid phases, each characterized by its own physical properties. The dynamics of the granular flows has been simulated by adopting a Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes model for describing the turbulence effects. Numerical simulations have been carried out by using different values for the eruptive column temperature at the vent, solid particles frictional concentration, turbulent kinetic energy, and dissipation. The results obtained underline the importance of the multiphase nature of the model and characterize several disequilibrium effects. The low concentration (≤ 5 · 10 –4 ) sectors lie in the upper part of the granular flow, above the fountain, and above the pyroclastic current tail and body as thermal plumes. The high concentration sectors, on the contrary, form the fountain and remain along the ground of the granular flow. Hence, pyroclastic density currents are assimilated to granular flows constituted by a low concentration suspension flowing above a high concentration basal layer (boundary layer), from the proximal regions to the distal ones. Interactions among solid, differently sized particles in the boundary layer of the granular flow are controlled by collisions between particles, whereas particles dispersal in the suspension is determined by the dragging of the gas phase. The simulations describe well the dynamics of a tractive boundary layer leading to the formation of stratified facies during eruptions having a different magnitude.

Description: Possibility of titanium transportation within a mantle wedge: formation process of titanoclinohumite in Fujiwara dunite in Sanbagawa belt, Japan Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 203-239, 2012 Author(s): S. Ishimaru and S. Arai Titinoclinohumite-bearing dunites from Fujiwara, the Sanbagawa metamorphic belt of high-pressure type, Japan, were described to examine the possibility of Ti mobility during metasomatism within the mantle wedge. The Fujiwara dunite body and surrounding high-pressure Sanbagawa schists possibly form a subduction complex, and the dunites are a good analogue to the mantle wedge overlying the slab. The Fujiwara dunites are of deserpentinization origin; the deserpentinized olivine is high in Fo (up to 96) and low in NiO (0.2 to 0.3 wt %), and contains magnetite inclusions. Titanoclinohumites are associated with the deserpentinized olivine, as lamellar intergrowth or veinlets, up to 1 cm in width. Other metamorphic minerals include antigorite, brucite, chlorite, ilmenite, perovskite, Ti-rich ludwigite, and carbonates. The protolith of the Fujiwara dunite was partially serpentinized cumulative dunites from intra-plate magma, containing relatively low-Fo (85 to 86) olivines and TiO 2 -rich (up to 3 wt %) chromian spinels. The metamorphic olivines and titanoclinohumites contain micro-inclusions of methane (CH 4 ) with or without serpentine and brucite. The source of Ti for titanoclinohumite was possibly the Ti-rich chromian spinel, but Ti was mobile through hydrocarbon-rich fluids, which were activated during the metamorphism. The hydrocarbons, of which remnants are carbonates and methane micro-inclusions, were derived from carbonaceous materials or bitumen, possibly incorporated in the precursory serpentinized and brecciated peridotite (= the protolith for the Fujiwara dunites) before subduction. Ti can be mobile in the mantle wedge if hydrocarbons are available from the subducted slab.

Description: Global distribution of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary: a new look Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 279-313, 2012 Author(s): V. M. Hamza and F. P. Vieira New global maps of the depth to the boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere are presented. The maps are based on updated global databases for heat flow and crustal structure. For continental regions the estimates of lithospheric thickness are based on determinations of subcrustal heat flow, after corrections for contributions of radiogenic heat in crustal layers. For oceanic regions the estimates of lithospheric thickness are based on the newly proposed finite half-space (FHS) model. Unlike the half-space cooling (HSC) and the Plate models the FHS model takes into account effects of buffered solidification at the lower boundary of the lithosphere and assumes that vertical domain for downward growth of boundary layer have an asymptotic limit. Results of numerical simulations reveal that theoretical values derived from FHS model provide vastly improved fits to observational data for heat flow and bathymetry than can be achieved with HSC and Plate models. Also, the data fits are valid for the entire age range of the oceanic lithosphere. Hence estimates of depths to lithosphere – asthenosphere boundary (LAB) based on FHS model, are believed to provide more reliable estimates than those reported in previous thermal models. The global maps of depths to LAB derived in the present work reveal several features in regional variations of lithosphere thicknesses that have not been identified in earlier studies. For example, regions of ocean floor with ages less than 55 Ma are characterized by relatively rapid thickening of the lithosphere. Also there is better resolution in mapping the transition from oceanic to continental lithosphere, as most of the latter ones are characterized by lithospheric thickness greater than 150 km. As expected the plate spreading centers in oceanic regions as well as areas of recent magmatic activity in continental regions are characterized by relatively thin lithosphere, with LAB depths of less than 50 km. On the other hand, the areas of continental collisions and Precambrian cratonic blocks and are found to have lithosphere thicknesses in excess of 250 km. Regional variations of lithosphere thickness in the interiors of continents are found to depend on the magnitude of subcrustal heat flux as well as the tectonic age of crustal blocks.

