ALBERT

Description: Purpose Oil shale is an unconventional petroleum source that can be produced domestically in the USA. Oil shale resources are primarily located in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, within the Colorado River Basin. In this paper, we analyze the life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale production and its impacts on water resources of the Colorado River Basin. Methods The study is focused on life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale development. Consumptive water use is defined as “water that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment.” The analysis includes direct consumptive water requirements to extract, process, and refine shale oil, as well as indirect consumptive water use for generating the electricity associated with the extraction and processing. From the results, strategies for water supply certainty are discussed, and strategies for implementation are suggested. In addition, refining the shale oil outside of the oil shale region (removing the need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water) are evaluated. Results and discussion Life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale is significant and could impact water availability for consumers in the lower Colorado River Basin. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant: between 140 and 305 billion gallons (0.4 and 0.9 million acre-ft.) of water per year if surface mining and retorting is done, or between 150 and 340 billion gallons (0.5 and 1 million acre-ft.) of water per year if the Shell in situ process is used. Strategies could be implemented to provide water supply certainty including refining the shale oil outside of the region (removing some need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water). Conclusions Water supply in the Colorado River Basin could be a primary constraint to the development of oil shale. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant. Energy companies or governments may want to invest in water management and supply strategies that would eliminate the uncertainty associated with the water availability in the Colorado River Basin for oil shale development.

Description: Purpose In the transportation sector, reducing vehicle weight is a cornerstone strategy to improve the fuel economy and energy efficiency of road vehicles. This study investigated the environmental implications of lightweighting two automotive parts (Ford Taurus front end bolster, Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy assist step) using glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) instead of steel alloys. Methods The cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments (LCAs) for these studies consider a total service life of 150,000 miles for two applications: a 46 % lighter GFRP bolster on the 2010 Ford Taurus that replaced the 2008 steel and GFRP bolster, and a 51 % lighter GFRP running board for the 2007 Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy that replaced the previous steel running board including its polymer fasteners. The life cycle stages in these critically reviewed and ISO-compliant LCA studies include the production of upstream materials and energy, product manufacturing, use, and the end-of-life treatment for all materials throughout the life cycle. Results and discussion The results show that the lighter GFRP products performed better than the steel products for global warming potential and primary energy demand for both case studies. In addition, the GFRP bolster performed better for acidification potential. The savings of fuel combustion and production during the use stage of a vehicle far outweigh the environmental impacts of manufacturing or end-of-life. An even greater benefit would be possible if the total weight reduction in the vehicle would be high enough to allow for the reduction of engine displacement or an elongation of gear ratio while maintaining constant vehicle dynamics. These so-called secondary measures allow the fuel savings per unit of mass to be more than doubled and are able to offset the slightly higher acidification potential of the GFRP running board which occurs when only the mass-induced fuel savings are considered. Conclusions The lightweight GFRP components are shown to outperform their steel counterparts over the full life cycle mainly due to the reduced fuel consumption of the vehicle in the use phase. To harvest the benefits of light weighting to their full extent, it is recommended that the sum of all mass reductions in the design process be monitored and, whenever feasible, invested into fuel economy by adapting the drive train while maintaining constant vehicle performance rather than leveraging the weight reduction to improve vehicle dynamics.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool for quantifying the overall environmental impacts of a product, process, or service. The scientific scope and boundary definition are important to ensure the accuracy of LCA results. Defining the boundary in LCA is difficult and there are no commonly accepted scientific methods yet. The objective of this research is to present a comprehensive discussion of system boundaries in LCA and to develop an appropriate boundary delimitation method. Methods A product system is partitioned into the primary system and interrelated subsystems. The hierarchical relationship of flow and process is clarified by introducing flow- and process-related interventions. A system boundary curve model of the LCA is developed and the threshold rules for judging whether the system boundary satisfies the research requirement are proposed. Quantitative criteria from environmental, technical, geographical and temporal dimensions are presented to limit the boundaries of LCA. An algorithm is developed to identify an appropriate boundary by searching the process tree and evaluating the environmental impact contribution of each process while it is added into the studied system. Results and discussion The difference between a limited system and a theoretically complete system is presented. A case study is conducted on a color TV set to demonstrate and validate the method of boundary identification. The results showed that the overall environmental impact indicator exhibits a slow growth after a certain number of processes considered, and the gradient of the fitting curve trends to zero gradually. According to the threshold rules, a relatively accurate system boundary could be obtained. Conclusions It is found from this research that the system boundary curve describes the growth of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results as processes are added. The two threshold rules and identification methods presented can be used to identify system boundary of LCA. The case study demonstrated that the methodology presented in this paper is an effective tool for the boundary identification.

Description: Purpose Land use is a main driver of global biodiversity loss and its environmental relevance is widely recognized in research on life cycle assessment (LCA). The inherent spatial heterogeneity of biodiversity and its non-uniform response to land use requires a regionalized assessment, whereas many LCA applications with globally distributed value chains require a global scale. This paper presents a first approach to quantify land use impacts on biodiversity across different world regions and highlights uncertainties and research needs. Methods The study is based on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) land use assessment framework and focuses on occupation impacts, quantified as a biodiversity damage potential (BDP). Species richness of different land use types was compared to a (semi-)natural regional reference situation to calculate relative changes in species richness. Data on multiple species groups were derived from a global quantitative literature review and national biodiversity monitoring data from Switzerland. Differences across land use types, biogeographic regions (i.e., biomes), species groups and data source were statistically analyzed. For a data subset from the biome (sub-)tropical moist broadleaf forest, different species-based biodiversity indicators were calculated and the results compared. Results and discussion An overall negative land use impact was found for all analyzed land use types, but results varied considerably. Different land use impacts across biogeographic regions and taxonomic groups explained some of the variability. The choice of indicator also strongly influenced the results. Relative species richness was less sensitive to land use than indicators that considered similarity of species of the reference and the land use situation. Possible sources of uncertainty, such as choice of indicators and taxonomic groups, land use classification and regionalization are critically discussed and further improvements are suggested. Data on land use impacts were very unevenly distributed across the globe and considerable knowledge gaps on cause–effect chains remain. Conclusions The presented approach allows for a first rough quantification of land use impact on biodiversity in LCA on a global scale. As biodiversity is inherently heterogeneous and data availability is limited, uncertainty of the results is considerable. The presented characterization factors for BDP can approximate land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA studies that are not intended to directly support decision-making on land management practices. For such studies, more detailed and site-dependent assessments are required. To assess overall land use impacts, transformation impacts should additionally be quantified. Therefore, more accurate and regionalized data on regeneration times of ecosystems are needed.

Description: Purpose The paper introduces the publication on “Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment Databases”; it focuses on the development of training material and other implementation activities on the publication. Methods The document is the output of the “Shonan Guidance Principles” workshop. The publication provides guidance principles for life cycle assessment (LCA) databases; this includes how to collect raw data, how to develop datasets, and how to manage databases. The publication also addresses questions concerning data documentation and review, coordination among databases, capacity building, and future scenarios. As a next step, the publication is used to prepare training material and other implementation activities. Results The publication was launched at the LCM 2011 Conference. Since then outreach activities have been organized in particular in emerging economies. Further developments with regard to the guidance principles are foreseen as part of a flagship project within phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Training material is being developed that will include how to set up databases and develop datasets. The topic has been taken up by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains. Conclusions The adoption of the “Global Guidance Principles” publication as a de facto global standard is expected to facilitate the work of database teams, especially, in developing countries, and the collaboration in regional networks. These efforts are supported by the development of training material and other implementation activities.

Description: Purpose The paper provides a late report from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative workshop “Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)—where we are, trends, and next steps;” it embeds this report into recent development with regard to the envisaged development of global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators and related methodologies. Methods The document is the output of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative’s workshop on “Life Cycle Impact Assessment—where we are, trends, and next steps.” The presentations and discussions held during the workshop reviewed the first two phases of the Life Cycle Initiative and provided an overview of current LCIA activities being conducted by the Initiative, governments and academia, as well as corporate approaches. The outcomes of the workshop are reflected in light of the implementation of the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Results The range of views provided during the workshop indicated different user needs, with regards to, amongst other things, the required complexity of the LCIA methodology, associated costs, and the selection of LCIA categories depending on environmental priorities. The workshop’s results signified a number of potential focus areas for Phase 3 of the Initiative, including capacity building efforts concerning LCIA in developing countries and emerging economies, the preparation of training materials on LCIA, the production of global guidance on LCIA, and the potential development of a broader sustainability indicators framework. Conclusions These suggestions have been taken into account in the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative in two flagship projects, one on global capability development on life cycle approaches and the other on global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators. In the context of the latter project, first activities are being organized and planned. Moreover, UNEP has included the recommendations in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and SETAC through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains.

Description: Purpose Substantial evidence from numerous studies indicate that Uganda is already experiencing the negative impacts attributed to climate change, manifested by changing and unpredictable weather patterns, with implications to food production, water, and livelihood. Therefore, reducing carbon footprints is a key ingredient in mitigating climate change. However, this requires availability of adequate knowledge and human resource capacities to analyze and manage the carbon dynamics as well as energy-related aspects at all levels of organizations. It is against this background that training activities were designed to equip participants with knowledge and skills on the subject of carbon footprints. Results Participants were exposed to current techniques and methods of estimating and reducing carbon footprints; and equipped with knowledge on pathways for realizing carbon neutral resilient systems. In addition, participants formed a carbon footprint network with a view of sharing experience with other actors elsewhere in this field, and periodically organize similar trainings and other avenues for experience and knowledge sharing.

Description: Purpose This study analyzes the influence of value choices in impact assessment models for human health, such as the choice of time horizon, on life cycle assessment outcomes. Methods For 756 products, the human health damage score is calculated using three sets of characterization factors (CFs). The CFs represent seven human health impact assessment categories: water scarcity, tropospheric ozone formation, particulate matter formation, human toxicity, ionizing radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate change. Each set of CFs embeds a combination of value choices following the Cultural Theory, and reflects the individualist, hierarchist, or egalitarian perspective. Results We found that the average difference in human health damage score goes from 1 order of magnitude between the individualist and hierarchist perspectives to 2.5 orders of magnitude between the individualist and egalitarian perspectives. The difference in damage score of individual materials among perspectives depends on the combination of emissions driving the impact of both perspectives and can rise up to 5 orders of magnitude. Conclusions The value choices mainly responsible for the differences in results among perspectives are the choice of time horizon and inclusion of highly uncertain effects. A product comparison can be affected when the human health damage score of two products differ less than a factor of 5, or the comparing products largely differ in their emitted substances. Overall, our study implies that value choices in impact assessment modeling can modify the outcomes of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and thus the practical implication of decisions based on the results of an LCA.

Description: Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC). Methods Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders. Results and recommendations Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development. Discussion, conclusions, and outlook The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009.

Description: Purpose This study discusses the significance of the use of non-renewable fossil cumulative energy demand (CED) as proxy indicator in the beverage packaging sector, in order to detect those situations in which companies can benefit from the use of proxy indicators before a full life cycle assessment (LCA) application. Starting from a case study of two milk containers, the objectives of this paper are to assess if the use of this inventory indicator can be a suitable proxy indicator both (1) to decide which is the packaging alternative with the lowest environmental impact and (2) to identify the most impacting process units of the two products under study. Method The analysis was made according to ISO14040-44. The goal of the comparative LCA was to evaluate and to compare the potential environmental impacts from cradle to grave of a laminated carton container and a HDPE bottle. The results of the comparative LCA obtained with the non-renewable CED indicator are compared with a selection of impact categories: climate change, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, fossil depletion, photochemical oxidant formation. A further analysis is made for the two products under study in order to determine which are the environmental hot spots in terms of life cycle stages, by the means of a contribution analysis. Results and discussion From the comparative LCA, the use of non-renewable CED revealed to be useful for a screening as the results given by the non-renewable CED indicator are confirmed by all the impact categories considered, even if underestimated. If the aim of the LCA study was to define which is the packaging solution with a lower environmental impact, the choice of this inventory indicator could have led to the same decision as if a comprehensive LCIA method was used. The contribution analysis, focusing on the identification of environmental hot spots in the packaging value chain, revealed that the choice of an inventory indicator as non-renewable CED can lead to misleading results, if compared with another impact category, such as climate change. Conclusions As in the future development of beverage packaging system, LCA will be necessarily integrated in the design process, it is important to define other ways of simplifying its application and spread its use among companies. The LCI indicator non-renewable fossil CED can effectively be used in order to obtain a preliminary estimation of the life cycle environmental impacts of two or more competing products in the beverage packaging sector.

Description: Purpose There has been lively debate, especially in Finland and Sweden, on the climate impacts of peat fuel. Previous studies of peat fuel's life-cycle climate impacts were controversial in their interpretation. The aim of this paper is conclusive examination of the issues of LCA methodology, derived from critical review of previous studies and recalculation based on the latest knowledge of greenhouse gas balances related to peat fuel’s utilisation and the radiative forcing impacts of greenhouse gases. Methods The most recent findings on emissions and the gas fluxes between soil, vegetation and atmosphere were used in calculation of the life-cycle climate impacts of the various peat fuel utilisation chains by means of LCA methodology. In the main, the calculation methods and rules were the same as in the previous studies, with the aim being to distinguish the impact of peat fuel’s utilisation from that of the natural or semi-natural situation. A dynamic method was employed for assessing changes in radiative forcing. The results of alternative peat fuel utilisation chains were compared to the corresponding result for coal. Results There are many steps in peat fuel LCA, where different assumptions lead to different outcomes. Determining the functional unit, reference situations and system boundaries, as well as the emission calculation methods, is important from this point of view. Determination of the initial reference situation emerged as one of the critical points in the calculations. Time scale can strongly affect the final outcomes in a study where effects of long-term land-use change are considered. Conclusions Each peatland area is unique. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions in the initial reference situation, the greater is the climate impact of the area and the more suitable the area is for peat extraction. The study showed that more greenhouse gas flux measurements are needed, for better assessment of the climate impacts of different potential peat extraction sites. Climate change mitigation requires quick actions, and uncertainties related to emissions are higher for longer time spans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a perspective spanning more than 100 years is inappropriate in peat fuel's life-cycle climate impact assessments.

Description: Purpose Political interest in the future availability of natural resources has spiked recently, with new documents from the European Union, United Nations Environment Programme and the US National Research Council assessing the supply situation of key raw materials. As resource efficiency is considered a key element for sustainable development, suitable methods to address sustainability of resource use are increasingly needed. Life cycle thinking and assessment may play a principal role here. Nonetheless, the extent to which current life cycle impact assessment methods are capable to answer to resource sustainability challenges is widely debated. The aim of this paper is to present key elements of the ongoing discussion, contributing to the future development of more robust and comprehensive methods for evaluating resources in the life cycle assessment (LCA) context. Methods We systematically review current impact assessment methods dealing with resources, identifying areas of improvement. Three key issues for sustainability assessment of resources are examined: renewability, recyclability and criticality; this is complemented by a cross-comparison of methodological features and completeness of resource coverage. Results and discussion The approach of LCA to resource depletion is characterised by a lack of consensus on methodology and on the relative ranking of resource depletion impacts as can be seen from a comparison of characterisation factors. The examined models yield vastly different characterisations of the impacts from resource depletion and show gaps in the number and types of resources covered. Conclusions Key areas of improvement are identified and discussed. Firstly, biotic resources and their renewal rates have so far received relatively little regard within LCA; secondly, the debate on critical raw materials and the opportunity of introducing criticality within LCA is controversial and requires further effort for a conciliating vision and indicators. We identify points where current methods can be expanded to accommodate these issues and cover a wider range of natural resources.

Description: Purpose The purse seine fishery for sardine is the most important fishery in Portugal. The aim of the present study is to assess the environmental impacts of sardine fished by the Portuguese fleet and to analyse a number of variables such as vessel size and time scale. An additional goal was to incorporate fishery-specific impact categories in the case study. Methods Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied, and data were collected from nine vessels, which represented around 10 % of the landings. Vessels were divided into two length categories, above and below 12 m, and data were obtained for the years 2005 to 2010. The study was limited to the fishing phase only. The standard impact categories included were energy use, global warming potential, eutrophication potential, acidification potential and ozone depletion potential. The fishery-specific impact categories were overfishing, overfishedness, lost potential yield, mean trophic level and the primary production required, and were quantified as much as possible. Results and discussion The landings from the data set were constituted mainly by sardine (91 %), and the remainders were other small pelagic species (e.g. horse mackerel). The most important input was the fuel, and both vessel categories had the same fuel consumption per catch 0.11 l/kg. Average greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) were 0.36 kg CO 2 eq. per kilo sardine landed. The fuel use varied between years, and variability between months can be even higher. Fishing mortality has increased, and the spawning stock biomass has decreased resulting in consequential overfishing for 2010. A correlation between fuel use and stock biomass was not found, and the stock condition does not seem to directly influence the global warming potential in this fishery. Discards were primarily non-target small pelagic species, and there was also mortality of target species resulting from slipping. The seafloor impact was considered to be insignificant due to the fishing method. Conclusions The assessment of the Portuguese purse seine fishery resulted in no difference regarding fuel use between large and small vessels, but differences were found between years. The stock has declined, and it has produced below maximum sustainable yield. By-catch and discard data were missing but may be substantial. Even being difficult to quantify, fishery impact categories complement the environmental results with biological information and precaution is need in relation to the stock management. The sardine carbon footprint from Portuguese purse seine was lower than that of other commercial species reported in.

Description: Purpose Proper recycling of mobile phones and other electronic products is important in order to reduce the generation of large amounts of hazardous waste, lessen environmental and social problems associated to the extraction of minerals and primary production of materials, and also minimize the depletion of scarce materials that are often difficult to substitute. Current material recovery processes are used to recycle electronic waste of various compositions. Methods Based on a review of the recycling processes and material flow analysis (MFA), we attribute the material and energy required to recover metals from 1 tonne of discarded mobile phones. Results and discussion We estimate that the recovery rates of gold, palladium, silver, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, and tin from the recycling processes described are 80 to 99 % (16.4 % of the phone in weight). The two main industrial processes used at present time (pyrometallurgical and combined pyro-hydrometallurgical) have similar energy consumptions (7,763 and 7,568 MJ/tonne of mobile phones, respectively). An average tonne of used mobile phones represents a potential of 128 kg of copper, 0.347 kg of gold, 0.15 kg of palladium, 3.63 kg of silver, 15 kg of nickel, 6 kg of lead, 1 kg of antimony, and 10 kg of tin as well as other metals that are not yet profitable to recover but might be in the future. Conclusions We find that the energy consumed to recover copper from mobile phones is half of that needed for copper primary extraction and similar or greater energy savings for precious metal refining. Nevertheless, only 2.5 % of mobile phones arrive to industrial recovery facilities. There is a great potential to increase the amount of metals being recovered, thereby reducing energy consumption and increasing resource efficiency.

Description: Purpose The goal of this study is to analyze the environmental improvement brought about by an alternative system for waste management proposed by the Integral-b project, funded by the European Union (EU). Its aim is to treat both used cooking oil (UCO) and organic waste from the restaurant and catering sector in Spain, by biodiesel production and anaerobic digestion, respectively. A cogeneration engine adapted to use glycerin as a fuel is implemented. Methods The functional unit (FU) is the management of the UCO and organic waste from restaurants and catering produced per person and year in Spain. The system proposed (scenario A) is compared to a system consisting of the prevailing management options for the same kind of waste (scenario B). Apart from including biodiesel production from the UCO, this reference scenario assumes that the organic waste is allocated to different streams, according to Spanish statistics. The systems under study generate different coproducts and as such are complex; therefore, system expansion is performed. Different scenario formulations are set to analyze the influence of assumptions regarding coproduct credits in the results. Finally, Monte Carlo simulations are carried out to analyze parameter uncertainty. Results and discussion The environmental benefits caused by scenario A are conditional on the choices regarding coproduct credits. Scenario A causes a reduction of the impact (43–655 %) in most of the scenario formulations when the current levels of UCO collection are considered. However, when higher levels of UCO collection are taken into account for the definition of the FU, scenario B performs better for half of the scenario formulations, due to the increase in the environmental credits from glycerin production. The only impact categories for which scenario A performs unconditionally better than scenario B are global warming and photochemical ozone creation. Parameter uncertainty appears to influence the comparative results to a lesser extent, mainly caused by the parameters involved in avoided processes. Conclusions Although system expansion appears as an option for dealing with the multifunctionality of waste management processes, uncertainty caused by choices must be assessed. Under our scenario assumptions, re-using the glycerol in the system proposed by Integral-b can be detrimental, and the reference scenario results in higher avoided burdens in some scenario formulations. Including glycerin valorization in scenario B should be considered if the biodiesel production keeps increasing in Spain. Analyzing parameter uncertainty helps to provide reliable results.