Description: High resolution reflection seismic profiling over the Tjellefonna fault in the Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex, Norway Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 241-278, 2012 Author(s): E. Lundberg, C. Juhlin, and A. Nasuti The Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex (MTFC) is one of the most prominent fault zones of Norway, both onshore and offshore. In spite of its importance, very little is known of the deeper structure of the individual fault segments comprising the fault complex. Most seismic lines have been recorded offshore or focused on deeper structures. This paper presents results from two reflection seismic profiles, located on each side of the Tingvollfjord, acquired over the Tjellefonna fault in the south-eastern part of the MTFC. Possible kilometer scale vertical offsets reflecting, large scale north-west dipping normal faulting separating the high topography to the south-east from lower topography to the north-west have been proposed for the Tjellefonna fault. In this study, however, the Tjellefonna fault is interpreted to dip approximately 50–60° towards the south-east to depths of at least 1.4 km. Travel-time modeling of reflections associated with the fault was used to establish the geometry of the fault structure at depth and detailed analysis of first P-wave arrivals in shot-gathers together with resistivity profiles were used to define the near surface geometry of the fault zone. A continuation of the structure on the north-eastern side of the Tingvollfjord is suggested by correlation of an in strike direction P-S converted reflection (generated by a fracture zone) seen on the reflection data from that side of the Tingvollfjord. The reflection seismic data correlate well with resistivity profiles and recently published near surface geophysical data. A highly reflective package forming a gentle antiform structure was also identified on both seismic profiles. The structure may be an important boundary within the gneissic basement rocks of the Western Gneiss Region. The Fold Hinge Line is parallel with the Tjellefonna fault trace while the topographic lineament diverges, following secondary fracture zones towards north-east.

Description: Upper Pliensbachian – Toarcian (Jurassic) palaeoenvironmental perturbations in a temporal and regional context: an extended 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, δ 13 C and δ 18 O belemnite isotope study from Bulgaria Solid Earth Discussions, 4, 315-361, 2012 Author(s): L. S. Metodiev, I. P. Savov, D. R. Gröcke, P. B. Wignall, R. J. Newton, P. V. Andreeva, and E. K. Koleva-Rekalova The Upper Pliensbachian–Toarcian (Jurassic) sedimentological, palaeontological and geochemical (belemnite 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, δ 13 C and δ 18 O) record is examined in two Eastern Tethyan (Bulgarian) locations. This interval contains the well-known Early Toarcian ocean anoxic event (T-OAE) and its manifestation and temporal context is examined in Bulgaria. Many of the features characteristic for the SW European sections were identified: collapse of carbonate platform productivity at the Pliensbachian/Toarcian boundary, the T-OAE (a short pulse of anoxic deposition in the Falciferum ammonite Zone), an Early Toarcian rapid warming event seen in the belemnite δ 18 O record that peaked around the Falciferum/Bifrons ammonite zonal boundary. The long-recognized positive δ 13 C excursion in the late Falciferum ammonite Zone is also seen but a precursor, sharp δ 13 C negative excursion seen around the Tenuicostatum/Falciferum ammonite zonal boundary in many organic carbon records is not evident in the belemnite data, a curious absence noted from other belemnite records. Subsequent fluctuations of the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, δ 13 C and δ 18 O suggest there may be a further perturbation of the global isotopic systems. On the other hand, belemnite Sr isotope values from Bulgaria are in accord with those seen in Western Europe and hence its value for chronostratigraphy.

Description: An improved approach to estimate large-gradient deformation using high resolution TerraSAR-X data Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2759-2778, 2014 Author(s): D. Liu, R. Chen, B. Riedel, and W. Niemeier Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) has shown unique capabilities in numerous applications for deformation monitoring. However, InSAR will lose effectiveness with large-gradient deformation due to the limitation of maximum detectable phase gradient and the phase unwrapping step of InSAR. Coalfield is the exact object providing such challenges for InSAR technique. Strong mining activities often induces large scale non-linear deformation with large gradient. This paper integrates offset tracking technique based on Corner Reflector (CR) and InSAR to overcome relevant problems. By applying offset tracking to high resolution TerraSAR-X intensity images, the coarse estimation of large deformation was obtained and extracted, allowing the following InSAR processing to carry out phase unwrapping correctly. Finally, the fine estimation of deformation was done by the Persistent Scatterer InSAR (PSI) technique. The detected deformation time series indicated good root-mean-square errors (RMSE), validated by GPS in situ investigation. All InSAR data were processed in the open source software StaMPS and one in-house InSAR package.

Description: Changes in soil quality due to converting Pinus to Eucalyptus plantations and subsequent successive Eucalyptus planting in southern China Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2779-2802, 2014 Author(s): K. Zhang, H. Zheng, F. L. Chen, Z. Y. Ouyang, Y. Wang, Y. F. Wu, J. Lan, M. Fu, and X. W. Xiang Plants play a key role in maintaining soil quality, but long-term changes in soil quality due to plant species change and successive planting are rarely reported. Using the space-for-time substitution method, adjacent plantations of Pinus and 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th generations of Eucalyptus in Guangxi, China were used to study changes in soil quality caused by converting Pinus to Eucalyptus and successive Eucalyptus planting. Soil chemical and biological properties were measured and a soil quality index (SQI) was calculated. Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, alkaline hydrolytic nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, microbial biomass nitrogen, cellobiosidase, phenol oxidase, peroxidase and acid phosphatase activities significantly decreased in the 1st and 2nd generations of Eucalyptus plantations after conversion from Pinus to Eucalyptus but gradually recovered in the 3rd and 4th generations. Soil total and available potassium were significantly lower, but total phosphorus was significantly higher in Eucalyptus plantations compared to the Pinus plantation. As an integrated indicator, SQI was highest in the Pinus plantation (0.92), but decreased to 0.24 and 0.13 in the 1st and 2nd generations of Eucalyptus plantations, respectively. However, it recovered to 0.36 and 0.38 in the 3rd and 4th generations, respectively. Changing tree species, reclamation and fertilization may have contributed to the "U" shaped change observed in soil quality during conversion of Pinus to Eucalyptus and successive Eucalyptus planting. Litter retention, keeping understory coverage, and reducing soil disturbance during logging and subsequent establishment of the next rotation should be considered to help improving soil quality during plantation management.

Description: Variations of the crustal thickness in Nepal Himalayas based on tomographic inversion of regional earthquake data Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2867-2883, 2014 Author(s): I. Koulakov, G. Maksotova, S. Mukhopadhyay, J. Raoof, J. R. Kayal, A. Jakovlev, and A. Vasilevsky We estimate variations of the crustal thickness beneath the Nepal Himalayas based on tomographic inversion of regional earthquake data. We have obtained a low-velocity anomaly in the upper part of the model down to depths of 40 to 80 km and proposed that the lower limit of this anomaly represents variations of the Moho depth. This statement was supported by results of synthetic modeling. The obtained variations of crustal thickness match fairly well with the free-air gravity anomalies: thinner crust patterns correspond to lower gravity values and vice versa. There is also some correlation with magnetic field: higher magnetic values correspond to the major areas of thicker crust. We propose that elevated magnetic values can be associated with more rigid segments of the incoming Indian crust which cause more compression in the thrust zone and leads to stronger crustal thickening.