Description: Purpose Phase change materials (PCMs) hold considerable promise for thermal energy storage and reduction of temperature swings in building space, and can reduce reliance on fossil fuel sources for both heating and cooling. Previous studies have evaluated the use of PCMs for energy storage and provided some limited information on the embodied energy of the PCM; however, an important factor that has not fully been addressed until now is the environmental impact of preparation of organic PCMs. This study presents life cycle assessments (LCAs) of two organic, biosourced PCMs for their applications, focusing on embodied energy and CO 2 emissions. Methods Dodecanoic acid produced from palm kernel oil was considered as a PCM for use in a solar thermal water heating application, and ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae was considered for thermal buffering. The functional units were defined as 1 t of dodecanoic acid PCM and 1 kg of encapsulated ethyl hexadecanoate PCM, respectively. The LCA encompasses all phases in the PCM production: growth and harvesting of the feedstocks, extraction of the oil, treatment of the oil, and separation of singular components. The two PCMs were evaluated in terms of the payback times for their embodied energies and embodied CO 2 under a modeled use phase. Results and discussion The energy payback time for dodecanoic acid in a solar thermal application was found to be less than 2 years. Although production of dodecanoic acid is a net CO 2 emitter, use of this PCM in a solar thermal system can recoup the CO 2 of production in less than a year. Ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae, considered for use in a thermal buffering wallboard product, would require at least 30 years of use before its energy savings would match its embodied energy, mostly due to the drying step in the production of the PCM. However, ethyl hexadecanoate is a strong sequester of CO 2 at 7.6 t per ton of ethyl hexadecanoate. Conclusions Dodecanoic acid produced from palm kernel oil for use in a solar thermal hot water system appears to be a viable PCM. Its payback time, both for energy and carbon emissions, is under 3 years. On the other hand, the high embodied energy of ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae gives a prohibitively long payback time for use in domestic thermal buffering applications.

Description: Purpose Current comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) studies claim to answer whether it is better or worse for the environment to change from old to new systems. Most commonly, the attributional LCA (ALCA) is practised despite its limitations to describe market effects. Hence, an attempt is done here to include market effects in the ALCA practice for comparisons in order to improve ALCA. The purpose is neither to investigate which LCA concept, ALCA, consequential LCA or decisional LCA, is the best for comparisons nor which is the best for decision-making. Methods Here, for the first time, a method based on marked changes which can be used for sensitivity checks of comparative ALCAs, advanced ALCA (AALCA) is presented. The new concept of global change mix factors (GCMF) is introduced. The method, based on accessible market data, is applied to previous comparative ALCAs of conductive adhesives, cooling modules used in radio base stations, office computing systems, as well as personal devices usage, here represented by multifunctional smartphones replacing other devices such as digital cameras. Results and discussion The results show that AALCA based on market data improves the understanding and can act as a sensitivity check of comparative ALCA results. For declining markets of products, with relatively high eco-environmental impacts, the difference between comparative AALCA and ALCA can be significant. As AALCA is founded in marginal electricity thinking and uses market data, there are similarities between AALCA and simplistic consequential LCA (CLCA). However, AALCA is not intended to replace CLCA or decisional LCA (DLCA). Conclusions By applying allocation factors, GCMF, based on real or future market changes, the interdependence of global markets and micro-level LCA shifts can be taken into account in comparative micro-level ALCA studies and make them more robust. Further, the sensitivity of using price units instead of physical units, as the basis for the GCMF, should be investigated. The degree to which AALCA and CLCA can complement each other should be examined. Also, the degree to which the GCMF used in AALCA-H address rebound effects should be further explored. The annual eco-environmental impacts of mobile devices towards 2020 are also of interest, and more LCA case studies are welcome.

Description: Strengths or bias in social LCA? Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0309-3 Authors Alessandra Zamagni, LCA & Ecodesign Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Oscar Amerighi, Research & Study Unit, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), Lungotevere Thaon di Revel 76, 00196 Rome, Italy Patrizia Buttol, LCA & Ecodesign Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Most life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) approaches in life cycle assessment (LCA) are developed for western countries. Their LCIA approaches and characterization methodologies for different impact categories may not be necessarily relevant to African environmental conditions and particularly not for the timber sector in Ghana. This study reviews the relevance of existing impact categories and LCIA approaches, and uses the most relevant for the timber sector of Ghana. Materials and methods   The study reviewed 23 life cycle inventories (LCIs) and LCAs on forestry, timber, and wood products for relevant impact categories and LCIA approaches for their relevance to the specific conditions in Ghana. This study uses an earlier LCI study of the timber industry as a starting point for an additional LCIA. We next performed a correlation and regression analysis to learn whether wood wastes may function as a reasonable single indicator for land use as proxy for biodiversity loss and the other impact categories. Results and discussion   The literature review shows that no LCI or LCA studies were developed for Africa or the tropics. The LCIA approaches in the reviewed LCAs are indeed shown to take their basis in the environmental problems in western countries and characterization methodologies relating to how these problems manifest themselves in the western world. Characterization methodologies for different impact categories in CML-2000 and other LCIA approaches may not be necessarily relevant to African tropical environmental conditions and particularly not for the timber sector in Ghana. This situation hampers the reliability of our LCIA and points to a serious research gap in LCIA development in general. We applied the scientifically well-recognized CML 2000 to the earlier LCI results and characterized the preliminary selected impact categories of global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation, and human toxicity. The correlation analysis indicated that wood waste is indeed strongly correlated with land use as proxy for biodiversity loss and also positively correlated with the other five potential impact results. It can be concluded that wood waste production is a major driving force for biodiversity loss and a sufficiently good single indicator for all other environmental performance indicators in the timber sector of Ghana. Conclusions   This study and the previous LCI paper are pioneering a field not yet explored, since the correct environmental performance indicators are not yet developed or adapted to tropical conditions. The development of LCIA approaches in the tropics may be the start of a never-ending journey in LCA research in Africa, particularly Ghana. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0307-5 Authors John Frank Eshun, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands José Potting, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands Rik Leemans, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Introduction   Alternative ways and means of transportation are necessary in order to reduce the environmental impacts of mobility. In the recent years, biofuels were first seen as a main option and then LCA showed also possible hazards of this development. Recently, public interest is rapidly shifting towards electromobility. Therefore it is necessary to also gain better knowledge about the environmental impacts of this technology. This includes a modelling of the pathways of the necessary increase in electricity supply and an appropriate modelling of battery manufacture. Summary of data presented   At this forum most recent results of life cycle assessment studies of electric car driving compared to driving fossil- and agro-fuelled cars were presented. The environmental performance of individual and public electric mobility was discussed in view of promising win–win strategies. Policy implications and research needs derived from current LCA work were highlighted. Conclusion   The 43rd LCA forum profited from the input of several topical experts, covering aspects such as electricity demand of electric vehicles in everyday life, marginal electricity supply mixes, design, performance and manufacture of batteries as well as resource and raw materials availability. The following main conclusions were drawn: The main areas of improvement identified during the day are: weight of the car, battery manufacture, electricity mix used to load the batteries, technological dynamics (efficiency gains) and societal dynamics (changes in mobility habits, changing status symbols). All presentations shown during the day are available for download ( www.lcaforum.ch ). Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-5 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0306-6 Authors Rolf Frischknecht, ESU-Services Ltd., Kanzleistrasse 4, 8610 Uster, Switzerland Karin Flury, ESU-Services Ltd., Kanzleistrasse 4, 8610 Uster, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Determination of the ecotoxicity effect factor (EF) in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is based on test data reporting the total dissolved concentration of a substance. In spite of the recognised influence of chemical speciation and physico-chemical characteristics of the aquatic systems on toxicity of dissolved metals, these properties are not considered when calculating characterization factors (CFs) for metals. It is hypothesised that the main cause of the variation in reported EC50 values of Cu among published test results lies in different speciation patterns for Cu in the test media, and that the toxicity of Cu is predominantly caused by the free Cu 2+ ion. Hence, the free Cu 2+ ion concentration should substitute the total dissolved metal concentration when determining the EF. Materials and methods   The study was based on a review of published ecotoxicity studies reporting acute and chronic EC50 data for Cu to Daphnia magna and to different species of fish and algae. The speciation pattern of Cu in the different media applied in the studies was calculated using the Visual MINTEQ model. EFs were calculated according to the expression applied in the USEtox™ characterization model. Results and discussion   Reported EC 50 values for Cu show variations of one to several orders of magnitude for the same organism, but the study indicates that the large variation is caused by differences in water chemistry of the test media influencing the metal speciation. The relationship between the calculated free Cu 2+ ion concentration and reported EC 50 values indicates that the aquatic ecotoxicity of Cu to D. magna can be predicted from the free ion concentration. Other results confirm that the free Cu 2+ ion concentration depends on the [Cu]/[DOC] ratio since the majority of the total dissolved Cu is present as Cu-DOC complexes when the media contains more than 1 mg/L of DOC, and since Cu in such complexes has limited availability to the test organisms. Conclusions   These results suggest that speciation should be taken into account in the modelling of both EFs and fate factors for LCIA, and the EF for Cu in the aquatic environment should be based on the concentration of the free Cu 2+ ion. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0305-7 Authors Karen S. Christiansen, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Peter E. Holm, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Ole K. Borggaard, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild, Section of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, DTU Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The conversion of electricity in Thailand is mainly based on fossil fuels that account more than 90% of electricity generated in the country. The use of fossil fuels has large environmental impacts, and being largely imported, also affects the energy security of the country. From the oil shock situation in 1970s, there has been interest in renewable energy in Thailand resulting in the policy goal for the year 2020 to increase the portion of renewable energy to 20% of energy used in the country. Now, hydropower contributes a significant portion of the renewable energy in Thailand, and mini-hydropower (run-of-river type with capacity between 200 to 6000 kW) tends to be most attractive. This is particularly suitable for Thailand, and it is being applied at several locations. Thus, the overall life cycle assessment (LCA), from cradle to gate, of mini-hydropower plants needs to be assessed for quantitative evaluation. Materials and methods   There are five mini-hydropower plants in this study. The inputs and outputs of materials and energy used since before construction stage to demolition stage are inventoried and assessed via LCA using the CML 2001 baseline methodology for impact assessment. The impact categories considered in this study are global warming (GWP), abiotic depletion (ADP), acidification (ACP), fresh water aquatic toxicity (FWAP), human toxicology (HTP), photochemical oxidation (POP), and fossil fuel resource depletion (FRP) potential. The functional unit used is 1 MWh electricity produced from mini-hydropower plants in Thailand, and the life span of the power plants is 50 years. Results   For each of the environmental impact categories considered, the impact potentials were evaluated for each of the five mini-hydropower plants; 76.39–151.55 g Sb eq/MWh for ADP, 57.28–116.94 g SO 2 eq/MWh for ACP, 11.01–23.01 kg CO 2 eq/MWh for GWP, 23.01–52.05 kg 1,4-DB eq/MWh for HTP, 4.58–9.08 kg 1,4-DB eq/MWh for FWAP, 2.93–7.47 g C 2 H 4 eq/MWh for POP, and 35.11–79.13 g Sb eq/MWh for FRP. Results and discussion   The main contributors to the impacts are the huge amount of materials used for construction of the mini-hydropower plant; sand, gravel, cement, reinforcement steel, pressure pipeline steel, iron, copper, and electric equipment and energy used for construction activities, construction equipment, and transportation. The remoteness of the mini-hydropower plants and the requirement of importing electric equipment technology from overseas are significant contributors to the environmental impacts. Conclusions and perspectives   The environmental “hot spots” are construction and transportation stage because of remoteness, huge amount of materials and energy use in construction period, and the use of imported equipment. Mini-hydropower plants do not only generate power, but being in hilly regions that are often quite scenic, can serve as public knowledge centers for renewable energy. Thus, the multiple purposes of mini-hydropower power plants should be utilized in the future. The proper management of environmental and social issues throughout the project cycle is essential taking into consideration the hydrological cycle and seasonal variations. Fresh water is a necessary resource for many living things and hence necessary to be managed wisely. These study results would serve as basic information for decision makers, environmentalists, and all stakeholders and provide a general picture of environmental impacts from mini-hydropower plants in Thailand. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0311-9 Authors Wannarat Suwanit, The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachauthit Rd., Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok, 10140 Thailand Shabbir H. Gheewala, The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachauthit Rd., Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok, 10140 Thailand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The USEtox model was developed in a scientific consensus process involving comparison of and harmonization between existing environmental multimedia fate models. USEtox quantitatively models the continuum from chemical emission to freshwater ecosystem toxicity via chemical-specific characterization factors (CFs) for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). This work provides understanding of the key mechanisms and chemical parameters influencing fate in the environment and impact on aquatic ecosystems. Materials and method   USEtox incorporates a matrix framework for multimedia modeling, allowing separation of fate, exposure, and ecotoxicity effects in the determination of an overall CF. Current best practices, such as incorporation of intermittent rain and effect factors (EF) based on substance toxicity across species, are implemented in the model. The USEtox database provides a dataset of over 3,000 organic chemicals, of which approximately 2,500 have freshwater EFs. Freshwater characterization factors for these substances, with a special focus on a subset of chemicals with characteristic properties, were analyzed to understand the contributions of fate, exposure, and effect on the overall CFs. The approach was based on theoretical interpretation of the multimedia model components as well as multidimensional graphical analysis. Results and discussion   For direct emission of a substance to water, the EF strongly controls freshwater ecotoxicity, with a range of up to 10 orders of magnitude. In this release scenario, chemical-specific differences in environmental fate influence the CF for freshwater emissions by less than 2 orders of magnitude. However, for an emission to air or soil, the influence of the fate is more pronounced. Chemical partitioning properties between water, air, and soil may drive intermedia transfer, which may be limited by the often uncertain, media-specific degradation half-life. Intermedia transfer may be a function of landscape parameters as well; for example, direct transfer from air to freshwater is limited by the surface area of freshwater. Overall, these altered fate factors may decrease the CF up to 8 orders of magnitude. Conclusions   This work brings new clarity to the relative contributions of fate and freshwater ecotoxicity to the calculation of CFs. In concert with the USEtox database, which provides the most extensive compilation of CFs to date, these findings enable those undertaking LCIA to understand and contextualize existing and newly calculated CFs. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0294-6 Authors Andrew D. Henderson, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 109 South Observatory, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Henrik Fred Larsen, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Stn. Centre-ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas E. McKone, University of California Berkeley, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Jerome Payet, Cycleco, 1011 av. Leon Blum, 01500 Amberieu, France Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 109 South Observatory, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Offshoring of pulpwood production outside Europe is more and more common, which increases transport distances and also changes production technologies, raw material supply and energy production profiles. In this paper, we aim to compare the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of pulp production from Finnish boreal hardwood and from South American eucalyptus. Special emphasis was placed on analysing the contribution of transport to overall climate impacts. Materials and methods   A life cycle assessment (LCA) was used as the system modelling tool. The impact assessment was limited to climate change. Finnish and South American industrial data were combined with data from LCA databases in the life cycle inventory (LCI). Results and discussion   Based on the results, offshoring of pulp production would decrease the global greenhouse gas emissions of pulp production itself. However, transport to Europe outweighs the benefit even if transported by energy efficient ships. In this case study, transportation accounted for 27% of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of South American pulp shipped to Europe. Conclusions   Outsourcing of biomass production offers opportunities for emission reductions. Such a conclusion may be valid if the distances between biomass production and upgrading processes were relatively short. However, this study reveals that the offshoring of biomass production contributes to a significant growth of transport emissions. The trend of offshoring provides challenges for the implementation of emission trading since the responsibility of countries to transoceanic transport is still unclear. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0308-4 Authors Jáchym Judl, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Sirkka Koskela, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Timo Jouttijärvi, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Raw material availability is a cause of concern for many industrial sectors. When addressing resource consumption in life cycle assessment (LCA), current characterisation models for depletion of abiotic resources provide characterisation factors based on (surplus) energy, exergy, or extraction–reserve ratios. However, all indicators presently available share a shortcoming as they neglect the fact that large amounts of raw materials can be stored in material cycles within the technosphere. These “anthropogenic stocks” represent a significant source and can change the material availability significantly. With new characterisation factors, resource consumption in LCA will be assessed by taking into account anthropogenic material stocks in addition to the lithospheric stocks. With these characterisation factors, the scarcity of resources should be reflected more realistically. Materials and methods   This study introduces new characterisation factors—the anthropogenic stock extended abiotic depletion potentials—for the impact category depletion of abiotic resources. The underlying characterisation model is based on the conventional model but substitutes ultimate reserves by resources and adds anthropogenic material stocks to the lithospheric stocks. Results and discussion   A fictional life cycle inventory, consisting of 1 kg of several metals, was evaluated using different characterisation factors for depletion of abiotic resources. Within this analysis it is revealed that materials with relatively large anthropogenic stocks, e.g. antimony and mercury , contribute comparatively less to abiotic depletion when using the new characterisation factors. Within a normalized comparison of characterisation factors, the impact of anthropogenic stock results in relative differences between −45% and +65%, indicating that anthropogenic stocks are significant. Conclusions   With the new parameterisation of the model, depletion of abiotic resources can be assessed in a meaningful way, enabling a more realistic material availability analysis within life cycle impact assessment. However, a larger set of characterisation factors and further research are needed to verify the applicability of the concept within LCA practice. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0313-7 Authors Laura Schneider, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Markus Berger, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Matthias Finkbeiner, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The main purpose of this study has been to document the environmental performance of products based on autoline-caught cod and the distribution of environmental impacts in the value chain from fishing to retail. Another aim has been to document the performed environmental improvement analyses. Methods   Standard life cycle assessment methodology has been employed and the following impact categories studied: global warming potential (GWP), acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation, ozone layer depletion and cumulative energy demand. Results and discussion   Products derived from autoline-caught cod have a GWP in the range of 0.16–7.6/1.7–4.4 kg CO2-eq/kg product delivered to consumer, using economic and mass allocation, respectively. The main impacts come from fuel consumption and release of refrigerants in the fishery. The products studied represent each of the four major processing outputs. The differences between the products can partly be attributed to differences in methodology (system borders, allocation), partly to actual physical differences. A comparison with published results from other studies indicates that seafood products sourced from Northeast Arctic cod fished with the autoline method has a relatively good environmental performance. A number of possible options for improving the environmental performance of the products were identified. The most internal improvement action was stopping leakages in fish freezers. Conclusions   This study has given a detailed overview of the environmental performance of seafood products sourced from Northeast Arctic cod from autoline fisheries in Norwegian territorial waters. This study has demonstrated the usefulness of such results in improving the environmental performance of the products. However, the usefulness of the results in communication to external actors is limited because few data exists on other products fulfilling the same functions and using the exact same methodology and assumptions. In order to achieve comparability between results from competing products, it is necessary to use a standardised and detailed calculation method. At the moment, no such method seems to be available. The literature study indicated that the environmental impact of Northeast Arctic cod products sourced from autoline fisheries compares well with other cod products on the market. Some cod stocks are sustainably managed, others not. Hence, it is recommended to break down results not only to species level but also fish stock level when the aim is to guide seafood customers towards making informed purchasing decisions. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0298-2 Authors Erik Svanes, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Mie Vold, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Ole Jørgen Hanssen, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: LCA in New Zealand Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0299-1 Authors Barbara Nebel, LCANZ, 11 Rawhiti Road, Pukerua Bay 5026, Wellington, New Zealand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Few studies have examined differing interpretations of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results between midpoints and endpoints for the same systems. This paper focuses on the LCIA of municipal solid waste (MSW) systems by taking both the midpoint and endpoint approaches and uses LIME (Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method based on Endpoint Modeling, version 2006). With respect to global and site-dependent factors, environmental impact categories were divided into global, regional, and local scales. Results are shown as net emissions consisting of system emissions and avoided emissions. Materials and methods   This study is divided into five segments. The first segment develops the LCIA framework and four MSW scenarios based on the current MSW composition and systems of Seoul, considering adaptable results from the hierarchy MSW systems. In addition, two systems are considered: main MSW systems and optional systems. Several “what if” scenarios are discussed, including various compositions and classifications of MSW. In the second segment, life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis is applied to define various inputs and outputs to and from MSW systems, including air (23 categories), water (28 categories) and land (waste) emissions, resource consumption, land use, recovered material, compost, landfill gas, biogas, and heat energy. The third segment, taking the midpoint approach, investigates the nine environmental impacts of the system and avoided emissions. In the fourth segment, this study, taking the endpoint approach, evaluates the damages, dividing the four safeguard subjects affected by 11 environmental impact categories of the system and avoided emissions. In these third and fourth segments, LCIA is applied to analyze various end-of-life scenarios for same MSW materials. The final segment defines the differences from the results in accordance with the two previous life cycle assessment methodologies (the LCIA and interpretations with respect to midpoints and endpoints). Results and discussion   With the respect to midpoints, Scenario 1 (S1) using 100% landfills (L) is the worst performer in terms of global (global warming and resource consumption), regional (acidification, human toxicity, and ecotoxicity), and local (waste: landfill volume) impacts. In terms of all impacts except global warming and waste, Scenario 2 (S2) using 64.2% L and 35.8% material recycling (MR) was found to be the most effective system. With respect to global-scale endpoints, S1 was the worst performer in terms of human health and social assets, whereas the other scenarios with MR were poor and bad performers in terms of biodiversity and primary production. With respect to regional- and local-scale endpoints, S1 was the worst performer in terms of human health, biodiversity, and primary production, whereas Scenario 4 (S4) using 4.2% L (only incombustibles), 35.8% MR, 28.5% biological treatment (BT), and 31.5% incineration (I) was the worst performer in terms of social assets. S4 was the best performer in terms of global-scale endpoints, whereas S2 and Scenario 3 (S3, using 35.7% L, 35.8% MR, and 28.5% BT) were the best on regional- and local-scale endpoints, respectively. With respect to the monetization analysis, which considered net emissions and integrated all endpoints, S3 was found to be “the most effective system,” indicating US $31.6 savings per ton-waste. Conclusions   The results of this study illustrate the differences in the LCIA outcomes and interpretations with respect to the midpoint and endpoint approaches. In addition, it would be possible to interpret the effect of each indicator on safeguard subjects by integrating separate midpoints. The LCIA results of each endpoint for the scenarios were generally consistent with those of each midpoint. However, the results changed dramatically when the main contributor was a new category not included in midpoint categories. The key advantage with respect to grouping impact categories in the midpoint and endpoint approaches can be described as “the simplification of midpoints and the segmentation of endpoints.” Recommendations and perspectives   This research raises many questions that warrant further research. This method does not provide an uncertainty evaluation of input data at the inventory level; it addresses only the main contributor for each impact category to four endpoints. In addition, it would be beneficial to investigate the suitability of midpoints and endpoints for different stakeholders with a low or high level of environmental expertise by comparing previous studies. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-17 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0297-3 Authors Sora Yi, Department of Urban Planning Research, Daejeon Development Institute, 160-20, Wolpyong-dong, Seo-Gu, Daejeon, 302-280 South Korea Kiyo H. Kurisu, Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656 Japan Keisuke Hanaki, Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656 Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of the study was to compare three recent Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models in prioritizing substances and products from national emission inventories. The focus was on ecotoxic and human toxic impacts. The aim was to test model output against expert judgment on chemical risk assessment. Materials and methods   An emission inventory was collected for Finland describing the year 2005. The inventory included publicly reported emissions to air and water and it was complemented by the emissions of tributyltin, benzene, and pesticides from research papers and statistics. The emissions were characterized with three LCIA models: IMPACT 2002+, ReCiPe, and USEtox and priority substances were identified. The results were connected to an environmentally extended input–output model to study priority products and supply chains. A comparison was made with two integrated assessments of the chemical status and human exposure in the Baltic region. Results and discussion   The three assessed models presented very different priorities. In ecotoxicity, IMPACT2002+ and USEtox highlighted heavy metals while ReCiPe focused on tributyltin. The integrated assessment identified both groups. In human toxicity, IMPACT2002+ and the integrated assessment focused on organic air pollutants while USEtox and ReCiPe identified mainly metals. Conclusions   LCIA models can be used for priority setting in chemical emission control and consumption based analyses. However the models give differing prioritizations so care must be taken in model selection. The studied models differed from expert assessment mostly in substances which are bioaccumulative. Further studies in including bioaccumulation to LCIA models of toxic impact are recommended. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0295-5 Authors Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Matti Verta, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Jyri Seppälä, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper is the second part of a two-paper series dealing with the sustainability evaluation of a new communicative packaging concept. The communicative packaging concept includes a device that allows changing the expiry date of the product as function of temperature during transport and storage: a flexible best-before-date (FBBD). Such device was analysed in a consumer unit consisting of a nanoclay-based polylactic acid tray filled with pork chops. Methods   An economic assessment was made through the use of life cycle costing (LCC) methodology proposed by Bovea and Vidal (Resources, Conservation and Recycling Volume 41, Issue 2, May 2004, Pages 133–145) where both internal and external costs were considered. Furthermore, the social aspects were analysed using a contingent valuation (CV) of the willingness to pay (WTP). The sustainability assessment of FBBD was made through the combination of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCC results, together with the CV of the WTP according to the method proposed by Bovea and Vidal. It was assumed that the use of the FBBD minimizes the food losses from 3.5% to 0.5%. Results and discussion   LCC results show that internal costs related to pork chops and logistic supply chain life cycle represent more than 90% of life cycle cost. The use of FBBD communicative device could increase pork chop selling price between 0.01 and 0.1 € since the purchasing cost of this communicative device is included in this price. WTP results show that FBBD purchasing cost for consumer acceptance is estimated as 0.05 €/FBBD. Therefore, only pork chop selling price for scenarios 1 (0.05 €/device) and 3 (0.01 €/device) could be accepted by consumers. The most sustainable situation is reached when the cost of the FBBD is as less as possible (0.01 €). Conclusions   The use of FBBD communicative device has economic advantages for perishable products since it contributes to the increase in the economic savings due to the reduction of food losses. However, these economic savings represent a small percentage over pork chop selling price, and therefore, an FBBD price less than 0.02 €/device is required. If a lower price for the communicative device is reached, satisfying the WTP of consumers (0.05 €/FBBD), the communicative package will be much more sustainable. Recommendations   It is expected that the competitiveness of FBBD communicative device will be improved in the future. This might be accomplished by reducing FBBD production and distribution costs and increasing their social acceptance, providing more sustainable solutions. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0291-9 Authors Antonio Dobon, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Pilar Cordero, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Fatima Kreft, Agrotechnology & Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research Centre, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen, Postbus 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Søren R. Østergaard, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark Helle Antvorskov, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark Mats Robertsson, Acreo AB, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden Maria Smolander, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Mercedes Hortal, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The demand of PET bottles has increased rapidly in the past decades. The purpose of this study is to understand the environmental impact of PET recycling system, in which used bottles are recycled into both fibre and bottles, and to compare the recycling system with single-use PET. Methods   Consequential LCA modelling was applied to understand four change-oriented effects for the recycling system. These include the effect of multiple-recycling trips, the effect of changing the share of recycled PET pellets used to make bottles or fibre, the effect of changing the reference system and the effect of introducing bio-based PET. The functional unit of the baseline case was determined as 350 kg of bottles and 650 kg of fibre based on the current market demand of PET. The system boundary is cradle to grave excluding the use phase. We applied the “system expansion” method to open-loop recycling. The analysis compares the baseline recycling system, where PET is recycled once, with the reference system, where PET is not recycled. The environmental impacts assessed are non-renewable energy use and global warming. Results and discussion   The baseline recycling system reduces both impacts by 20% when compared to the reference system. Multiple-recycling trips can maximally reduce the impacts by 26% but the additional savings are negligible after three recycling trips. Bottle-to-fibre recycling offers more impact reduction than bottle-to-bottle recycling when more fibre is needed than bottles in a functional unit. The maximal impact reduction of 25% can be achieved when all recycled PET pellets are used to make fibre. If the functional unit is reversed, i.e. changed to 650 kg of bottles and 350 kg of fibre, 30% of the impact reduction can be achieved. Both impacts can be further reduced when the quantity of the recycled PET is maximised. The bio-based PET recycling system, offers at least 36% impact reduction, has the lowest impact among all systems studied. The sensitivity analyses show that the recycled PET content in a recycled bottle is not influential to the overall environmental performance. Conclusions   All PET recycling systems in this study show important impact reduction compared to the reference system. The impact savings are around 20–30% depends on the configurations of the recycling system. We conclude that the system’s environmental impact can be optimised by maximising the amount of recycled PET in the system and by using bio-based polymers. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0296-4 Authors Li Shen, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Evert Nieuwlaar, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Ernst Worrell, Department of Innovation and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Martin K. Patel, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose Previous estimates of carbon payback time (CPT) of corn ethanol expansion assumed that marginal yields of newly converted lands are the same as the average corn yield, whereas reported marginal yields are generally lower than the average yield (47–83 % of average yield). Furthermore, these estimates assumed that the productivity of corn ethanol system and climate change impacts per unit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remain the same over decades to a century. The objective of this study is to re-examine CPT of corn ethanol expansion considering three aspects: (1) yields of newly converted lands (i.e., marginal yield), (2) technology improvements over time within the corn ethanol system, and (3) temporal sensitivity of climate change impacts. Methods A new approach to CPT calculation is proposed, where changes in productivity of ethanol conversion process and corn yield are taken into account. The approach also allows the use of dynamic characterization approach to GHGs emitted in different times, as an option. Data are collected to derive historical trends of bioethanol conversion efficiency and corn yield, which inform the development of the scenarios for future biofuel conversion efficiency and corn yield. Corn ethanol’s CPTs are estimated and compared for various marginal-to-average (MtA) yield ratios with and without considering technology improvements and time-dependent climate change impacts. Results and discussion The results show that CPT estimates are highly sensitive to both MtA yield ratio and productivity of ethanol system. Without technological advances, our CPT estimates for corn ethanol from newly converted Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land exceed 100 years for all MtA yield ratios tested except for the case where MtA yield ratio is 100 %. When the productivity improvements within corn ethanol systems since previous CPT estimates and their future projections are considered, our CPT estimates fall into the range of 15 years (100 % MtA yield ratio) to 56 years (50 % MtA yield ratio), assuming land conversion takes place in early 2000s. Incorporating diminishing sensitivity of GHG emissions to future emissions year by year, however, increases the CPT estimates by 57 to 13 % (from 17 years for 100 % MtA yield ratio to 88 years for 50 % MtA yield ratio). For 60 MtA yield ratio, CPT is estimated to be 43 years, which is relatively close to previous CPT estimates (i.e., 40 to 48 years) but with very different underlying reasons. Conclusions This study highlights the importance of considering technological advances in understanding the climate change implications of land conversion for corn ethanol. Without the productivity improvements in corn ethanol system, the prospect of paying off carbon debts from land conversion within 100 years becomes unlikely. Even with the ongoing productivity improvements, the yield of newly converted land can significantly affect the CPT. The results reinforce the importance of considering marginal technologies and technology change in prospective life cycle assessment.

Description: Purpose The security of the supply of resources is a key policy and business concern. This concern has been increasingly addressed by bodies such as the European Commission to help identify materials of potential concern in terms of economic importance and supply risks. Equally, tools such as life cycle assessment (LCA) systematically compile inventories of the resources attributable to the supply of goods and services. Such well-established tools, hence, provide an important opportunity for business and governments for strategic management and for identifying improvement options that reduce reliance on so-called critical raw materials (CRMs). This paper explores current practice and the potential of LCA to help business and governments more systematically assess their supply chains. Methods Raw materials of concern to business and governments in relation to security of supply are denoted as critical . This paper highlights how such CRMs are identified in the existing methodologies. It then focuses on LCA methodology and explores its potential in providing information on CRMs at different levels: considering the flows of CRMs at inventory level, including criticality criteria in the impact assessment, and analyzing the flows of CRMs associated with the consumption of goods and services at macroeconomic scale. Results and discussion Consideration of resource security can be specifically addressed in LCA starting from the goal and scope definition. These CRMs may otherwise be neglected due to cut-off criteria based, e.g., on quantity. If systematically addressed, LCA can provide such CRM information routinely at inventory level. Inclusion of further indicators under the Area of Protection (AoP) “Resources” in LCA may also ensure such assessments more systematically address issues such as criticality. In strategic analysis, as those at macroeconomic scale, LCA results at the inventory (e.g., amounts of CRMs domestically extracted and those used for producing imported and exported intermediate products) and at impact assessment level can better support decision making. Conclusions At both microscale and macroscale, LCA might have more potential in capturing hot spots and improvement opportunities of raw materials of concern, not only in terms of scarcity. This paper highlights that LCA is well positioned for providing information on resource-related issues of concern to business and governments such as the criticality of raw materials used in the supply chains. The paper outlines the methodological developments that could enhance LCA potential to further support resource assessments to help more systematically meet such business and governmental interests.

Description: Purpose USEtox is a scientific consensus model for assessing human toxicological and ecotoxicological impacts that is widely used in life cycle assessment (LCA) and other comparative assessments. However, how user requirements are met has never been investigated. To guide future model developments, we analyzed user expectations and experiences and compared them with the developers’ visions. Methods We applied qualitative and quantitative data collection methods including an online questionnaire, semi-structured user and developer interviews, and review of scientific literature. Questionnaire and interview results were analyzed in an actor-network perspective in order to understand user needs and to compare these with the developers’ visions. Requirement engineering methods, more specifically function tree, system context, and activity diagrams, were iteratively applied and structured to develop specific user requirements-driven recommendations for setting priorities in future USEtox development and for discussing general implications for developing scientific models. Results and discussion The vision behind USEtox was to harmonize available data and models for assessing toxicological impacts in LCA and to provide global guidance for practitioners. Model developers show different perceptions of some underlying aspects including model transparency and expected user expertise. Users from various sectors and geographic regions apply USEtox mostly in research and for consulting. Questionnaire and interview results uncover various user requests regarding USEtox usability. Results were systematically analyzed to translate user requests into recommendations to improve USEtox from a user perspective and were afterwards applied in the further USEtox development process. Conclusions We demonstrate that understanding interactions between USEtox and its users helps guiding model development and dissemination. USEtox-specific recommendations are to (1) respect the application context for different user types, (2) provide detailed guidance for interpreting model and factors, (3) facilitate consistent integration into LCA software and methods, (4) improve update/testing procedures, (5) strengthen communication between developers and users, and (6) extend model scope. By generalizing our recommendations to guide scientific model development in a broader context, we emphasize to acknowledge different levels of user expertise to integrate sound revision and update procedures and to facilitate modularity, data import/export, and incorporation into relevant software and databases during model design and development. Our fully documented approach can inspire performing similar surveys on other LCA-related tools to consistently analyze user requirements and provide improvement recommendations based on scientific user analysis methods.