Description: Fault evolution in the Potiguar rift termination, Equatorial margin of Brazil Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2885-2913, 2014 Author(s): D. L. de Castro and F. H. R. Bezerra The transform shearing between South American and African plates in the Cretaceous generated a series of sedimentary basins on both plate margins. In this study, we use gravity, aeromagnetic, and resistivity surveys to identify fault architecture and to analyse the evolution of the eastern Equatorial margin of Brazil. Our study area is the southern onshore termination of the Potiguar rift, which is an aborted NE-trending rift arm developed during the breakup of Pangea. The Potiguar rift is a Neocomian structure located in the intersection of the Equatorial and western South Atlantic and is composed of a series of NE-trending horsts and grabens. This study reveals new grabens in the Potiguar rift and indicates that stretching in the southern rift termination created a WNW-trending, 10 km wide and ~40 km long right-lateral strike-slip fault zone. This zone encompasses at least eight depocenters, which are bounded by a left-stepping, en-echelon system of NW- to EW-striking normal faults. These depocenters form grabens up to 1200 m deep with a rhomb-shaped geometry, which are filled with rift sedimentary units and capped by post-rift sedimentary sequences. The evolution of the rift termination is consistent with the right-lateral shearing of the Equatorial margin in the Cretaceous and occurs not only at the rift termination, but also as isolated structures away from the main rift.

Description: Scale effect on runoff and soil loss control using rice straw mulch under laboratory conditions Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2915-2938, 2014 Author(s): S. H. R. Sadeghi, L. Gholami, E. Sharifi Moghadam, and A. Khaledi Darvishan Amendments can control the runoff and soil loss by protecting soil surface. However, scale effects on runoff and soil loss control has not been considered yet. The present study has been formulated to determine the efficiency of two plot sizes of 6 and 0.25 m 2 covered by straw mulch with rate of 0.5 kg m −2 in changing the time to runoff, runoff coefficient, sediment concentration and soil loss under laboratory conditions. The study has been conducted for a sandy-loam soil taken from summer rangeland, Alborz Mountains, Northern Iran under simulated rainfall intensities of 50 and 90 mm h −1 and in 3 replicates. The results of the study showed that the straw mulch had more significant effect in in reducing runoff coefficient, sediment concentration and soil loss at 0.25 m 2 plot scale. The maximum effectiveness in time to runoff for both the scales, observed in rainfall intensity of 90 mm h −1 . The maximum increasing and decreasing rates in time to runoff and runoff coefficient observed in the rainfall intensity of 90 mm h −1 with the amounts of 367.92 and 96.71% for 0.25 m 2 plot and the amounts of 110.10 and 15.08% for 6 m 2 plot respectively. The maximum change of soil loss in both the intensities of 50 and 90 mm h −1 occurred at 0.25 m 2 plot with the amount of 100% whereas at 6 m 2 plot, decreasing rates of soil loss for in both the intensities of 50 and 90 mm h −1 were 46.74 and 63.24%, respectively.

Description: Characterization and interaction of driving factors in karst rocky desertification: a case study from Changshun, China Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 2939-2969, 2014 Author(s): E. Q. Xu and H. Q. Zhang As the most severe ecological issue in Southwest China, karst rocky desertification (KRD) has both threatened and constrained regional sustainable development. Comprehensively understanding the relationship between the evolution of KRD and relevant driving data would provide more information to combat KRD in such complex karst environments. Past studies have been limited in quantifying the relative importance of driving factors influencing fine-scale KRD evolution, and have also lacked insight into their interactive impacts. To address these issues, we have used geographical information system techniques and a geographical detector model to explore the spatial consistency of driving factors and their interactions in relation to the evolution of KRD. Changshun County in China was selected as a representative area for the study. Nine relevant driving factors, including both natural and anthropogenic factors, were studied in regard to their relationships with KRD transformation between 2000 and 2010. Our results demonstrate the relative importance of driving data in influencing the improvement and deterioration of KRD. Lithology, soil type and road influence are identified as the leading factors. Interestingly, to our study at least, there is no significant difference between the impacts of natural and anthropogenic factors. Factors were found to enhance the influence of each other for KRD transformation. In particular, the results show a non-linearly enhanced effect between driving factors, which significantly aggravates KRD. New information found in our study helps to effectively control and restore areas afflicted by KRD.

Description: Impact of the addition of different plant residues on carbon–nitrogen content and nitrogen mineralization–immobilization turnover in a soil incubated under laboratory conditions Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 3051-3074, 2014 Author(s): M. K. Abbasi, M. M. Tahir, N. Sabir, and M. Khurshid Application of plant residues as soil amendment may represent a valuable recycling strategy that affects on carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling, soil properties improvement and plant growth promotion. The amount and rate of nutrient release from plant residues depend on their quality characteristics and biochemical composition. A laboratory incubation experiment was conducted for 120 days under controlled conditions (25 °C and 58% water filled pore space (WFPS)) to quantify initial biochemical composition and N mineralization of leguminous and non-leguminous plant residues i.e. the roots, shoots and leaves of Glycine max , Trifolium repens , Zea mays , Poplus euramericana , Rubinia pseudoacacia and Elagnus umbellate incorporated into the soil at the rate of 200 mg residue N kg −1 soil. The diverse plant residues showed wide variation in total N, carbon, lignin, polyphenols and C/N ratio with higher polyphenol content in the leaves and higher lignin content in the roots. The shoot of G. max and the shoot and root of T. repens displayed continuous mineralization by releasing a maximum of 109.8, 74.8 and 72.5 mg N kg −1 and representing a 55, 37 and 36% of added N being released from these resources. The roots of G. max and Z. mays and the shoot of Z. mays showed continuous negative values throughout the incubation showing net immobilization. After an initial immobilization, leaves of P. euramericana , R. pseudoacacia and E. umbellate exhibited net mineralization by releasing a maximum of 31.8, 63.1 and 65.1 mg N kg −1 , respectively and representing a 16, 32 and 33% of added N being released. Nitrogen mineralization from all the treatments was positively correlated with the initial residue N contents ( r = 0.89; p ≤ 0.01), and negatively correlated with lignin content ( r = −0.84; p ≤ 0.01), C/N ratio ( r = −0.69; p ≤ 0.05), lignin/N ratio ( r = −0.68; p ≤ 0.05), polyphenol/N ratio ( r = −0.73; p ≤ 0.05) and ligin + polyphenol/N ratio ( r = −0.70; p ≤ 0.05) indicating a significant role of residue chemical composition and quality in regulating N transformations and cycling in soil. The present study indicates that incorporation of plant residues strongly modify the mineralization-immobilization turnover (MIT) of soil that can be taken into account to develop synchronization between net N mineralization and crop demand in order to maximize N delivery and minimize N losses.

Description: Soil microbiological properties and enzymatic activities of long-term post-fire recovery in dry and semiarid Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis M.) forest stands Solid Earth Discussions, 6, 3025-3050, 2014 Author(s): J. Hedo, M. E. Lucas-Borja, C. Wic, M. Andrés Abellán, and J. de Las Heras Wildfires affecting forest ecosystems and post-fire silvicultural treatments may cause considerable changes in soil properties. The capacity of different microbial groups to recolonize soil after disturbances is crucial for proper soil functioning. The aim of this work was to investigate some microbial soil properties and enzyme activities in semiarid and dry Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis M.) forest stands. Different plots affected by a wildfire event 17 years ago without or with post-fire silvicultural treatments five years after the fire event were selected. A mature Aleppo pine stand unaffected by wildfire and not thinned was used as a control. Physicochemical soil properties (soil texture, pH, carbonates, organic matter, electrical conductivity, total N and P), soil enzymes (urease, phosphatase, β-glucosidase and dehydrogenase activities), soil respiration and soil microbial biomass carbon were analysed in the selected forests areas and plots. The main finding was that long time after this fire event produces no differences in the microbiological soil properties and enzyme activities of soil after comparing burned and thinned, burned and not thinned, and mature plots. Thus, the long-term consequences and post-fire silvicultural management in the form of thinning have a significant effect on the site recovery after fire. Moreover, significant site variation was generally seen in soil enzyme activities and microbiological parameters. We conclude that total vegetation restoration normalises microbial parameters, and that wildfire and post-fire silvicultural treatments are not significant factors of soil properties after 17 years.