Description: Background, aim and scope   Nanostructured polymer particles are produced to be used in ball grid array (BGA) and chip scale packaging (CSP). The technology could replace conventional BGA and CSP metal balls, and the hypothesis is that the shift could be eco-efficient as polymer core particles increase the reliability. For the first time, these particles are environmentally evaluated. Materials and methods   The change in GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) scores when replacing traditional component packaging, here quad flat pack to BGA/CSP, was explored both on component and printed circuit board assembly (PCBA) level. This was followed by comparisons between BGA packages using different types of metal-plated monodispersed polymer particle (MPP) balls and conventional balls, respectively. Results and discussion   For BGAs, the silicon (Si) die dominates CO 2 e emissions, but for Eco-Indicator’99(H), solder balls are not negligible. Excluding the Si die and component assembly, the LFBGA-84 to WCSP-64 would reduce CO 2 e by about 98% and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) by about 90%. Overall, for BGA–256 using same size balls, gold-plated MPP technology decreases the Eco-Indicator’99(H) score by about 25% compared to Pb-based or Pb-free balls. Gold production dominated GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) for the gold-plated MPP. Each microsystem is unique, and new environmental impact estimations must be done for the sub-structures of each electronic device. Screening process-sum life cycle assessment (LCA) gives similar understanding of impacts as resource productivity methods. Even though the metal mass per ball is greatly reduced, it is a weak indicator of environmental impacts which are driven by each material’s specific environmental characteristics. Conclusions   The ball share of the BGA-256 GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) score is small, and the BGA/CSP producers can marginally improve the environmental performance by focusing on the balls. On a comparable IC packaging basis, the introduction of WCSP packaging technology implies a significant environmental footprint reduction. On PCBA level, the contribution of BGA balls is negligible. Results for metal-plated MPP BGA balls suggest that gold usage is the key environmental performance indicator of interest. Recommendations and perspectives   Even though WCSP clearly reduces the component level impacts, the PCBA (board) level impact could increase as the CSP miniaturisation is paralleled with more PWB layers. This effect should be included in further system expansions. For LCA, in general, update of all LCIA methods, which include ozone depletion, with the latest results for dinitrogen monoxide is needed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0260-3 Authors Anders S. G. Andrae, Huawei Technologies Sweden AB, P.O. Box 54, 16494 Kista, Sweden Otto Andersen, Western Norway Research Institute, P.O. Box 163, 6851 Sogndal, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There has been an increased interest in utilizing renewable energy sources in district heating systems. District heating systems are centralized systems that provide heat for residential and commercial buildings in a community. While various renewable and conventional energy sources can be used in such systems, many stakeholders are interested in choosing the feasible option with the least environmental impacts. This paper evaluates and compares environmental burdens of alternative energy source options for the base–load of a district heating center in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) using the life cycle assessment method. The considered energy sources include natural gas, wood pellet, sewer heat, and ground heat. Methods   The life cycle stages considered in the LCA model cover all stages from fuel production, fuel transmission/transportation, construction, operation, and finally demolition of the district heating system. The impact categories were analyzed based on the IMPACT 2002+ method. Results and discussion   On a life-cycle basis, the global warming effect of renewable energy options were at least 200 kgeqCO2 less than that of the natural gas option per MWh of heat produced by the base–load system. It was concluded that less than 25% of the upstream global warming impact associated with the wood pellet energy source option was due to transportation activities and about 50% of that was resulted from wood pellet production processes. In comparison with other energy options, the wood pellets option has higher impacts on respiratory of inorganics, terrestrial ecotoxicity, acidification, and nutrification categories. Among renewable options, the global warming impact of heat pump options in the studied case in Vancouver, BC, were lower than the wood pellet option due to BC's low carbon electricity generation profile. Ozone layer depletion and mineral extraction were the highest for the heat pump options due to extensive construction required for these options. Conclusions   Natural gas utilization as the primary heat source for district heat production implies environmental complications beyond just the global warming impacts. Diffusing renewable energy sources for generating the base–load district heat would reduce human toxicity, ecosystem quality degradation, global warming, and resource depletion compared to the case of natural gas. Reducing fossil fuel dependency in various stages of wood pellet production can remarkably reduce the upstream global warming impact of using wood pellets for district heat generation. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0259-9 Authors Saeed Ghafghazi, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2943–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T-1Z4, Canada Taraneh Sowlati, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2931–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T-1Z4, Canada Shahab Sokhansanj, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada Xiaotao Bi, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada Staffan Melin, Delta Research Corporation, Delta, BC V4L 2L5, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Information and communication technology (ICT) has been proposed as a means to facilitate environmental sustainability. Dematerialisation is one potential way of doing this. For books, this could be realized through using e-book readers, which share many of the qualities of printed media and have notably low-energy requirements during use. The main aim of this study was to analyse the environmental impacts of an e-book read on an e-book reader, and to identify key issues determining the magnitude of the impact. A second aim was to compare the e-book product system with a paper book product system using a life cycle perspective. Materials and methods   A screening LCA was performed on an e-book produced and read in Sweden. The e-book reader was assumed to be produced in China. The data used were general data from Ecoinvent 2.0 and site-specific data from companies participating in the study, whenever average data were not available. Results and discussion   The results showed that production of the e-book reader was the life cycle step contributing most to the environmental impact of the system studied, although data on the e-ink screen were lacking. The disposal phase leads to avoided impact as materials are recycled; however, these results are less certain due to limited data availability. When the e-book was compared with a paper book, the results indicated that the number of books read on the e-book reader during its lifetime was crucial when evaluating its environmental performance compared with paper books. The results indicate that there are impact categories and circumstances where paper books are preferable to e-books from an environmental perspective and vice versa. Conclusions   There is no single answer as to which book is better from an environmental perspective according to the results of the current study. To improve the e-book environmental performance, an e-book reader should be used frequently, the life time of the device should be prolonged, as far as possible, and when not in use anymore, the device should be disposed of in a proper way, making material recycling possible. In addition, the production of the e-reader should be energy efficient and striving towards minimisation of toxic and rare substances. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0255-0 Authors Åsa Moberg, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Clara Borggren, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Göran Finnveden, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites is gaining momentum with the pressure to lightweight vehicles; however energy intensity and cost remain major barriers to the wide-scale adoption of this material for automotive applications. This study determines the relative life cycle benefits of two precursor types (conventional textile-type acrylic fibers and renewable-based lignin), part manufacturing technologies (conventional SMC and P4), and a fiber recycling technology. Materials and methods   A representative automotive part, i.e., a 30.8-kg steel floor pan having a 17% weight reduction potential with stringent crash performance requirements, has been considered for the life cycle energy and emissions analysis. Four scenarios—combinations of the precursor types and manufacturing technologies—are compared to the stamped steel baseline part. Results and discussion   The analysis finds the lignin-based part made through P4 technology to offer the greatest life cycle energy and CO 2 emissions benefits. Carbon fiber production is estimated to be about 14 times more energy-intensive than conventional steel production; however, life cycle primary energy use is estimated to be quite similar to the conventional part, i.e., 18,500 MJ/part, especially when considering the uncertainty in LCI data that exist from using numerous sources in the literature. Conclusions   The sensitivity analysis concludes that with a 20% reduction in energy use in the conversion of lignin to carbon fiber and no energy use incurred in lignin production since lignin is a by-product of ethanol and paper production, a 30% reduction in life cycle energy use could be obtained. A similar level of life cycle energy savings could also be obtained with a higher part weight reduction potential of 43%. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0264-z Authors Sujit Das, Energy and Transportation Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2360 Cherahala Blvd, Knoxeville, TN 37934, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    This book provides detailed information about comparative LCA of different solders used in electronics. As Life Cycle Impact Assessment, the Japanese LIME method is used. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-2 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0262-1 Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Methods   The main objective of this study is to combine the environmental evaluation of a basic wood box used to store wine bottles by means of the integration of two environmental methodologies: a quantitative methodology known as life cycle assessment (LCA) and a qualitative methodology which is useful in integrating environmental aspects into design, that is, the design for the environment (DfE). The LCA study covers the life cycle of wood box production from a cradle-to-gate perspective. A wood processing company located in Galicia (NW, Spain) was analysed in detail, dividing the process chain into five stages: cogeneration unit, material assembling, painting, packaging and distribution to clients. Results   Abiotic depletion (AD), acidification, eutrophication, global warming, ozone layer depletion (OD), photochemical oxidant formation (PO), human toxicity (HT) and toxicological impact categories (HT, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, marine aquatic ecotoxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity) were the impact categories analysed in the LCA study. According to the environmental results, the assembling stage contributed more than 57% to all impact categories, followed by the cogeneration unit and packaging. Contributions from packaging are mainly due to transoceanic transport activities related to the rope distribution and wood-based materials production. In addition, it is interesting to remark that all energy requirements were produced by on-site cogeneration boilers using a non-renewable fossil fuel. Several processes were identified as hot spots in this study: medium density fibreboards (MDF) production (with large contribution to ecotoxicity categories), energy production (with contributions to AD, GW and OD) and finally, the transportation of jute fibres (the main contributor to all the impact categories). Concerning the results from the DfE, the proposed eco-design strategies were evaluated from a technological, economic and social point of view by an interdisciplinary team of researchers and enterprise’s workers. The results show that the strategies with more viability of improvement were: reduction of resources used, multifunctional design, substitution of MDF by plywood, substitution of jute fibres, alternatives to the ink, optimization of energy requirement, transport alternatives for the final product and inputs distribution and definition of a protocol for disassembling the product. Conclusions   The results obtained in this work allow forecasting the importance of the chosen raw materials as well as their origin for the environmental burdens associated with the wood-based box manufacture. Future work will focus on the manufacturing of a prototype eco-designed wood-based box. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0261-2 Authors Sara González-García, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Francisco Javier Silva, FINSA, Carretera N-550 km 57, 15890 Santiago de Compostela, Spain María Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Rosario Castilla Pascual, Innovation and Technology Area, CIS MADEIRA, Galician Park of Technology, Avenida de Galicia 5, San Cibrao das Viñas, 32901 Ourense, Spain Raúl García Lozano, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Xavier Gabarrell, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Joan Rieradevall i Pons, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The goal of this paper is to describe the life cycle inventory (LCI) approach of energy produced by ArcelorMittal Steel Power Plant Poland (AMSPPP) in Krakow, Poland. The present LCI is representative for the reference year 2005 by application of ISO 14040: 2006. The system boundaries were labeled as gate-to-gate (it covered full process chain for energy production). Background data of inputs and outputs from the steel power plant have been inventoried as follows: consumption of energy and fuels, including: power coal (domestic), natural gas, blast furnace gas and coke oven gas, emission of air pollutants, emissions of particulate, air emissions from stockpiles, wastes, internal transport, and land use. Main feature   LCI energy generation was developed mainly on the basis of following sources: site-specific measured or calculated data, life cycle assessment (LCA) study carried out by Polish Academy of Science in Kraków, AMSPPP Environmental Impact Report, Company and literature information and expert consultations. The functional unit is represented by 977 MW of generated electric and heat energies, distributed to ArcelorMittal Steel Plant processes and to the Krakow’s grid. Time coverage is 2005. Operating parameters as well as air emissions associated with the power plant boilers were presented. The production data (steams: 9, 1.6, and 0.8 MPa, electric energy, degassing softening water, softening water heat, and blast furnace blow) were given. The emissions of SO 2 , NO x , CO, CH 4 , HCl, dust, heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Mn), pollution factors (BOD 5 , COD) of waste water released from ash, slag, and sludge disposals were estimated. Finally, emission of CO 2 was calculated. Continuous monitoring of air pollutant emissions conducted in two emitter units related to 977 MW energy produced in AMSPPP was discussed. Results and discussion   Related to 977 MW of energy production distributed by AMSPPP, the consumption of blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, and natural gas were 1,279.7, 47,441, and 2,080 Mm 3 /year, respectively. Other fuel consumption, power coal (domestic), was 315,680 Mg/year. The production data of steams: 9, 1.6, and 0.8 MPa were estimated at 3,689,640; 227,642; and 335,010 Mg, respectively. The volume of heat was about 1,529,610 GJ. Degassing softening water and softening water represented 1,066,674 and 2,124,466 m 3 . Electric energy amount was on the order 441,188 MWh, and resulting value of the blast furnace blow was 3,076,606,000 m 3 . Nominal powers of the power plant boilers ranged from 149 to 177 MW. Direct dust, SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO emissions into the air from seven boilers (Nos. 1–7) were 33, 159.9, 134, and 8 kg/h, and from boiler No. 8 (coal-only) were 17.70, 222.6, 112, and 1.11 kg/h, respectively. Total CO 2 emission was 1,802,902 Mg. Direct CO 2 emissions from burning of power coal, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, and finally natural gas were 674,317, 1,084,797, 39,802, and 3,986 Mg, respectively. The amounts of SO 2 , NO x (expressed as NO 2 eq.) CO, CH 4 , HCl and dust emissions were 3,138.1, 2,648.5, 48.1, 575.08, 117.2, and 622.1 Mg, respectively. Contents of Mg, Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Mn in ash were on the order of 19.4, 1.8, 60, 50, 45, and 475 mg/kg, respectively (max. values, 28.4, 2.3, 75, 68, 59, 682, respectively). COD and BOD 5 ranged 1.2 to 17 and 10.9 to 42.7 mg O 2 /dm 3 , respectively. Contribution of power coal stockpiles to heavy metal emissions was relatively small. The amounts of ash–sludge mixtures and carbon volatile ash during stock of power coal were 53,078.1 and 11,272 Mg, respectively. Data concerning pollutants into air from continuous monitoring were not included due to a limitation of the available data. The time coverage of the data collected from continuous monitoring is 2006. Conclusions   This is the first tentative study to express energy generation in industry in Poland in terms of LCA/LCI for the energy power in steel industry. The results of the study suggest that reduction of the amount of power coal leads to saving of primary resources and reduction of SO 2 emissions, decrease land occupation caused by power coal stockpiles, and increase recovery of the blast furnace gas, as well as, coke oven gas surplus. The results may help ArcelorMittal Steel Plant government make decisions in policy making. Presentation of the study in this paper is suitable for the energy production processes, as well as other industries. Recommendations and outlook   The LCI offers environmental information consisting on the list of environmental loads. The impact assessment phase aims the results from the inventory analysis to be more understandable and life cycle impact assessment will be the direction for future research. Another issue to discuss is integration of LCA and risk assessment for industrial processes. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0292-8 Authors Boguslaw Bieda, Management Department, AGH University of Science and Technology, ul. Gramatyka 10, Krakow, 30-067 Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There has been an increasing use of plastic motor car fuel tanks in recent decades with the expected benefits of lighter weight, shape flexibility and lower cost. In this paper, the environmental life cycle assessments of mild steel and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) car fuel tanks in Japan are compared for two cases, namely the current average processes (base case), and for the same processes with the maximum currently feasible pollution control technology installed. Materials and methods   Primarily, data from Japan are used for a life cycle inventory analysis, followed by an impact assessment based on the Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method Based on Endpoint Modelling and five other indicators. Results and discussion   Mild steel shows a notably higher inventory for resources iron, manganese, zinc, coking coal, combustion coal, dolomite, limestone; for the air pollutants nitrogen oxides (NOx) from mobile sources, PM 10 , sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons; and for solid waste (slag). HDPE has a higher inventory for resources liquefied natural gas reserves, oil reserves, for the air pollutants carbon dioxide, NO x from non-mobile sources and sulphur oxides. The base case environmental impact assessment results for six indicators show HDPE and steel to have similar impacts for all but one of the indicators. With pollution control, the feasible reductions in respective pollutant inventories range from 0% to 97%, while the corresponding impact assessment shows indicator values reduced by 0% to 29%, with slightly improved performance of mild steel relative to HDPE. Conclusions   Accounting for a 62-year period of use and recycling for the mild steel would show a further decrease in the impact of the mild steel relative to HDPE. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0277-7 Authors Ndumiso G. Dlamini, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Kenta Fujimura, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Eiji Yamasue, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Hideyuki Okumura, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Keiichi N. Ishihara, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As new alternative automotive fuels are being developed, life cycle assessment (LCA) is being used to assess the sustainability of these new options. A fuel LCA is commonly referred as a “Well To Wheels” analysis and calculates the environmental impacts of producing the fuel (the “Well To Tank” stage) and using it to move a car (the “Tank To Wheels” stage, TTW). The TTW environmental impacts are the main topic of this article. Materials and methods   Renault’s cars pollutant emissions are measured on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) to comply with Euro regulations. The results have been used to show the variability of the emissions in the TTW stage. Five E85 flex-fuel vehicles were also tested to check their compliance with Euro standards, enabling to show the effect of an alternative fuel such as ethanol on pollutant emissions. Finally, Euro standard emission thresholds were transposed into environmental impacts to see how they affect TTW results. Results and discussion   The TTW stage is very significant for the environmental impacts selected. The results show the unpredictable variability of the impacts between vehicles and when switching from gasoline to ethanol (E85). However, this variability is inferior compared with the differences between cars complying with different Euro standards. Conclusions   Measured emissions on a car on NEDC cycle may not be suitable as the input data for TTW calculations. Euro standards associated with average fuel consumptions may be used as the basis for TTW impacts and should be chosen carefully in order to be relevant with the scope of the study. This leads to a functional unit, which is defined as the quantity of fuel needed to move a car that is representative of the average fleet that uses the fuel on 1 km. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0273-y Authors Florent Querini, Institut Pprime CNRS - Université de Poitiers (IRIAF), ENSMA UPR 3346 Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA - Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Jean-Christophe Béziat, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Stéphane Morel, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Valérie Boch, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Patrick Rousseaux, Institut Pprime CNRS - Université de Poitiers (IRIAF), ENSMA UPR 3346 Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA - Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper describes part of the first detailed environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of Australian red meat (beef and sheep meat) production. The study was intended to assist the methodological development of life cycle impact assessment by examining the feasibility of new indicators for natural resource management (NRM) issues relevant to soil management in agricultural LCA. This paper is intended to describe the NRM indicators directly related to agricultural soil chemistry. Materials and methods   Three nutrient management indicators—nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) balances—were estimated on the basis of 1 kg of hot standard carcass weight (HSCW) for three grazing properties in Australia. We also examined a soil acidification indicator based on the effects of agricultural practices. Results and discussion   The N balance for the grazing properties varied from a loss of 28 g N/kg HSCW to an accumulation of 170 g N/kg HSCW. For comparison, the N content of cattle is about 24 g/kg liveweight. The main contributors to these changes were the growth of N-fixing pastures (or lack thereof) and the application of fertilisers. The P and the K balances showed similar results, varying from a 3.9-g loss to a 19-g accumulation of P and a 4-g loss to a 95-g accumulation of K per kilogram HSCW. Decisions about pasture management were also reflected in the results of the soil acidification indicator. We also identified that soil erosion at the grazing properties is a significant component of nutrient losses. Conclusions   The results suggest that reducing the leaching of soil N might be the best way to balance the N budget without causing acidification. The NRM indicators developed can be benchmarked against other production systems as the application of these indicators progresses. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0279-5 Authors Gregory M. Peters, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Stephen Wiedemann, FSA Consulting, Toowoomba, QLD Australia Hazel V. Rowley, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Robyn Tucker, FSA Consulting, Toowoomba, QLD Australia Andrew J. Feitz, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Matthias Schulz, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Over the past two decades, consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) has emerged as a modeling approach for capturing environmental impacts of product systems beyond physical relationships accounted for in attributional LCA (ALCA). Put simply, CLCA represents the convergence of LCA and economic modeling approaches. Method   In this study, a systematic literature review of CLCA is performed. Results   While initial efforts to integrate the two modeling methods relied on simple partial equilibrium (PE) modeling and a heuristic approach to determining affected technologies, more recent techniques incorporate sophisticated economic models for this purpose. In the last 3 years, Multi-Market, Multi-Regional PE Models and Computable General Equilibrium models have been used. Moreover, the incorporation of other economic notions into CLCA, such as rebound effects and experience curves, has been the focus of later research. Since economic modeling can play a prominent role in national policy-making and strategic/corporate environmental planning, developing the capacity to operate LCA concurrent to, or integrated with, these models is of growing importance. Conclusions   This paper outlines the historical development of such efforts in CLCA, discusses key methodological advancements, and characterizes previous literature on the topic. Based on this review, we provide an outlook for further research in CLCA. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0275-9 Authors J. Mason Earles, University of Maine, 5755 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA Anthony Halog, University of Maine, 5755 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In general, pentachloroaniline (PCA) biodechlorination is specific to the conditions of a system; such conditions include the type and concentration of electron donors and oxidizing agents as well as nutrient availability, pH, and temperature. In the bioremediation of contaminated sediments and soil, most researchers have focused on the ability of various electron donors to remove target compounds. However, the amended electron donors and the byproduct of the anoxic/anaerobic systems may cause more environmental impact. Therefore, methods for consistently evaluating the environmental effects of such electron donors and byproducts are highly needed. Accordingly, life cycle assessment (LCA) was carried out to estimate the environmental effect of PCA biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions through laboratory-scale experiments. Four scenarios, intended to assess the influence of electron donors on the environment and develop laboratory experimental research, were compared. In these scenarios, four compounds were used: acetate, lactate, methanol, and glucose + methanol. Materials and methods   The LCA was carried out using IMPACT2002+ to estimate the environmental impact of PCA biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions. To add credibility to the study, sensitivity analysis was also conducted. Results and discussion   In all scenarios, the technologies significantly contributed to respiratory inorganics, global warming, as well as increased the adverse impact of nonrenewable energy on the environment. Specifically, the emissions from the electron donor production processes played an important role in the scenarios. PCA dechlorination and methanogenic processes substantially contributed to the aquatic/terrestrial ecotoxicity and global warming, respectively. Optimizing the concentration of amended electron donors and increasing the population size of dechlorinating microorganisms are highly important in reducing the environmental burden by PCA bioremediation. Conclusions   Results showed that the methanol scenario was the most suitable option determined in this research. In addition, results indicate amended electron donors can cause fewer environmental impacts in carcinogens and noncarcinogens categories. By contrast, the amended electron donors can significantly increase environmental impacts in respiratory inorganics, global warming, and nonrenewable energy categories. Increasing the population size of dechlorinating microorganisms and optimizing the concentration of amended electron donors are highly recommended to reduce adverse environmental impacts. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0338-y Authors Jinglan Hong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100 Shandong, People’s Republic of China Xiangzhi Li, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, 250012 Shandong, People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Best agricultural practices can be adopted to increase crop productivity and lower carbon footprint of grain products. The aims of this study were to provide a quantitative estimate of the carbon footprint of selected oilseed crops grown on the semiarid northern Great Plains and to determine the effects of N fertilization and environments on the carbon footprint. Materials and methods   Five oilseed crops, Brassica napus canola, Brassica rapa canola, Brassica juncea canola, B. juncea mustard, and Sinapis alba mustard, were grown under the N rates of 0, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 kg N ha −1 at eight environsites (location × year combinations) in Saskatchewan, Canada. Straw and root decomposition and various production inputs were used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprints. Results and discussion   Emissions from the production, transportation, storage, and delivery of N fertilizer to farm gates accounted for 42% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, and the direct and indirect emission from the application of N fertilizer in oilseed production added another 31% to the total emission. Emissions from N fertilization were nine times the emission from the use of pesticides and 11 times that of farming operations. Straw and root decomposition emitted 120 kg CO 2 eq ha −1 , contributing 10% to the total emission. Carbon footprint increased slightly as N rates increased from 0 to 50 kg N ha −1 , but as N rates increased from 50 to 250 kg N ha −1 , carbon footprint increased substantially for all five oilseed crops evaluated. Oilseeds grown at the humid Melfort site emitted 1,355 kg CO 2 eq ha −1 , 30% greater than emissions at the drier sites of Scott and Swift Current. Oilseeds grown at Melfort had their carbon footprint of 0.52 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed, 45% greater than that at Scott (0.45 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed), and 25% greater than that at Swift Current (0.45 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed). Conclusions   Carbon footprint of oilseeds was a function of the rate of N fertilizer, and the intensity of the functionality varied between environments. Key to lower carbon footprint in oilseeds is to improve N management practices. Content Type Journal Article Category CARBON FOOTPRINTING Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0337-z Authors Yantai Gan, Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory for Aridland Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China Chang Liang, Pollutant Inventory and Reporting Division, Environment Canada, 9th floor, Fontaine Building, 200 Sacré-Coeur, Gatineau, QC K1A 0H3, Canada Gaobao Huang, Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory for Aridland Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China Sukhdev S. Malhi, Research Farm, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 1240, Melfort, SK S0E 1A0, Canada Stewart A. Brandt, Research Farm, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Box 10, Scott, SK S0K 4A0, Canada Felicitas Katepa-Mupondwa, Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0X2, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   To construct future visions of how innovative technologies should be used in the envisioned sustainable society while being aware of system-wide environmental impacts, consequential life cycle assessment (c-LCA) is useful. To systematically evaluate the technologies being aware of uncertainties in choice of technologies made in the future, in this article, we propose a novel graphical representation for theoretical range of impacts that contain results from c-LCA studies. This approach allows analyses of the consequences of the technology introduction without conducting detailed modeling of consequences. Methods   We stand on an assumption that the future environmental impacts reduced by a new technology depends on (1) how much the efficiency of the technology is improved, (2) how much of less-efficient technology is directly and indirectly replaced by the new technology, and (3) how much product is needed in the envisioned future. The difficulty in c-LCA is that items 2 and 3 are uncertain from various socioeconomic reasons that are often difficult to predict. By organizing the results from product LCAs in a systematic way, the proposed methodology allows exhibiting the range of consequential changes in environmental impact associated with a technology innovation, taking into account of those uncertainties on a plain coordinated by the amount of product needed in the future and environmental impact on horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. Results   Part 1 describes the methodological framework in detail, whereas part 2 elaborates on the applications of the methodology. By taking transportation technologies assuming various energy sources in Taiwan, choices of technologies and evaluation of technology improvements serve as the case studies to demonstrate the application of the methodological framework. Conclusions   By using the proposed method to organize the assumptions in c-LCA, discussions on different choices of technologies are made more systematic. In this way, stakeholders can focus on visions of the future society, which lead to different choices of technologies. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0356-9 Authors I-Ching Chen, Department of Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Environment Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Rd., Tainan City, 701 Taiwan Yasuhiro Fukushima, Department of Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Environment Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Rd., Tainan City, 701 Taiwan Yasunori Kikuchi, Department of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Masahiko Hirao, Department of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Water use in the livestock sector has featured in the debate about sustainable food systems. Most evidence has come from virtual water calculations which lack impact assessment and adequate consideration of the heterogeneity in livestock production. This study sought new evidence, using a recently developed life cycle impact assessment method for water use to assess six geographically defined beef cattle production systems in New South Wales, Australia, a major production region. Methods   The livestock production systems were diverse in farm practice (grass and feedlot finishing), product (yearling to heavy steers), environment (high-rainfall coastal to semi-arid inland) and local water stress. Life cycle inventories were developed from representative farm enterprise budgets. The farm water use inventories sought to describe the impact of the production system on catchment water resources and included irrigation water use as well as the reduction in flows due to the operation of stock dams. Results and discussion   The normalised life cycle impact category results for water use, referred to as the water footprint, ranged from 3.3 to 221 L H 2 Oe kg −1 live weight at farm gate. Due to variation in local water stress, the impact category results were not correlated with the inventory results. Conclusions   The substantial variability in water footprint between systems indicates that generalisations about livestock and livestock products should be avoided. However, many low input, predominantly non-irrigated, pasture-based livestock production systems have little impact on freshwater resources from consumptive water use, and the livestock have a water footprint similar to many broad-acre cereals. Globally, the majority of beef cattle are raised in non-irrigated mixed farming and grazing systems. Therefore, the general assertion that meat production is a driver of water scarcity is not supported. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0346-y Authors Bradley G. Ridoutt, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, Victoria, 3169 Australia Peerasak Sanguansri, CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences, Private Bag 16, Werribee, Victoria, 3030 Australia Michael Freer, CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia Gregory S. Harper, CSIRO Livestock Industries, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study’s aim was to understand the effect of mine characteristics on cradle-to-gate life cycle impacts of surface coal mining in the USA. Five bituminous coal strip mines were used as case studies. The study assessed the life cycle water use, land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts. Methods   The study employed the general principles of the ISO 14040-49 series LCA standards, modifying them where necessary. The functional unit was defined as “one tonne of processed coal at the mine gate.” The relative mass–energy–economic value method, with some modification, was used to scope the product system. Data were obtained from environmental impact statements, coal mining permit applications, government reports, and published literature. Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) included classification and characterization but no normalization, grouping, or weighting, to avoid ambiguity. In this work, mid-point characterization models were preferred over damage-oriented (end-point) characterization models because of their high levels of uncertainties. The LCIA also included sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion   For the studied mines, life cycle potential water use impact is 178 l/tonne of processed coal at the mine gate. The potential land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts range from 3 to 10 m 2  year/tonne, 97 to 181 MJ/tonne, 7.8 to 9.4 kg Sb-eq./tonne, and 38 to 92 kg CO 2 -eq./tonne, respectively. Land use impacts depend mainly on land for coal extraction activities and the climatic conditions of a region, which affects the vegetation recovery rate, following reclamation. Economies of scale significantly influence land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts. Geology, which determines stripping ratio, coal quality, and coalbed methane, affects land use, climate change, and energy use impacts, particularly energy for overburden removal, reclamation, and beneficiation. Conclusions   The data show that large-scale mining operations have lower life cycle impacts due to economies of scale, which results in lower energy use. Also, land use impacts, measured by land occupation, are affected by geologic conditions. This study provides insight into sources of variability in life cycle impacts of coal mining. The authors recommend timely reclamation to minimize land occupation impacts, as well as adoption of large-scale production, where appropriate, for efficient use of land occupied by mine facilities. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0354-y Authors Ofentse Ditsele, Department of Mines, Ministry of Minerals, Energy And Water Resources, Private Bag 0049, Gaborone, Botswana Kwame Awuah-Offei, Department of Mining & Nuclear Engineering, Missouri University of Science & Technology, 226 McNutt Hall, 1870 Miner Circle, Rolla, MO 65409, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A workshop on Product Category Rule (PCR) alignment was organized by the American Center for LCA PCR Committee. PCR alignment refers to the process of assuring that PCRs (rules for developing LCA-based claims like EPDs) developed by different parties are consistent within product categories. Methods   The workshop was held as a special session in the LCA XI conference. The goals of the workshop were to identify the state of progress on PCR development worldwide, to establish consensus on the need for PCR alignment, and to propose the actions towards global alignment of PCRs. Speakers presented on these topics and a moderated discussion was held to discuss the implications of PCR alignment, to determine the scale on which alignment is appropriate, and to identify the actions and institutional roles to promote alignment. Results and conclusions   Approximately 120 persons from EPD programs, industry associations, standards organizations, LCA consulting firms, government agencies, NGOs and academia participated. The discussion was engaging and positive feedback was received. The American Center for LCA PCR Committee intend to use the outcomes of this workshop to engage others in the PCR community, make recommendations for best practices for PCR development, and to promote harmonization of PCRs both within the US and globally. Content Type Journal Article Category CONFERENCE REPORT Pages 1-6 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0357-8 Authors Wesley Ingwersen, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., MS-483, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA Vairavan Subramanian, School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, PO Box 875502, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA Rita Schenck, Institute for Environmental Research & Education, PO Box 2449, Vashon, WA 98070, USA Lindita Bushi, Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, 119 Ross Avenue, Suite 100, Ottawa, ON K1Y 0N6, Canada Amy Costello, Armstrong World Industries, Inc., 2500 Columbia Avenue, P.O. Box 3001, Lancaster, PA 17603, USA Laura Draucker, World Resources Institute, 10 G St. NE, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20002, USA Cashion East, PRé Consultants, 1250 24th Street NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20037, USA Connie Hensler, Interface, Inc., 2859 Paces Ferry Road, Suite 2000, Atlanta, GA 30339, USA Holly Lahd, Northstar Initiative for Sustainable Enterprise, University of Minnesota–Twin Cities, 1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA Sven-Olof Ryding, Swedish Environmental Management Council, Vasagatan 15-17, 111 20 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Inclusion of land use-related environmental aspects into LCA methodology has been under active development in recent years. Although many indicators have been developed and proposed for different aspects of land use (climate change, biodiversity, resource depletion and soil quality), many of indicators have, as yet, not been tested and compared in LCA applications. The aim of this study is to test the different LCIA indicators in practice in a case study of beer production. Materials and methods   Nine different indicators were selected to represent three different impact endpoints of land use: resource depletion, soil quality and biodiversity. The beer production system included all life cycle stages from barley cultivation and the production of energy and raw materials to the serving of beer at restaurant. Several optional system expansions were studied to estimate the possible impacts of substituting feed protein (soybean, rapeseed and silage) with mash coproduct from brewing. A comparison with wine production was also made for illustrative purposes. Results and discussion   The majority of the land use impacts occurred in the cultivation phase, but significant impacts were also found far down the supply chain. The system expansions influenced the overall results markedly, especially for land transformation, soil organic carbon (SOC) and several of the biodiversity indicators. Most of the land use indicators led to results that were consistent with each other. In the inventory and impact assessment phase, challenges were faced in obtaining reliable data. Additionally, the lack of reliable, regional characterization factors limits the usability of the land use indicators and the reliability of the LCIA results, especially of the SOC indicator. None of the studied indicators fulfills all the criteria for an effective ecological indicator, but most have many positive features. Conclusions   All tested land use indicators were applicable in LCIA. Some indicators were found to be highly sensitive to assumptions on land transformation, which sets high requirements for LCI data quality. Scarcity of land use LCI data sources limits validation and cross-comparison. Interpretation of indicator results is complicated due to the limited understanding of the environmental impact pathways of land use. Recommendations   None of the tested indicators describes the full range of environmental impacts caused by land use. We recommend presenting land occupation and transformation LCI results, the ecological footprint and at least one of the biodiversity indicators. Regarding soil quality, the lack of reliable regional data currently limits application of the proposed methods. The criteria of effective ecological indicators should be reflected in further work in indicator development. Development of regionalized characterization factors is of key importance to include land use in LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category LAND USE IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0353-z Authors Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Tuomas Helin, Sustainability Assessment, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tekniikantie 2, Espoo, P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT, Finland Riina Antikainen, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This report presents two case studies, one for both the screening approach and the in-depth approach, demonstrating the application of the life cycle assessment-oriented methodology for systematic inventory analysis of the machine tool use phase of manufacturing unit processes, which has been developed in the framework of the CO 2 PE! collaborative research programme (CO 2 PE! 2011 ) and is described in part 1 of this paper (Kellens et al. 2011 ). Screening approach   The screening approach, which provides a first insight into the unit process and results in a set of approximate LCI data, relies on representative industrial data and engineering calculations for energy use and material loss. This approach is illustrated by means of a case study of a drilling process. In-depth approach   The in-depth approach, which leads to more accurate LCI data as well as the identification of potential for environmental improvements of the manufacturing unit processes, is subdivided into four modules, including a time study, a power consumption study, a consumables study and an emissions study, in which all relevant process in- and outputs are measured and analysed in detail. The procedure of this approach, together with the proposed CO 2 PE! template, is illustrated by means of a case study of a laser cutting process. Results   The CO 2 PE! methodology aims to provide high-quality LCI data for the machine tool use phase of manufacturing unit processes, to be used in life cycle inventory databases and libraries, as well as to identify potential for environmental improvement based on the in-depth analysis of individual manufacturing unit processes. Two case studies illustrate the applicability of the methodology. Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0352-0 Authors Karel Kellens, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven, 3001 Belgium Wim Dewulf, Group T—International University College Leuven, K.U.Leuven Association, Andreas Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven, Belgium Michael Overcash, College of Engineering, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount Street, Wichita, KS 67260, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Joost R. Duflou, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven, 3001 Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study is to develop and analyse a life cycle inventory of construction and demolition waste (C&DW) management systems based on primary data collected directly from Spanish enterprises involved in the life cycle of this type of waste material. Special emphasis is placed on assessing the environmental profile of inert waste sorting and treatment (IWST) facilities. Methods   Taking the management of 1 t of C&DW as the functional unit, this study describes the boundaries of the C&DW management system and the scope of the research, which includes all stages from the temporary storage of waste in containers to its recovery or disposal on landfills. Primary data were collected directly from some Spanish enterprises involved in the life cycle of C&DW management: two firms that manufacture containers and bags, two companies responsible for the temporary storage of waste and transporting it, five firms devoted to sorting and treating the waste and two enterprises that operate inert landfills. Special attention was given to the IWST facilities, whose inventory data were related to four phases: pre-treatment and the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. Finally, indicators were obtained for different impact categories. Results   The environmental profiles of IWST facilities for mixed C&DW show that the greatest environmental impacts are produced in primary and tertiary sectors. From the life cycle analysis of C&DW management, it can be seen that transport, sorting and disposal make a net contribution to the environmental impact. Savings are due to the recycling of plastics, metals, aggregates and wood for all the impact assessment categories, except global warming in the case of wood and cardboard. Conclusions   Impact of IWST can be reduced by selective collection at source, since it avoids the separation of light fractions at plants. Life cycle assessment of C&DW shows that transportation stage plays a decisive role and recycling is not always beneficial. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0350-2 Authors Irma T. Mercante, CEIRS, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, M5502JMA Argentina María D. Bovea, INGRES, Departamento Ingeniería Mecánica y Construcción, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain Valeria Ibáñez-Forés, INGRES, Departamento Ingeniería Mecánica y Construcción, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain Alejandro P. Arena, CLIOPE, Facultad Regional Mendoza, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Mendoza, Argentina Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study is to use life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare the relative environmental performance of the treatment using Trametes versicolor with a common method such as activated carbon adsorption. This comparison will evaluate potential environmental impacts of the two processes. This work compiles life cycle inventory data for a biological process that may be useful for other emergent biotechnological processes in water and waste management. LCA was performed to evaluate the use of a new technology for the removal of a model metal-complex dye, Grey Lanaset G, from textile wastewater by means of the fungus T. versicolor . This biological treatment was compared with a conventional coal-based activated carbon adsorption treatment to determine which alternative is preferable from an environmental point of view. Materials and methods   The study is based on experimental research that has tested the novel process at the pilot scale. The analysis of the biological system ranges from the production of the electricity and ingredients required for the growth of the fungus and ends with the composting of the residual biomass from the process. The analysis of the activated carbon system includes the production of the adsorbent material and the electricity needed for the treatment and regeneration of the spent activated carbon. Seven indicators that measure the environmental performance of these technologies are included in the LCA. The indicators used are climate change, ozone depletion, human toxicity, photochemical oxidant formation, terrestial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, terrestrial ecotoxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, marine ecotoxicity, metal depletion and fossil depletion. Results   The results show that the energy use throughout the biological process, mainly for sterilisation and aeration, accounts for the major environmental impacts with the inoculum sterilisation being the most critical determinant. Nevertheless, the biological treatment has lower impacts than the physicochemical system in six of these indicators when steam is generated directly on site. A low-grade carbon source as an alternative to glucose might contribute to reduce the eutrophication impact of this process. Conclusions   The LCA shows that the biological treatment process using the fungus T. versicolor to remove Grey Lanaset G offers important environmental advantages in comparison with the traditional activated carbon adsorption method. This study also provides environmental data and an indication of the potential impacts of characteristic processes that may be of interest for other applications in the field of biological waste treatment and wastewater treatment involving white-rot fungi. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0385-z Authors Xavier Gabarrell, Sostenipra, Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA), Chemical Engineering Deparment, Xarxa de Referència en Biotecnologia (XRB) de Catalunya, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Escola d’enginyeria. Campus Bellaterra, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalunya, Spain Mercè Font, Sostenipra, Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA), Chemical Engineering Deparment, Xarxa de Referència en Biotecnologia (XRB) de Catalunya, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Escola d’enginyeria. Campus Bellaterra, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalunya, Spain Teresa Vicent, Departament d’Enginyeria Química, Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambiental, Escola d’Enginyeria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain Gloria Caminal, Unitat de Biocatàlisis Aplicada asociada al IQAC (CSIC-UAB), Escola d’Enginyeria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain Montserrat Sarrà, Departament d’Enginyeria Química, Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambiental, Escola d’Enginyeria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain Paqui Blánquez, Departament d’Enginyeria Química, Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambiental, Escola d’Enginyeria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aims of this study were to provide an up-to-date overview of global, regional and local networks supporting life cycle thinking and to characterize them according to their structure and activities. Methods   Following a tentative life cycle assessment (LCA) network definition, a mapping was performed based on (1) a literature search, (2) a web search and (3) an inquiry to stakeholders distributed via the two largest LCA fora. Networks were characterized based on responses from a survey. Results and discussion   We identified 100 networks, of which 29 fulfilled all six criteria composing our tentative network definition (the remaining fulfilled four to five criteria). The networks are mainly located in Europe and the USA, whilst Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia are less covered regions. The survey results (from 25 network responses) indicate that LCA networks appear to be primarily small- to medium-sized (〈100 members) and to include a large proportion of academia and industries, including small- and medium-sized enterprises, with much less involvement of authorities and non-governmental organisations. Their major activities relate to knowledge sharing and communication, support of case studies, and development of life cycle inventories and impact assessment methods. Networks in developing economies have different structures and activities than networks in developed economies and, for instance, more frequently have members from non-governmental organisations. Globally, an increasing trend in the formation of LCA networks over time is observed, which tends to correlate with the number of LCA scientific publications over the same time period. Continental distributions of networks also show a correlation with the number of LCA publications from the same region. Conclusions   The provided list of LCA networks is currently the most comprehensive, publicly available mapping. We believe that the results of this mapping can serve as a basis for deciding where priorities should be set to increase the dissemination and development of LCA worldwide. In this aim, we also advocate the creation of an online, regularly updated database of LCA networks supplemented by an online platform that could facilitate network communication and knowledge sharing. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA NETWORKS Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0524-6 Authors Anders Bjørn, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Mikołaj Owsianiak, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Alexis Laurent, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Christine Molin, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Torbjørn Bochsen Westh, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Michael Zwicky Hauschild, Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 426D, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study analyzes the influence of value choices in impact assessment models for human health, such as the choice of time horizon, on life cycle assessment outcomes. Methods   For 756 products, the human health damage score is calculated using three sets of characterization factors (CFs). The CFs represent seven human health impact assessment categories: water scarcity, tropospheric ozone formation, particulate matter formation, human toxicity, ionizing radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate change. Each set of CFs embeds a combination of value choices following the Cultural Theory, and reflects the individualist, hierarchist, or egalitarian perspective. Results   We found that the average difference in human health damage score goes from 1 order of magnitude between the individualist and hierarchist perspectives to 2.5 orders of magnitude between the individualist and egalitarian perspectives. The difference in damage score of individual materials among perspectives depends on the combination of emissions driving the impact of both perspectives and can rise up to 5 orders of magnitude. Conclusions   The value choices mainly responsible for the differences in results among perspectives are the choice of time horizon and inclusion of highly uncertain effects. A product comparison can be affected when the human health damage score of two products differ less than a factor of 5, or the comparing products largely differ in their emitted substances. Overall, our study implies that value choices in impact assessment modeling can modify the outcomes of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and thus the practical implication of decisions based on the results of an LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0504-x Authors An M. De Schryver, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, ETH Honggerberg, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland Sebastien Humbert, Quantis, Parc Scientifique EPFL Bât D, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Information communication technology (ICT) offers the chance of enhancing the efficiency of public services and economic processes. The use of server-based computing is supposed to reduce the energy and material consumption in ICT services. This hypothesis will be investigated and quantified looking at the whole life cycle of the products. In this paper, server-based computing in combination with thin clients (SBCTC) is compared to a typical desktop PC (DPC) workplace over a time period of 5 years. Materials and methods   The LCA method used in this paper is focused on the impact category of global warming potential. The calculations were performed using the Microsoft® Excel-based methodology for ecodesign of energy-related products tool. This tool includes the requirements of energy-related products (Directive 2009/125/EC ). Moreover, an input-orientated method—material input per service unit (MIPS)—is applied which allows for an additional comparison between the two ICT solutions. Results and discussion   Electricity consumption could be identified as a crucial environmental impact factor of DPC and SBCTC with both methods. Depending on the user behavior, more than 200 kg CO 2e can be saved by switching from DPC to SBCTC. Over 80 kg CO 2e can be saved in the material and extraction life cycle stage. The largest savings are achieved in the material category electronics (about 70 kg CO 2e ). A correlation analysis between the results of global warming potential (GWP) and the MIPS category “air” shows that both indicators GWP and air lead to the same conclusions when evaluating life cycle stages and ICT material categories. Conclusions   Taking into account all assumptions made in this paper, SBCTC saves more than 65 % of greenhouse gas emissions compared to DPC during the entire life cycle. To ensure further profound comparisons of the ICT solutions, current data on the energy demand and detailed information on the composition of the IT products should be made available by industry. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0499-3 Authors Daniel Maga, Business Unit Resources Management, Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Str. 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany Markus Hiebel, Business Unit Resources Management, Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Str. 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany Christian Knermann, Department IT-Managment, Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Str. 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Indoor emissions of toxic substances from products can have a negative effect on human health. These are typically not considered in a life cycle assessment (LCA), potentially underestimating the importance of the use stage. The purpose of this paper is to develop a method that, based on a set of measured emission rates, calculates the impact on human health during the use stage of products that are used indoors and that emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Methods   Emissions from a product are measured in a test chamber and reported as a set of emission rates (microgrammes per hour) at specific points in time (hour/day). Constrained non-linear regression (CNLR) analysis is then used to determine parameters for three emission models, and a model is selected based on goodness of fit with the measured emission rates ( R 2 and expert judgement). The emission model is integrated over a defined time period to estimate the total use stage emissions per functional unit (FU). The total emissions are subsequently integrated in a homogeneously mixed one-box model within the USEtox model. Intake fraction (iF) is calculated based on size of residential home, inhalation rate, exposure time, ventilation rate, mixing factor and number of people exposed. Results and discussion   The method is tested in a case study of a chair, with the results showing that the impacts in the use stage are in most cases significantly higher than from the production and disposal stages combined. The sensitivity to parameter variations is evaluated. Intake fraction (factor of 761), replacement frequency (factor of 70) and emission model (factor of 24) are found to be the most important model parameters. Limiting early exposure (〉14 % of emissions may occur in the first month and 〉50 % in the first year) and replacing furniture less frequently will reduce exposure. Conclusions   The case study shows that the impact on human health from indoor emissions can be of significance, when compared to the impact on human health from total outdoor emissions. Without specific exposure data (e.g. ventilation rates) the uncertainty will be high. The developed method is applicable to all products that emit VOCs, provided that the emission rate can be modelled using an exponential decay model and that the product amount is related to a meaningful functional unit. It is recommended that when performing an LCA of products that emit VOCs, the indoor use stage is included in the life cycle impact assessment. Content Type Journal Article Category LCIA OF IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND ECOSYSTEMS Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0506-8 Authors Christofer Skaar, Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway Rikke B. Jørgensen, Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In the context of progress of sustainability science, life cycle thinking and, in particular, life cycle sustainability assessment may play a crucial role. Environmental, economic and social implications of the whole supply chain of products, both goods and services, their use and waste management, i.e. their entire life cycle from “cradle to grave” have to be considered to achieve more sustainable production and consumption patterns. Progress toward sustainability requires enhancing the methodologies for integrated assessment and mainstreaming of life cycle thinking from product development to strategic policy support. Life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle costing (LCC) and social LCA (sLCA) already attempt to cover sustainability pillars, notwithstanding different levels of methodological development. An increasing concern on how to deal with the complexity of sustainability has promoted the development of life cycle sustainability frameworks. As a contribution to the ongoing scientific debate after the Rio+20 conference, this paper aims to present and discuss the state of the art of life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA), giving recommendations for its further development in line with ontological, epistemological and methodological aspects of sustainability science. Methods   Building on the review about the state of the art of sustainability science and sustainability assessment methods presented in part I, this paper discuss LCA, LCC, sLCA and LCSA against ontological, epistemological and methodological aspects of ongoing scientific debate on sustainability. Strengths and weaknesses of existing life cycle-based methodologies and methods are presented. Besides, existing frameworks for LCSA are evaluated against the criteria defined in part I in order to highlight coherence with sustainability science progress and to support better integration and mainstreaming of sustainability concepts. Conclusions and outlook   LCSA represents a promising approach for developing a transparent, robust and comprehensive assessment. Nevertheless, the ongoing developments should be in line with the most advanced scientific discussion on sustainability science, attempting to bridge the gaps between the current methods and methodologies for sustainability assessment. LCSA should develop so as to be hierarchically different from LCA, LCC and sLCA. It should represent the holistic approach which integrates (and not substitutes) the reductionist approach of the single part of the analysis. This implies maintaining the balance between analytical and descriptive approaches towards a goal and solution-oriented decision support methodology. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT: FROM LCA TO LCSA Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0509-5 Authors Serenella Sala, Sustainability Assessment Unit, European Commission–Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, T.P. 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy Francesca Farioli, Interuniversity Research Centre on Sustainable Development (CIRPS)–Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazza San Pietro in Vincoli 10, 00184 Rome, Italy Alessandra Zamagni, LCA and Ecodesign Laboratory, Italian National Agency for new Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There has been lively debate, especially in Finland and Sweden, on the climate impacts of peat fuel. Previous studies of peat fuel's life-cycle climate impacts were controversial in their interpretation. The aim of this paper is conclusive examination of the issues of LCA methodology, derived from critical review of previous studies and recalculation based on the latest knowledge of greenhouse gas balances related to peat fuel’s utilisation and the radiative forcing impacts of greenhouse gases. Methods   The most recent findings on emissions and the gas fluxes between soil, vegetation and atmosphere were used in calculation of the life-cycle climate impacts of the various peat fuel utilisation chains by means of LCA methodology. In the main, the calculation methods and rules were the same as in the previous studies, with the aim being to distinguish the impact of peat fuel’s utilisation from that of the natural or semi-natural situation. A dynamic method was employed for assessing changes in radiative forcing. The results of alternative peat fuel utilisation chains were compared to the corresponding result for coal. Results   There are many steps in peat fuel LCA, where different assumptions lead to different outcomes. Determining the functional unit, reference situations and system boundaries, as well as the emission calculation methods, is important from this point of view. Determination of the initial reference situation emerged as one of the critical points in the calculations. Time scale can strongly affect the final outcomes in a study where effects of long-term land-use change are considered. Conclusions   Each peatland area is unique. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions in the initial reference situation, the greater is the climate impact of the area and the more suitable the area is for peat extraction. The study showed that more greenhouse gas flux measurements are needed, for better assessment of the climate impacts of different potential peat extraction sites. Climate change mitigation requires quick actions, and uncertainties related to emissions are higher for longer time spans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a perspective spanning more than 100 years is inappropriate in peat fuel's life-cycle climate impact assessments. Content Type Journal Article Category LAND USE IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0512-x Authors Juha Grönroos, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Jyri Seppälä, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Sirkka Koskela, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Antti Kilpeläinen, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland Pekka Leskinen, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland Anne Holma, Finnish Environment Institute, Production and Consumption Centre, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland Juha-Pekka Tuovinen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Climate Change Research, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland Jukka Turunen, Geological Survey of Finland, Kuopio unit, P.O. Box 1237, 70211 Kuopio, Finland Saara Lind, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental Science, Biogeochemistry Research Group, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland Marja Maljanen, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental Science, Biogeochemistry Research Group, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland Pertti J. Martikainen, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental Science, Biogeochemistry Research Group, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: LCA and communication: Environmental Product Declaration Content Type Journal Article Category EDITORIAL Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0513-9 Authors Adriana Del Borghi, Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Genoa, Via all’Opera Pia 15, 16145 Genoa, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper assesses facility-specific life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensities for electricity-generating facilities in the province of Ontario in 2008. It offers policy makers, researchers and other stakeholders of the Ontario electricity system with data regarding some of the environmental burdens from multiple generation technology currently deployed in the province. Methods   Methods involved extraction of data and analysis from several publically accessible datasets, as well as from the LCA literature. GHG emissions data for operation of power plants came from the Government of Canada GHG registry and the Ontario Power Generation (OPG) Sustainable Development reports. Facility-specific generation data came from the Independent Electricity System Operator in Ontario and the OPG. Results   Full life cycle GHG intensity (tonnes of CO 2 equivalent per gigawatt hour) estimates are provided for 4 coal facilities, 27 natural gas facilities, 1 oil/natural gas facility, 3 nuclear facilities, 7 run-of-river hydro facilities and 37 reservoir hydro facilities, and 7 wind facilities. Average (output weighted) life cycle GHG intensities are calculated for each fuel type in Ontario, and the life cycle GHG intensity for the Ontario grid as a whole (in 2008) is estimated to be 201 t CO 2 e/GWh. Conclusions   The results reflect only the global warming impact of electricity generation, and they are meant to inform a broader discussion which includes other environmental, social, cultural, institutional and economic factors. This full range of factors should be included in decisions regarding energy policy for the Province of Ontario, and in future work on the Ontario electricity system. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0501-0 Authors E. Mallia, Faculty of Environment, School of Planning, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. West, Waterloo, ON N2L3G1, Canada G. Lewis, Faculty of Environment, School of Planning, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. West, Waterloo, ON N2L3G1, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Several articles within the area of green chemistry often promote new techniques or products as ‘green’ or ‘more environmentally benign’ than their conventional counterpart although these articles often do not quantitatively assess the environmental performance. In order to do this, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a valuable methodology. However, on the planning stage, a full-scale LCA is considered to be too time consuming and complicated. Two reasons for this have been recognised, the method is too comprehensive and it is hard to find inventory data. In this review, key parameters are presented with the purpose to reduce the time-consuming steps in LCA. Methods   In this review, several LCAs of so-called ‘green chemicals’ are analysed and key parameters and methodological concerns are identified. Further, some conclusions on the environmental performance of chemicals were drawn. Results and discussion   For fossil-based platform chemicals several LCAs exists but for chemicals produced with industrial biotechnology or from renewable resources the number of LCAs is limited, with the exception of biofuels, for which a large number of studies are made. In the review, a significant difference in the environmental performance of bulk and fine chemicals was identified. The environmental performance of bulk chemicals are closely connected to the production of the raw material and thereby different land use aspects. Here, a lot can be learnt from biofuel LCAs. In many of the reviewed articles focusing on bulk chemicals a comparison regarding fossil and renewable raw material was done. In most of the comparisons the renewable alternative turned out to be more environmentally preferable, especially for the impact on GWP and energy use. However, some environmental concerns were identified as important to include to assess overall environmental concern, for example eutrophication and the use of land. Conclusions   To assess the environmental performance of green chemicals, quantitative methods are needed. For this purpose, both simple metrics and more comprehensive methods have been developed, one recognised method being LCA. However, this method is often too time consuming to be valuable in the process planning stage. This is partly due to a lack of available inventory data, but also because the method itself is too comprehensive. Here, key parameters for the environmental performance and methodological concerns were described to facilitate a faster and simpler use of LCA of green chemicals in the future. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN GREEN CHEMISTRY Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0500-1 Authors Linda M. Tufvesson, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Box 118, 22100 Lund, Sweden Pär Tufvesson, Center for Process Engineering and Technology, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark John M. Woodley, Center for Process Engineering and Technology, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Pål Börjesson, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Box 118, 22100 Lund, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Sustainable development aims to enhance the quality of life by improving the social, economic and environmental conditions for present and future generations. A sustainable engineering decision-making strategy for design and assessment of construction works (i.e., civil engineering and buildings) should take into account considerations regarding the society, the economy and the environment. This study presents a novel approach for the life cycle assessment (LCA) of a case-study building subjected to seismic actions during its service life, accounting for structural reliability. Methods   A methodology is presented that evaluates the time-dependent probability of exceeding a limit state considering the uncertainty in the representation of seismic action. By employing this methodology, the earthquake-induced damages are related to the environmental and social losses caused by the occurrence of the earthquake. A LCA of a case-study building accounting for the time-dependent seismic reliability is conducted using a damage-oriented LCA approach. Results and discussion   The contributions of the different life cycle phases to the total environmental impact related to the building lifetime are in agreement with previous results in this field of study. However, the LCA results revealed significant risk-based contributions for the rehabilitation phase due to the induced damage resulting in seismic events. Particularly, the rehabilitation phase is expected to contribute to the total environmental impact with around the 25 % of the initial environmental impact load (related to the pre-use phase) as a consequence of seismic damage. Conclusions and recommendations   The probability of occurrence of seismic events affects the LCA results for various life cycle phases of a building in terms of all the indicators adopted in the analysis. The time-dependent probability of collapse in a year can represent a benchmark indicator for human safety in the context of social sustainability for the building sector. The proposed approach can be implemented in a sustainable decision-making tool for design and assessment. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0477-9 Authors Costantino Menna, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Naples, Italy Domenico Asprone, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Naples, Italy Fatemeh Jalayer, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Naples, Italy Andrea Prota, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Naples, Italy Gaetano Manfredi, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Claudio, 21-80125 Naples, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Thank you, Almut! Content Type Journal Article Category EDITORIAL Pages 1-2 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0474-z Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt a.M, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   With the tremendous growth in the worldwide electronic information and telecommunication industries, there continues to be an increasing awareness of the environmental impacts related to the accelerating mass production, electricity use, and waste management of electrical and electronic products (e-products). Although Macau is a small region with a total land area of about 29.5 km 2 and a population of 557,000 in 2011, there are two personal computers (PCs) for every household in Macau. Methods   This paper aims to describe the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to investigate the environmental performance of PCs in Macau. An assessment of the PC (focusing on the desktop PC) was carried out using a detailed modular LCA based on the international standards of the ISO 14040 series. The LCA was constructed using SimaPro software version 7.2 and expressed with both the Eco-indicator'99 method and the Centrum voor Milieuwetenschappen method. Life cycle inventory information was compiled by Ecoinvent 2.2 databases, combined with literature and field investigations of the actual situations. Results and discussion   The established LCA study showed that the manufacturing and the use of such devices are of the highest environmental importance. In the manufacturing stage, the desktop contributes the most to the total environmental impacts (44.89 Pt), followed by the LCD screens (about 27.53 Pt), while the CRT screen, keyboard, and mouse are of minor importance. During the use phase, the environmental impact is due entirely to the consumption of electricity generated by coal, oil, natural gas, and hydropower. The electricity generated by coal is by far the most important, accounting for about 66 % of the total environmental impact, followed by oil and gas. Within the EoL treatment phase, using incineration, there will be little environmental impact. When adopting recycling technology in the EoL phase, apparent environmental benefits will be generated due mainly to avoiding emissions to water (arsenic ions and cadmium ions) and to air (SO 2 ) in the primary production phase. For the competing technologies of CRT and LCD screens, the environmental impacts are different in different phases, but the total impacts over their entire life cycle are similar. Conclusions   Results from a life cycle assessment can be used to compare the relative environmental impacts of competing technologies; it can also help designers and managers to focus efforts toward making environmental improvements to a particular technology. Content Type Journal Article Category ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0515-7 Authors Qingbin Song, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, 999078 People’s Republic of China Zhishi Wang, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, 999078 People’s Republic of China Jinhui Li, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084 People’s Republic of China Wenyi Yuan, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084 People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper performs a life cycle assessment study for a white wine produced in the northern part of Portugal, i.e. the white vinho verde . The purpose is to identify the environmental impacts occurring along the wine life cycle as well as the stages that mostly contribute to the environmental impact, as well as the associated causes. The stages considered include: (1) viticulture, (2) wine production (vinification to storage), (3) wine distribution and (4) bottles production. Methods   The consumption of materials and energy, as well as the emissions to air, soil and water from the wine campaign of 2008/2009 were reported to the functional unit (0.75 l of white vinho verde). A Portuguese company that produces about 25 % of the current total production of white vinho verde supplied specific life cycle data for the stages of viticulture, wine production and distribution. SimaPro and the Ecoinvent database were used to perform the environmental assessment using CML 2001 impact methodology. A sensitivity analysis for a set of significant parameters was performed. Results   Results show that for viticulture the contribution of each impact category is larger than 50 %. The production of bottles is the second contributor varying from about 4 % (to eutrophication) to 26 % (to acidification). Wine production and distribution are the subsequent contributors. The contribution of wine production varies between 0.6 % (to land competition) and about 13 % (from marine aquatic and sediment ecotoxicity 100a). The contribution of distribution is up to 14 % (to photochemical oxidation). Sensitivity analysis shows that significant changes are calculated for parameters as the nitrate leaching to groundwater, the emission of nitrous oxide from managed soil, and from runoff and leaching. Changes in these parameters are significant for only a few impact categories as eutrophication and global warming. Conclusions   Viticulture is the stage with the largest relative contribution to the overall environmental impact and the bottle production is the subsequent stage. In order to improve the environmental performance of the supply chain for wine, it is necessary to optimise the dosage of fertilisers and phytosanitary products used during viticulture. The sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the most influential parameters relate with the emission of nitrogen compounds associated with the use of fertilisers. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR FOOD PRODUCTS Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0518-4 Authors Belmira Neto, CEMUC, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal Ana Cláudia Dias, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal Marina Machado, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Aggregated data quality indicator (ADQI) method has been used to estimate probability distributions of the input data in a life cycle assessment (LCA) to compensate for insufficient data in a statistical analysis. In a traditional ADQI, a multicriteria evaluation process, the impacts of various quality indicators under investigation are often equally weighted or unweighted despite the fact that some of them may weight more than the others on contributing to the overall data uncertainty. An unweighted ADQI (UWADQI) approach, though simple, may lead to incorrect conclusions. This paper aims to develop a weighted ADQI to overcome the deficiency of the unweighted ADQI to make it more reliable for LCA uncertainty analysis. Method   To improve the UWADQI approach, an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is introduced in this research for estimating weighting factors in the ADQI aggregation process. An AHP’s pairwise comparison function is used to determine the weighting of each data quality indicator. Three common building materials of concrete, steel, and glass were chosen to validate the presented method. Results and discussion   Using the published results from the statistical method as the benchmarks, it was found that the proposed AHP-weighted ADQI (AWADQI) method lead to better estimated probabilistic values of embodied energy intensity than the traditional UWADQI approach for the three building materials. Conclusions and recommendations   In conclusion, using AHP to incorporate weighing factors into an ADQI process can improve the uncertainty estimate of embodied energy of building materials, and consequently, the method can improve the reliability of a building LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0417-8 Authors Endong Wang, The Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0500, USA Zhigang Shen, The Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0500, USA Jill Neal, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA Jonathan Shi, The Rinker School of Building Construction, University of Florida, 304 Rinker, Gainesville, FL 32611-5703, USA Charles Berryman, The Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0500, USA Avery Schwer, The Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0500, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies allow understanding all relevant processes and environmental impacts involved in the life cycle of products. However, in order to fully assess their sustainability, these studies should be complemented by economic (LCC) and societal analyses. In this context, the present work aims at assessing all costs (internal and external) and the environmental performance associated to the full life cycle of specific engineering products. These products are lighting columns for roadway illumination made with three different materials: a glass fibre reinforced polymer composite, steel and aluminium. Methods   The LCA/LCC integrated methodology used was based in a “cradle-to-grave” assessment which considers the raw materials production, manufacture, on-site installation, use and maintenance, dismantlement and end-of-life (EoL) of the lighting columns. The fossil fuels environmental impact category was selected as the key environmental impact indicator to perform the integrated environmental and cost analysis. Results   The potential total costs obtained for the full life cycle of the lighting columns demonstrated that the one made in steel performs globally worse than those made in composite or aluminium. Although the three systems present very similar internal costs, the steel column has higher external costs in the use phase that contribute for its higher total cost. This column has very high costs associated to safety features, since it constitutes a significant risk to the life of individuals. The raw material and column production stages are the main contributors for the total internal life cycle costs. The EoL treatment is a revenue source in all systems because it generates energy (in the case of the composite incineration) or materials (in the case of metal recycling). The composite and aluminium lighting columns present similar “cradle-to-grave” life cycle total cost. However, until the dismantlement phase, the aluminium column presents the highest environmental impact, whereas in the EoL treatment phase this scenario is reversed. The “cradle-to-grave” life cycle potential total cost and the environmental impact ( fossil fuels ) indicator of the steel lighting column are higher than those of the other columns. Conclusions   Even though the uncertainties in the LCC are larger if external costs are included, their consideration when modelling the economic performance of engineering products increases the probability of developing a more sustainable solution from a societal perspective. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0414-y Authors Carla L. Simões, IPC—Institute for Polymers and Composites/I3N, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal Lígia M. Costa Pinto, NIMA, Department of Economics, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal C. A. Bernardo, IPC—Institute for Polymers and Composites/I3N, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Source-separated collection of food waste has been reported to reduce the amount of household waste in several cities including Kyoto, Japan. Food waste can be reduced by various activities including preventing edible food loss, draining moisture, and home composting. These activities have different potentials for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction. Therefore, we conducted a life-cycle inventory analysis of household waste management scenarios for Kyoto with a special emphasis on food waste reduction activities. Methods   The primary functional unit of our study was “annual management of household combustible waste in Kyoto, Japan.” Although some life-cycle assessment scenarios included food waste reduction measures, all of the scenarios had an identical secondary functional unit, “annual food ingestion (mass and composition) by the residents of Kyoto, Japan.” We analyzed a typical incineration scenario ( Inc ) and two anaerobic digestion (dry thermophilic facilities) scenarios involving either source-separated collection ( SepBio ) or nonseparated collection followed by mechanical sorting ( MecBio ). We assumed that the biogas from anaerobic digestion was used for power generation. In addition, to evaluate the effects of waste reduction combined with separate collection, three food waste reduction cases were considered in the SepBio scenario: (1) preventing loss of edible food ( PrevLoss ); (2) draining moisture contents ( ReducDrain ); and (3) home composting ( ReducHcom ). In these three cases, we assumed that the household waste was reduced by 5%. Results and discussion   The GHG emissions from the Inc, MecBio, and SepBio scenarios were 123.3, 119.5, and 118.6 Gg CO 2 -eq/year, respectively. Compared with the SepBio scenario without food waste reduction, the PrevLoss and ReducDrain cases reduced the GHG emissions by 17.1 and 0.5 Gg CO 2 -eq/year. In contrast, the ReducHcom case increased the GHG emissions by 2.1 Gg CO 2 -eq/year. This is because the biogas power production decreased due to the reduction in food waste, while the electricity consumption increased in response to home composting. Sensitivity analyses revealed that a reduction of only 1% of the household waste by food loss prevention has the same GHG reduction effect as a 31-point increase (from 50% to 81%) in the food waste separation rate. Conclusions   We found that prevention of food losses enhanced by separate collection led to a significant reduction in GHG emissions. These findings will be useful in future studies designed to develop strategies for further reductions in GHG emissions. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0400-4 Authors Takeshi Matsuda, Environmental Preservation Research Center, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Junya Yano, Environmental Preservation Research Center, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Yasuhiro Hirai, Environmental Preservation Research Center, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Shin-ichi Sakai, Environmental Preservation Research Center, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Parameterization refers to the practice of presenting Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) data using raw data and formulas instead of computed numbers in unit process datasets within databases. This paper reviews parameterization methods in the European Reference Life Cycle Data System (ELCD), ecoinvent v3, and the US Department of Agriculture's Digital Commons with the intent of providing a basis for continued methodological and coding advances. Methods   Parameterized data are reviewed and categorized with respect to the type (raw data and formulas) and what is being represented (e.g., consumption and emission rates and factors, physical or thermodynamic properties, process efficiencies, etc.). Parameterization of engineering relationships and uncertainty distributions using Smirnov transforms (a.k.a. inverse transform sampling), and ensuring uncertain individual fractions (e.g., market shares) sum to the total value of interest are presented. Results   Seventeen categories of parameters (raw data and formulas) are identified. Thirteen ELCD unit process datasets use 975 parameters in 12 categories, with 124 as raw data points and 851 as formulas, and emission factors as the most common category of parameter. Five additional parameter categories are identified in the Digital Commons for the presentation and analysis of data with uncertainty information, through 146 parameters, of which 53 represent raw data and 93 are formulas with most being uncertainty parameters, percentages, and consumption parameters. Conclusions   Parameterization is a powerful way to ensure transparency, usability, and transferability of LCI data. Its use is expected to increase in frequency, the categories of parameters used, and the types of computational methods employed. Content Type Journal Article Category Uncertainties in LCA Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0411-1 Authors Joyce Smith Cooper, Design for Environment Laboratory, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA Michael Noon, Design for Environment Laboratory, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA Ezra Kahn, Design for Environment Laboratory, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be utilized to holistically evaluate novel trends in the construction industry and the associated environmental impacts. Green labels are awarded by several organizations based on single or multiple attributes. The use of multi-criteria labels is a good start to the labeling process as opposed to single criteria labels that ignore a majority of impacts from products. Life cycle thinking, in theory, has the potential to improve the environmental impacts of labeling systems. However, LCA databases currently are lacking in detailed information about products or sometimes provide conflicting information. Method   This study compares generic and green-labeled carpets, paints, and linoleum flooring using the Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) LCA database. The results from these comparisons are not intuitive and are contradictory in several impact categories with respect to the greenness of the product. Other data sources such as environmental product declarations and ecoinvent are also compared with the BEES data to compare the results and display the disparity in the databases. Results   This study shows that partial LCAs focused on the production and transportation phase help in identifying improvements in the product itself and improving the manufacturing process but the results are uncertain and dependent upon the source or database. Inconsistencies in the data and missing categories add to the ambiguity in LCA results. Conclusions   While life cycle thinking in concept can improve the green labeling systems available, LCA data is lacking. Therefore, LCA data and tools need to improve to support and enable market trends. Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0416-9 Authors Neethi Rajagopalan, Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA Melissa M. Bilec, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA Amy E. Landis, Department of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85287, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The primary purpose of this study is to estimate the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon footprint) and criteria pollutant emissions during honey production and processing for US conditions based on several case studies of different scale beekeeping and processing operations. Commercial beekeeping operations yield two coproducts, honey and pollination services. These two products present an interesting coproduct allocation problem since beekeeping operations cannot be clearly subdivided, pollination services do not have a substitutable product or service, and pollination services cannot be characterized by physical properties for value-based allocation. Thus, a secondary purpose is to identify an appropriate allocation method and to discuss how the choice of allocation strategies influences the outcomes. Methods   The commercial honey production supply chain comprises the following two primary steps: raw honey production by beekeepers and honey processing and packaging by processors. A case study approach was used based on detailed operation data provided by several beekeepers and processors from key honey-producing regions in the USA. Process-based life cycle assessment was conducted following the ISO guidelines, and economic allocation was used as a baseline method for coproduct allocation. Results and discussion   Life cycle modeling of one complete commercial supply chain (raw honey production, transport to a processer, and processing) shows that total life cycle GHG emissions range from 0.67 to 0.92 kg CO 2 equivalent/kg of processed honey; however, outcomes show significant variability. Results show commercial honey production emits more GHGs and criteria pollutants than processing. Truck transport of bees is the dominant contributor of both GHG emissions and criteria pollutants within the life cycle of raw honey production. However, honey processing, which depends on natural gas and electricity, contributes a significant fraction of SO x . These results are based on economic allocation among beekeeping coproducts. In addition to economic allocation, subdivision was applied to beekeeping activities. Because hive management (feed and medication) could not be further subdivided, a bounded range was generated for raw honey production, where the lower and upper bounds represent two extremes where all the environmental burdens associated with hive management were allocated to pollination or honey production. Conclusions   Economic allocation tends to fall near or below the lower bound for the subdivision method. Interestingly, some beekeepers reported that their hive management practices were driven more by demand for pollination services than honey, which seems to be reflected in the coordination of lower-bound subdivision and economic allocation results. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR FOOD PRODUCTS Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0487-7 Authors Alissa Kendall, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA Juhong Yuan, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA, USA Sonja B. Brodt, Agricultural Sustainability Institute, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The protocols of carbon footprints generally define three scopes for different greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions levels. The most important carbon footprint emissions source comes from upstream indirect emissions of scope 3 for products that do not consume energy during their use phase. Upstream scope 3 GHG inventory can usually be analyzed through input–output or hybrid LCA analysis. The economic input–output life cycle analysis (EIO-LCA) and the hybrid LCA model have been widely used for this purpose. However, a cutoff error exists in the hybrid model, and the lack of a truncation criterion between process and IO inventory may lead to a high level of uncertainty in the hybrid model. This study attempts to improve the problem of cutoff uncertainty in hybrid LCA and proposes a method to minimize the cutoff uncertainty. Methods   The way to improve the cutoff uncertainty could follow two steps. First, through the IO inventory analysis of EIO-LCA, we can define the emissions by various tiers of product components. The IO inventory indicator can provide a definitive criterion for the process inventory of the hybrid model. Second, we connect the process- and IO-LCI according to the IO inventory result. The advantage of the process inventory is that it provides detailed manufacturing information on the target while the IO encompasses a complete system boundary. For improvements, the process inventory can catch the most important process of the GHG emissions, and the IO inventory could compensate for the remainder of the incomplete system inventory. Results and discussion   In this case study, the printed circuit board production process is used to evaluate the efficiency of the improved method. The threshold M was set to 70 in this case study, and the IO inventory provides the remaining 30 %. For the integrated hybrid model, the tier 3 process inventory takes only 64 % while the incorporation of the proposed method can include 92 % of the total emissions, which shows the cutoff uncertainty can be reduced through the improvement. Conclusions   This study provides a clear guideline for process and IO cutoff criteria, which can help the truncation uncertainty. When higher precision is required, process LCI will need to play an important role, and thus, a higher M value should be set. In this situation, the emissions from IO-LCI would be smaller than the emissions from the process LCI. The appropriate solution would attain a comfortable balance between data accuracy and time and labor consumption. Content Type Journal Article Category INPUT-OUTPUT AND HYBRID LCA Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0469-9 Authors Chia-Ho Lee, Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71 Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei, 106 Taiwan Hwong-Wen Ma, Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71 Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei, 106 Taiwan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   To support life cycle-based EU policies, the European Commission created the “European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment (EPLCA).” The platform aims at providing coherent and quality-assured life cycle data, methods, and studies. The LCA Resources Directory (RD), one of the deliverables of the EPLCA, has so far consisted of lists of services, tools, databases, and providers. It has been decided to extend its scope to contain a section on LCA studies with metadata to characterize them. The research question addressed in this paper is “which structure and features should the RD have to store LCA studies so that it can efficiently support and promote robust Life Cycle Thinking practices?” Methods   Existing tools with similar aims and objectives have been identified and analyzed to identify current performances and missing functionalities. A literature review concerning LCA studies in scientific and technical literature has been carried out in order to define relevant and consistent patterns. Following this analysis, it has been decided to develop a collaborative platform and an original structure has been proposed for the new section. The structure has been tested with a few LCA studies. Results   A new collaborative web platform of the resources directory has been developed and launched online. Contributors are now able to characterize LCA studies according to 43 fields of metadata, distributed among seven categories: general, goal, scope, inventory, impact assessment, interpretation, and review and compliance. Some fields are mandatory, and the fill-in boxes are either enumeration list or free text. The platform also contains a search tool to identify relevant LCA studies with their metadata. The administrator of the directory performs a consistency check before entries are shared with others. Conclusions   The EPLCA now contains a new collaborative web platform where LCA studies can be characterized and stored. It has been possible to identify a list of criteria for which LCA studies should be characterized. These criteria form the structure of the platform. It is too early to assess the actual usefulness of this new platform; this will be possible only when the directory is populated by contributors. With this new section in the RD, the EPLCA expands its aim of promoting Life Cycle Thinking and robust practices. Content Type Journal Article Category POLICY CORNER Pages 1-5 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0468-x Authors Javier Sanfélix, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy Fabrice Mathieux, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy Cristina de la Rúa, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy Marc-Andree Wolf, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy Kirana Chomkhamsri, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The sustainable development challenge that many economies are facing worldwide requires stronger measures because some environmental issues (e.g. global warming) are becoming exponentially worse. If we do not act at once, this negative trend has the potential to keep on radically changing the living conditions on the Earth. One of the most effective ways to address this challenge might be developing new Market Based Instruments (MBIs) by adopting a life cycle perspective. In this paper, we propose a new fiscal framework based on Value Added Tax (VAT) and life cycle thinking. This framework might have the potential to drastically change the current consumption and production patterns towards a product life cycle oriented economy. Methods   To identify the elements of a new framework enabling to improve the eco-efficiency of the current consumption and production patterns, firstly we have screened the potential of MBIs to face the sustainable development challenge in relation to the existing EU policy framework. Among MBIs, particular emphasis was given to VAT due to its potential to affect market prices. The key research advances for establishing a green VAT framework were then tracked down to outline the state-of-the-art. Moreover, how to use Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results for differentiating VAT rates has been investigated. On this basis, a range of methodology proposals to change the current VAT framework have been outlined. A hypothetical case study has been simulated to test these proposals. Results   Some relevant changes to the current VAT taxation system are proposed in this paper bearing in mind the LCA principles and, in a broad sense, the “getting prices right” policy. Special emphasis was given to the methodological framework needed to differentiate VAT rates according to the environmental footprint performance of products. In this context, fiscal neutrality issues related to State budgets have been also taken into account by conceptualising more cautious approaches for differentiating VAT rates. Conclusions   This piece of research has identified life cycle thinking as possible perspective on which basis product VAT rates might be differentiated. Further studies and a policy impact assessment procedure are needed to evaluate the actual feasibility of this new taxation framework. If the response of that assessment were positive, policy makers, companies and other stakeholders concerned should set out a suite of measures to further fine-tune, test, establish and facilitate the implementation of such green VAT framework. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0460-5 Authors Camillo De Camillis, European Commission—Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Sustainability Assessment Unit, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy Malgorzata Goralczyk, European Commission—Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Sustainability Assessment Unit, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of bioethanol as regards to its carbon dioxide emissions. The production of the raw material accounts for more than 50 % of the total cost as well as having a significant part of greenhouse gases emitted during the entire process. For this reason, special emphasis is given to a change in agricultural land usage influenced by the demand of biofuel. Therefore, we have estimated the extent of policy influence according to its bioethanol cost-effectiveness. A case study on bioethanol production in an ex-sugar factory in the region of Thessaly, Greece, illustrates the above ideas. Methods   A partial equilibrium micro-economic model of regional supply in the arable farming system of Thessaly was coupled to industrial processing sub-models of bioethanol production from beets and grains. The maximisation of total welfare determines the most suitable crop mix for farmers as well as the lowest cost configurations for industry and, eventually, the minimal level of support by the government for biofuel activity to take off. The environmental performance is assessed under the life cycle assessment (LCA) framework following three interrelated phases: data inventory, data analysis and interpretation. The economic burden to society to support the activity divided by avoided CO 2 eq. emissions indicates the bioethanol cost-effectiveness, in other words, the cost of greenhouse gases emissions savings. Results   The integrated agro-industry model has been parametrically run for a range of biofuel capacities. A change in direct land use results in lower emissions in the agricultural phase, since energy crops are a substitute for intensive cultivations, such as cotton and corn. A change in indirect land use moderates these estimations, as it takes in account imported food crops that are replaced by energy crops in the region. The savings in cost vary around 160 euros per ton of CO 2 eq. for the basic agricultural policy scenario. The current policy that supports cotton production by means of increased coupled area payment has increased up to 30 % the cost of greenhouse gas savings due to bioethanol production. Conclusions   An integrated model, articulating the agricultural supply of biomass with ethanol processing, maximises the total surplus that is under constraints in order to determine the cost-effectiveness for different production levels. Results demonstrate that economic performances, as well as the environmental cost-effectiveness of bioethanol, are clearly affected by the parameters of agricultural policies. Therefore, bioenergy, environmental and economic performances, when based on LCA and the conceptual change in land usage, are context dependent. Agricultural policies for decoupling subsidies from production are in favour of cultivation in biomass for energy purposes. Content Type Journal Article Category LAND USE IN LCA Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0471-2 Authors Stelios Rozakis, Department of Agricultural Economics and Development, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece Md. Imdadul Haque, Bangladesh Sugarcane Research Institute, District- Pabna, Bangladesh Athanasios Natsis, Department of Natural Resources Management and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece Magdalena Borzecka-Walker, Department of Agrometeorology and Applied Informatics, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation‐State Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland Katarzyna Mizak, Department of Agrometeorology and Applied Informatics, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation‐State Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   I-beams for outdoor structures are traditionally made from conventional materials such as stainless steel due to its high strength and corrosive resistant properties. Alternatively, the I-beam can also be made from composite materials such as glass-reinforced plastics (GRP), which provide similar properties under a lighter weight and a lower cost condition. Nonetheless, their environmental footprint performance depends largely on activities involved during their life cycle. Therefore, the findings are presented in two parts: Part 1 and 2. This paper is about Part 1, which presents the environmental footprint for the cradle-to-grave of one linear metre I-beam that is made from two materials namely stainless steel (316) and GRP. Part 2, which will be submitted as a separate paper, has specifically analysed their environmental and economic impacts for the different cradle-to-gate scenarios and the potential carbon tax. Materials and methods   Materials that were used to compare the environmental footprint of an I-beam are GRP and stainless steel (316). Their cradle-to-grave activities included raw material extraction, supplier transportation, manufacturing process, distribution, disposal transportation and process. Input data were based on data provided by a composites company in Australia, the Ecoinvent 2.2 and Australian data 2007 databases. The World ReCiPe midpoint and endpoint methods were used to assess the environmental footprint. Results and discussion   The environmental footprint results for the cradle-to-grave of the I-beams are presented as a contribution percentage of the single score unit in the total and damage category levels which produced by the endpoint method. The characteristic and normalisation results were also generated for all impact categories by the midpoint method. Conclusions   Overall, the cradle-to-grave results show that the composite I-beam produces 20 % less environmental footprint than that of the stainless steel I-beam. The human health damage category is affected the most due to the main contribution from the material stage. The cradle-to-gate results are contributed by 90 % from raw material extraction, 7 % from the manufacturing process and 3 % from the supplier transportation. In terms of the characteristic results, the composite I-beam produces less environmental impact in most of the impact categories except for the climate change, photochemical oxidant formation, terrestrial acidification, marine eutrophication, natural land transformation and fossil depletion. Therefore, the influential parameters of these impact categories are investigated further in Part 2 where the environmental footprint and economic impact are estimated for different cradle-to-gate scenarios of the I-beams. Content Type Journal Article Category BUILDINGS AND BUILDING MATERIALS Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0452-5 Authors Suphunnika Ibbotson, Life Cycle Engineering and Management Research Group, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2052 Sami Kara, Life Cycle Engineering and Management Research Group, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2052 Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Sustainability assessment in life cycle assessment (LCA) addresses societal aspects of technologies or products to evaluate whether a technology/product helps to address important challenges faced by society or whether it causes problems to society or at least selected social groups. In this paper, we analyse how this has been, and can be addressed in the context of economic assessments. We discuss the need for systemic measures applicable in the macro-economic setting. Methods   The modelling framework of life cycle costing (LCC) is analysed as a key component of the life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) framework. Supply chain analysis is applied to LCC in order to understand the relationships between societal concerns of value adding and the basic cost associated with a functional unit. Methods to link LCC as a foreground economic inventory to a background economy wide inventory such as an input–output table are shown. Other modelling frameworks designed to capture consequential effects in LCSA are discussed. Results   LCC is a useful indicator in economic assessments, but it fails to capture the full dimension of economic sustainability. It has potential contradictions in system boundary to an environmental LCA, and includes normative judgements at the equivalent of the inventory level. Further, it has an inherent contradiction between user goals (minimisation of cost) and social goals (maximisation of value adding), and has no clear application in a consequential setting. LCC is focussed on the indicator of life cycle cost, to the exclusion of many relevant indicators that can be utilised in LCSA. As such, we propose the coverage of indicators in economic assessment to include the value adding to the economy by type of input, import dependency, indicators associated with the role of capital and labour, the innovation potential, linkages and the structural impact on economic sectors. Conclusions   If the economic dimension of LCSA is to be equivalently addressed as the other pillars, formalisation of equivalent frameworks must be undertaken. Much can be advanced from other fields that could see LCSA to take a more central role in policy formation. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT: FROM LCA TO LCSA Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0463-2 Authors Richard Wood, Industrial Ecology Program, NTNU - Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, 7491 Norway Edgar G. Hertwich, Industrial Ecology Program, NTNU - Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, 7491 Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   China is the largest producer of textile-dyeing products in the world. The production of these materials consumes high amounts of water and energy and results in the discharge of huge amounts of pollutants. This study aimed at evaluating the life-cycle environmental impacts of the textile-dyeing industry and determining the key processes for mitigating life-cycle environmental impacts efficiently and effectively, which will benefit the application of cleaner production technologies. Methods   A life-cycle assessment was performed according to the ISO 14040 standard series. The system investigated includes the dyeing process and final disposal and the transportation of raw material, energy production, and transportation. The functional unit is 10,000 m of cotton fabric, which weighs 2,000 kg. Our study encompasses three types of data. The data regarding the production process and the major raw materials, necessary energy, and the source of the energy, as well as the emissions of some pollutants, were provided by a textile-dyeing enterprise in Jiangsu Province. The data regarding transport were generated using the GaBi version 4.3 database. Some emission factor data such as those on CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O emissions were obtained from the literature. Resources, energy consumption, and emissions are quantified, and some of the potential environmental effects were evaluated using the CML2001 method built into the GaBi version 4.3 database. Results and discussion   Scouring and oxygen bleaching, dyeing, stentering and setting, wastewater treatment, and incineration are the key processes in terms of global warming potential, acidification potential, photochemical ozone creation potential, and eutrophication potential. It will therefore be useful to enhance the recycling of water, control the consumption of additives and dyes, and conserve energy as much as possible. Through scenario analysis, we note that motorized shipment should be used instead of shipment by trucks, when conditions permit. Conclusions   To promote energy conservation and the clean production of continuous pad-dyeing technology for cotton fabrics, other environmental impact categories besides the impact of the water system should be given focus. Additional work can be performed on the following: considering a consumption-based perspective of the entire process, uncertainty in data on life-cycle inventory, the evaluation methodology employed, temporal and spatial variation, the normalized toxicity of dyes and additives, and weighting methods. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0470-3 Authors Zeng-Wei Yuan, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Ya-Nan Zhu, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Jun-Kui Shi, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Xin Liu, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Lei Huang, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: First Indian life cycle assessment and management conference 2012 Content Type Journal Article Category CONFERENCE ANNOUNCEMENT Pages 1-2 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0466-z Authors Archana Datta, FICCI Quality Forum, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, Federation House, Tansen Marg, New Delhi, 110 001 India Philip Strothmann, Secretariat of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Sustainable Consumption and Production Branch, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, United Nations Environment Programme, 15, rue de Milan, 75441 Paris Cedex 09, France Sonia Valdivia, Secretariat of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Sustainable Consumption and Production Branch, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, United Nations Environment Programme, 15, rue de Milan, 75441 Paris Cedex 09, France Bruce Vigon, SETAC North America, 1010 North 12th Avenue, Pensacola, FL 32501-3367, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This short note re-examines the proof of fuzzy error propagation with matrix-based LCI in Heijungs and Tan ( Int J Life Cycle Assess 15:1014–1019, 2010 ) paper (referred to as HT hereafter), published in this journal. We provide counter examples to the claims made therein, point out the key error in their proof and identify correct sufficient conditions under which the largest (smallest) values of the given α-cuts of fuzzy numbers in the technology matrix yield the smallest (largest) scaling factors. Methods   HT uses iterative perturbations of a matrix to seemingly provide a rigorous proof of this result. Flaws in their arguments are identified and demonstrated by way of a counterexample. A classical result on monotonic property of the inverse of M-matrices leads to the correct sufficient conditions under which HT result holds. Results   Since counter examples can be found, the result stated in HT is not, in general, guaranteed. Conclusions   As claimed in the HT paper, checking the upper and lower bounds of α-cuts may not be sufficient to describe the uncertainty (the full range of values) in the final inventory. However, slightly stronger conditions on the fuzzy technology matrix provide these inventory bounds. Content Type Journal Article Category UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0475-y Authors Nathan Cruze, Department of Statistics, The Ohio State University, 1958 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Prem K. Goel, Department of Statistics, The Ohio State University, 1958 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Bhavik R. Bakshi, William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 140 West 19th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Earlier studies on agricultural life cycle assessment recommend that practitioners use two functional units—product weight and land area—because agriculture entails commodity production and land use. However, there are still ambiguities in this approach from the perspective of decision support. The purpose of this paper is to provide recommendations to support farming conversion decisions on the basis of a framework constructed on two alternative views of agricultural production. Organic conversion of arable farming is selected as a case study. Methods   Four types of conversion were constructed on the basis of land-oriented expression, in which inputs into and outputs from land were depicted, and product-oriented expression, in which inputs into and outputs from products were depicted. Then, the frequencies for each type were counted using LCI databases and data from journal papers. Results   The results can be summarized as follows: (1) trade-off conversion, in which improvements in environmental impacts per area unit are involved in decrease of yield per area unit, is common. (2) Conversion tended to be efficient; that is, environmental impacts per product unit tended to improve. (3) Within trade-off conversion, the conversion tended to be efficient. (4) When conversion was efficient, there were trade-offs. Conclusions   Since the results for one expression were not always derivable from the results for another expression, the recommendation of this study is to use the two expressions complementarily, knowing that win–win conversion is rare. In addition, there is a general recommendation to use decision criteria rather than trying to make decisions on the basis of multiple functional units because comparisons based on the two functional units are not on the same level. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR AGRICULTURE Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0493-9 Authors Kiyotada Hayashi, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Agricultural Research Center, 3-1-1 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8666, Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of the social Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method is to predict the social impacts on people caused by the changes in the functioning of one product chain throughout its life cycle. Changes in health status are very important experiences for people. The aim of this paper is to build a pathway between changes in economic activity generated by the functioning of a product chain and the changes in health status of the population in the country where the economic activity takes place. Methods   Empirical and historical factors suggest that increased economic activity through growth in income leads to improvements in the health of a country’s population. This empirical relationship is well known in economics as the Preston curve. Using this relationship, we design a pathway for social LCA impact assessment. This pathway may be used to explain or predict the potential impact caused by the modification of one product sector upon the health of a population. The Preston relationship usually is calculated for a cross section of countries. We assess whether the Preston relationship is valid when a single country is considered alone. Drawing from scientific literature regarding development, we define the context where the use of the Preston relationship is justified. We describe the general design of the Preston pathway, using a recalculated (panel based) relationship, and specify the conditions for its use. We apply it to the case of company B, a banana industry in Cameroon, for the period between 2010 and 2030. Results   We highlight that the panel calculation of the Preston relationship remains significant when a country is considered alone. We suggest that the following conditions are required for the pathway to be used: (1) the activity is set within countries where the GDP per capita in purchasing power parity is less than $10,000 at the start of the period, (2) the assessed activity accounts for a significant part of the annual GDP and/or demonstrates obvious signs that it represents a huge stake in the country’s economy, (3) the duration of the assessed activity is regular and long enough, and (4) the added value created by the activity is shared within the country. We found that the future activity of company B would improve the potential LEX of the entire population of Cameroon by 5 days over 20 years, based on 200,000 t of bananas exported annually (in comparison with no activity). Conclusions   When the four conditions for use are met, and provided results are interpreted by comparing them with other situations or countries, the recalculated panel-based relationship may be used to explain or predict a change in potential life expectancy generated by a change in economic activity. The Preston pathway may be useful for impact assessment in social LCA. The assessment is valid only when used for a comparative analysis and must be done within a multi-criteria framework. Complementary pathways therefore need to be designed. We suggest that the conditions for use and other research issues be discussed and fine-tuned further. Moreover, we welcome comments and criticisms. Content Type Journal Article Category SOCIETAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0490-z Authors Pauline Feschet, UPR Systèmes de productions bananes, plantains et ananas, CIRAD, Persyst, Bd de la Lironde, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France Catherine Macombe, UMR ITAP-ELSA, Cemagref-Irstea, 361 rue Jean-François Breton, 34196 Montpellier Cedex 5, France Michel Garrabé, Université Montpellier 1, UMR Art-Dev, Rue Raymond Dugrand, 34960 Montpellier Cedex 2, France Denis Loeillet, UPR Systèmes de productions bananes, plantains et ananas, CIRAD, Persyst, Bd de la Lironde, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France Adolfo Rolo Saez, UMR SELMET, CIRAD, Persyst, Station de Ligne-Paradis, 7 chemin de l’IRAT, 97410 Saint-Pierre, France François Benhmad, Université Montpellier 1, UMR Art-Dev, Rue Raymond Dugrand, 34960 Montpellier Cedex 2, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC). Methods   Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders. Results and recommendations   Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development. Discussion, conclusions, and outlook   The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 Authors Michael Z. Hauschild, Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Mark Goedkoop, PRé Consultants B.V., Printerweg 18, 3821 AD Amersfoort, The Netherlands Jeroen Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Department of Industrial Ecology, Faculty of Science, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Department of Industrial Ecology, Faculty of Science, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands Mark Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Manuele Margni, Department of Mathematical and Industrial Engineering, CIRAIG, École Polytechnique de Montréal, 2900 Édouard-Montpetit, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada An De Schryver, PRé Consultants B.V., Printerweg 18, 3821 AD Amersfoort, The Netherlands Sebastien Humbert, Quantis International, Parc scientifique EPFL, Bât. D, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland Alexis Laurent, Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Serenella Sala, Sustainability Assessment Unit, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Commission-Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy Rana Pant, Sustainability Assessment Unit, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Commission-Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Current estimations of the climate impact from indirect land use change (ILUC) caused by biofuels are heavily influenced by assumptions regarding the biofuel production period. The purpose of this paper is to propose a new method (baseline time accounting) that takes global land use dynamics into account that is consistent with the global warming potential, that is applicable to any phenomenon causing land use change, and that is independent of production period assumptions. Methods   We consider ILUC in two forms. The first is called “accelerated expansion” and concerns ILUC in regions with an expanding agricultural area. The second is called “delayed reversion” and concerns ILUC in regions with a decreasing agricultural area. We use recent trends in international land use and projections of future land use change to assess how ILUC from biofuels will alter the development in global agricultural land use dynamics compared to the existing trend (i.e., the baseline development). We then use the definition of the global warming potential to determine the CO 2 equivalence of the change in land use dynamics. Results and discussion   We apply baseline time accounting to two existing ILUC studies in the literature. With current trends in global agricultural land use, the method significantly reduces the estimated climate impact in the previous ILUC studies (by more than half). Sensitivity analyses show that results are somewhat sensitive to assumptions regarding carbon sequestration and assumptions regarding postreversion ecosystems. Conclusions   The global dynamic development in land use has important implications for the time accounting step when estimating the climate impact of ILUC caused by biofuel production or other issues affecting land use. Ignoring this may lead to erroneous conclusions about the actual climate impact of ILUC. Several land use projections indicate that the global agricultural area will keep expanding up to and beyond 2050. We therefore recommend to apply the baseline time accounting concept as an integrated part of future ILUC studies and to update the results on a regular basis. Content Type Journal Article Category LAND USE IN LCA Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0488-6 Authors Jesper Hedal Kløverpris, Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, 2880 Bagsværd, Denmark Steffen Mueller, Energy Resources Center (MC 156), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1309 South Halsted Street, Room 208, Chicago, IL 60607, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Disposable beverage bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) stand in sharp contrast to many other disposable plastic packaging systems in the US for their high level of post-consumer recovery for recycling. This is due in part to container deposit programs in several US states, such as the California Redemption Value (CRV) program. We investigate the impacts of PET bottle recycling in the CRV program to evaluate its effectiveness at reducing environmental burdens. Methods   We develop a life cycle model using standard process LCA techniques. We use the US LCI database to describe the energy production infrastructure and the production of primary materials. We describe the inventory and logistical requirements for materials recovery on the basis of state-maintained statistics and interviews with operators and industry representatives. We report inventory indicators describing energy, freight, and waste disposal requirements. We report several impact indicators based on CML and TRACI-2.0 techniques. We apply system expansion to compare post-consumer activities to produce secondary polymer against equivalent primary production. Results and discussion   While bottle collection is distributed across the state, processing is more centralized and occurs primarily near urban centers. The average distance traveled by a bottle from discard to recovery is 145–175 km. Recycling requires 0.45–0.66 MJ of primary energy/L of beverage, versus 3.96 MJ during the pre-consumer phase. Post-consumer environmental impacts are significantly lower than pre-consumer impacts, with the exception of eutrophication. The results are robust to model sensitivity, with allocation of fuel for bottle collection being the most significant parameter. Curbside collection is slightly more energy efficient than consumer drop-off, and is subject to smaller parametric uncertainty. Recycling has the potential for net environmental benefits in five of seven impact categories, the exceptions being smog (marginal benefits) and eutrophication (increased impacts). Conclusions   California’s decentralized program for collecting and processing PET bottles has produced a system which generates a large stream of post-consumer material with minimal environmental impact. The selection of a reclamation locale is the most significant factor influencing post-consumer impacts. If secondary PET displaces primary material, several environmental burdens can be reduced. Recommendations and perspectives   Our results suggest that deposit programs on disposable packaging are an effective policy mechanism to increase material recovery and reduce environmental burdens. Deposit programs for other packaging systems should be considered. Content Type Journal Article Category PACKAGING SYSTEMS INCLUDING RECYCLING Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0495-7 Authors Brandon Kuczenski, Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5131, USA Roland Geyer, Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5131, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: From the 40s to the 70s—the future of LCA in the ISO 14000 family Content Type Journal Article Category EDITORIAL Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0492-x Authors Matthias Finkbeiner, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Technical University Berlin, Office Z1, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In the process of selecting where effective environmental measures should be directed, the weighting step of life cycle assessment (LCA) is an optional, controversial, but nevertheless important tool. A set of criteria for evaluating weighting methods has relevance in the process of acquiring meta-knowledge, and thus competence, in assigning relative weights to environmental impact categories. This competence is helpful when choosing between presently available weighting methods, and in creating new weighting methods. Methods   Criteria in LCA-related literature are reviewed. The authors have focused on identifying lists of criteria rather than extracting criteria from bulks of text. An important starting point has been the actual use of the term “criterion”, while at the same time disqualifying certain definitions of the term which are too far removed from the two definitions provided in this article. Results and discussion   Criteria for evaluating weighting methods are shown to fall into two general categories. The first being general criteria for weighting methods, demanding that weighting methods have a broad scope, are practical for users and scientists, are scientific and have ethical goals. The second being criteria proposing characteristics of concrete environmental damage which should be taken into account by a weighting method. A noteworthy example is reversibility. Conclusions   While the comprehensive tables of criteria speak for themselves, it can be observed that the need for transparency is particularly highlighted in literature. Furthermore, ISO 14044’s statement that the weighting step is “not scientifically based” would appear to defy a significant proportion of the other criteria reviewed; this, however, depends on its interpretation. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0491-y Authors Fredrik Moltu Johnsen, Ostfold Research (Østfoldforskning AS), Gamle Beddingvei 2 B, 1607 Kråkerøy, Norway Søren Løkke, Aalborg University, Danish Centre for Environmental Assessment, Skibbrogade 5, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The main objective of this study is to expand the discussion about how, and to what extent, the environmental performance is affected by the use of different life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) illustrated by the case study of the comparison between environmental impacts of gasoline and ethanol form sugarcane in Brazil. Methods   The following LCIA methods have been considered in the evaluation: CML 2001, Impact 2002+, EDIP 2003, Eco-indicator 99, TRACI 2, ReCiPe, and Ecological Scarcity 2006. Energy allocation was used to split the environmental burdens between ethanol and surplus electricity generated at the sugarcane mill. The phases of feedstock and (bio)fuel production, distribution, and use are included in system boundaries. Results and discussion   At the midpoint level, comparison of different LCIA methods showed that ethanol presents lower impacts than gasoline in important categories such as global warming, fossil depletion, and ozone layer depletion. However, ethanol presents higher impacts in acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidation, and agricultural land use categories. Regarding to single-score indicators, ethanol presented better performance than gasoline using ReCiPe Endpoint LCIA method. Using IMPACT 2002+, Eco-indicator 99, and Ecological Scarcity 2006, higher scores are verified for ethanol, mainly due to the impacts related to particulate emissions and land use impacts. Conclusions   Although there is a relative agreement on the results regarding equivalent environmental impact categories using different LCIA methods at midpoint level, when single-score indicators are considered, use of different LCIA methods lead to different conclusions. Single-score results also limit the interpretability at endpoint level, as a consequence of small contributions of relevant environmental impact categories weighted in a single-score indicator. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0465-0 Authors Otávio Cavalett, Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol, CTBE, Caixa Postal 6170, 13083-970 Campinas, Brazil Mateus Ferreira Chagas, Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol, CTBE, Caixa Postal 6170, 13083-970 Campinas, Brazil Joaquim E. A. Seabra, Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol, CTBE, Caixa Postal 6170, 13083-970 Campinas, Brazil Antonio Bonomi, Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol, CTBE, Caixa Postal 6170, 13083-970 Campinas, Brazil Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The UK carbonated drinks sector was worth £8 billion in 2010 and is growing at an annual rate of 4.9 %. In an attempt to provide a better understanding of the environmental impacts of this sector, this paper presents, for the first time, the full life cycle impacts of carbonated soft drinks manufactured and consumed in the UK. Two functional units are considered: 1 l of packaged drink and total annual production of carbonated drinks in the UK. The latter has been used to estimate the impacts at the sectoral level. The system boundary is from ‘cradle to grave’. Different packaging used for carbonated drinks is considered: glass bottles (0.75 l), aluminium cans (0.33 l) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles (0.5 and 2 l). Materials and methods   The study has been carried out following the ISO 14040/44 life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Data have been sourced from a drink manufacturer as well as the CCaLC, Ecoinvent and Gabi databases. The LCA software tools CCaLC v2.0 and GaBi 4.3 have been used for LCA modelling. The environmental impacts have been estimated according to the CML 2001 method. Results and discussion   Packaging is the main hotspot for most environmental impacts, contributing between 59 and 77 %. The ingredients account between 7 and 14 % mainly due to sugar; the manufacturing stage contributes 5–10 %, largely due to the energy for filling and packaging. Refrigeration of the drink at retailer increases global warming potential by up to 33 %. Transport contributes up to 7 % to the total impacts. Conclusions   The drink packaged in 2 l PET bottles is the most sustainable option for most impacts, including the carbon footprint, while the drink in glass bottles is the worst option. However, reusing glass bottles three times would make the carbon footprint of the drink in glass bottles comparable to that in aluminium cans and 0.5 l PET bottles. If recycling of PET bottles is increased to 60 %, the glass bottle would need to be reused 20 times to make their carbon footprints comparable. The estimates at the sectoral level indicate that the carbonated drinks in the UK are responsible for over 1.5 million tonnes of CO 2 eq. emissions per year. This represented 13 % of the GHG emissions from the whole food and drink sector or 0.26 % of the UK total emissions in 2010. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR FOOD PRODUCTS Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0459-y Authors David Amienyo, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Haruna Gujba, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Heinz Stichnothe, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Adisa Azapagic, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A widely used theory of the computational structure of life cycle assessment (LCA) has been available for more than a decade. The case of environmental life cycle cost (LCC) is still less clear: even the recent Code of Practice does not specify any formula to use. Methods   This paper does not aim to resolve all the issues at stake. But it aims to provide an explicit and transparent description of how to calculate the life cycle cost (in whatever way defined), and the value added across the life cycle. Results and discussion   The expressions obtained can be fed into the formulas for eco-efficiency, so that an explicit and reproducible eco-efficiency indicator can be calculated. Conclusions   The results are useful for developing life cycle sustainability analysis, combining LCA, LCC, and social LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT: FROM LCA TO LCSA Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0461-4 Authors Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Ettore Settanni, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Campus, Bath, BA2 7AY UK Jeroen Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this project was to provide a parameterized LCA tool that allows performing site specific life cycle assessments for different wind energy converter types by varying a limited number of relevant parameters. Hereby, it addresses the limited transferability of WEC LCA results to other sites as well as the increasing demand for such data. Methods   Basis of the work was an extensive primary data collection at the respective production facilities and other relevant stakeholders like site assessment, service etc. Most of the required data was available at first hand and was completed with data from literature and LCA databases. Based on this data, a complex parameterized material flow model has been built and different product variants have been pre-defined within the model, including relevant production processes and upstream. The pre-definition of these product variants allows reducing the minimum number of parameters that need to be configured for site specific LCAs from a total of over 330 to just nine parameters. Results and conclusions   In the future, choosing the right type of technology for specific sites will become more important; especially in the face of increasing land use conflicts and increasing competition between renewable energy technologies. Site and technology specific LCAs prove to be a valuable tool for this assessment. Tools like the presented significantly reduce the effort required for performing these LCAs. Additionally, they can be used for various other purposes like environmental assessments of different repowering scenarios and eco design. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0467-y Authors Till Zimmermann, Faculty of Production Engineering, Department Technological Design and Development, artec—research center for sustainability studies, University of Bremen, Enrique-Schmidt-Str. 7, 28359 Bremen, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The most efficient way to reduce the environmental impact of cement production is to replace Portland cement with alternative cementitious materials. These are most often industrial waste such as blast-furnace slags (GBFS) and coal combustion fly ashes (FA). However, a recent European directive no longer considers these products as waste but as by-products. Therefore, the impact of their production has to be considered. Within this new framework, this study develops an evaluation method of their environmental impacts. Method   This paper presents pre-existing methods and underlines their limits. Through our evaluation of these methods, it has become clear that the allocation procedure is necessary; however, results depend highly on the chosen allocation procedure. This study presents a new allocation method, based on the fact that both cement and the alternative materials, GBFS and FA, are produced by energy-intensive industries (cement iron and coal) which are all subjected to the European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading System. In this carbon trading system, it is economically beneficial for industries to reduce their environmental impact, like for when, by example, by-products from one industry are used as alternative ‘green’ material by another industry. Our allocation coefficient is calculated so that the economic gains and losses are the same for all of the industries involved in these exchanges and provides the overall environmental benefit of the exchanges. Results and discussion   The discussion shows that whilst this method has much in common with other allocation methods, it is more accurate as it allocates the environmental costs fairly over the industries involved and is more robust because of its constant value. One of its limits is that it cannot be used for life cycle inventories; however, we test the possibility of choosing a coefficient from one impact category and applying it to all the others. Conclusion   Lastly, the technical term of the equation this paper presents could be employed for consequential life cycle assessment, to calculate the most environmental uses by-products could be put to. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0464-1 Authors Guillaume Habert, IFSTTAR, Materials Department, Université Paris-Est, Swiss Federal Institute Zurich (ETHZ) Wolfgang-Pauli Str. 15, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A complete assessment of water use in life cycle assessment (LCA) involves modelling both consumptive and degradative water use. Due to the range of environmental mechanisms involved, the results are typically reported as a profile of impact category indicator results. However, there is also demand for a single score stand-alone water footprint, analogous to the carbon footprint. To facilitate single score reporting, the critical dilution volume approach has been used to express a degradative emission in terms of a theoretical water volume, sometimes referred to as grey water. This approach has not received widespread acceptance and a new approach is proposed which takes advantage of the complex fate and effects models normally employed in LCA. Methods   Results for both consumptive and degradative water use are expressed in the reference unit H 2 Oe, enabling summation and reporting as a single stand-alone value. Consumptive water use is assessed taking into consideration the local water stress relative to the global average water stress (0.602). Concerning degradative water use, each emission is modelled separately using the ReCiPe impact assessment methodology, with results subsequently normalised, weighted and converted to the reference unit (H 2 Oe) by comparison to the global average value for consumptive water use (1.86 × 10 −3 ReCiPe points m −3 ). Results and discussion   The new method, illustrated in a simplified case study, incorporates best practice in terms of life cycle impact assessment modelling for eutrophication, human and eco-toxicity, and is able to assimilate new developments relating to these and any other impact assessment models relevant to water pollution. Conclusions   The new method enables a more comprehensive and robust assessment of degradative water use in a single score stand-alone water footprint than has been possible in the past. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0458-z Authors Bradley G. Ridoutt, Sustainable Agriculture National Research Flagship, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Private Bag 10, Clayton South, Victoria 3169, Australia Stephan Pfister, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349