ALBERT

Description: Purpose   The research presented here was motivated by an interest in understanding the magnitude of sampling error in crop production unit process data developed for life cycle assessments (LCAs) of food, biofuel, and bioproduct production. More broadly, uncertainty data are placed within the context of conclusive interpretations of comparative bioproduct LCA results. Methods   Data from the US Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Resource Management Survey were parameterized for 466 crop–state–year combinations, using 146 variables representing the previous crop, tillage and seed operations, irrigation, and applications of synthetic fertilizer, lime, nitrogen inhibitor, organic fertilizer, and pesticides. Data are described by Student's t distributions representing sampling error through the relative standard error (RSE) and are organized by the magnitude of the RSE by data point. Also, instances in which the bounds of the 95 % confidence intervals are less than zero or exceed actual limits are identified. Results and discussion   Although the vast majority of the data have a RSE less than 100 %, values range from 0 to 1,600 %. The least precision was found in data collected between 2001 and 2002, in the production of corn and soybeans and in synthetic and pesticide applications and irrigation data. The highest precision was seen in the production of durum wheat, rice, oats, and peanuts and in data representing previous crops and till and seed technology use. Additionally, upwards of 20 % of the unit process, data had 95 % confidence intervals that are less than or exceed actual limits, such as an estimation of a negative area or a portion exceeding a total area, as a consequence of using a jackknife on subsets of data for which the weights are not calibrated explicitly and a low presence of certain practices. Conclusions   High RSE values arise from the RSE representing a biased distribution, a jackknife estimate being nearly zero, or error propagation using low-precision data. As error propagates to the final unit process data, care is required when interpreting an inventory, e.g., Monte Carlo simulation should only be sampled within the appropriate bounds. At high levels of sampling error such as those described here, comparisons of LCA bioproduct results must be made with caution and must be tested to ensure mean values are different to a desired level of significance. Content Type Journal Article Category UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0454-3 Authors Joyce Smith Cooper, Design for Environment Laboratory, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA Ezra Kahn, Design for Environment Laboratory, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2600, USA Robert Ebel, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 355 E Street SW, Washington, DC 20024-3221, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper compares 16 waste lubricant oil (WLO) systems (15 management alternatives and a system in use in Portugal) using a life cycle assessment (LCA). The alternatives tested use various mild processing techniques and recovery options: recycling during expanded clay production, recycling and electric energy production, re-refining, energy recovery during cement production, and energy recovery during expanded clay production. Methods   The proposed 15 alternatives and the actual present day situation were analyzed using LCA software UMBERTO 5.5, applied to eight environmental impact categories. The LCA included an expansion system to accommodate co-products. Results   The results show that mild processing with low liquid gas fuel consumption and re-refining is the best option to manage WLO with regard to abiotic depletion, eutrophication, global warming, and human toxicity environmental impacts. A further environmental option is to treat the WLO using the same mild processing technique, but then send it to expanded clay recycling to be used as a fuel in expanded clay production, as this is the best option regarding freshwater sedimental ecotoxicity, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, and acidification. Conclusions   It is recommended that there is a shift away from recycling and electric energy production. Although sensitivity analysis shows re-refining and energy recovery in expanded clay production are sensitive to unit location and substituted products emission factors, the LCA analysis as a whole shows that both options are good recovery options; re-refining is the preferable option because it is closer to the New Waste Framework Directive waste hierarchy principle. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0455-2 Authors Ana Pires, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, 2829-516 Portugal Graça Martinho, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, 2829-516 Portugal Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Changes affecting how product chains function can have a profound impact on human communities. Certain social life cycle assessment (LCA) methods aim to anticipate the important social effects of changes taking place in the functioning of a product’s life cycle. They therefore must identify the groups that are most affected. This paper aims to help identify the groups affected by competition beyond those usually highlighted. The objective is to propose rules to identify the organisations involved in the social life cycle of a product within a context of competition. Once these organisations are identified, it is possible to deduce which groups are affected. Methods   We analyse how published social LCA studies describe the product system and determine its boundaries. We deduce the necessity of constructing (1) a new model (the systematic competitive model) when there is competition and (2) a cut-off criterion (significant dependency). These allow us to describe the system and determine its boundaries, and thus to draw the social life cycle, in a context of competition. We conducted a simple case study (calculation of the number of rural jobs created/destroyed by a new agricultural filière ) in which two methods of representing a product system are compared. The first method is the value chain (which does not take into account the situation prior to the establishment of the planned new filière ), the second method introduces the systematic competitive model, which includes the short term effects of competition with the planned activities. Results   The case study shows that it is possible to define the social life cycle by proceeding in this way. The two ways of representing the same real system produce very different results. The list of organisations affected and the nature of the impact to be assessed determine which actors are affected. Conclusions   The use of the systematic competitive model is indispensable when competition is intense. The organisations to be included in the boundaries of the social LCA (SLCA) study are those whose behaviour with social effects is significantly affected by the changes. Furthermore, there are numerous other phenomena linked to products that provoke important social impacts, but we do not yet know how to model them. They call for further research. Environmental LCA (ELCA) and SLCA studies of the same real system will be coherent, even if the descriptions of the system and the rules of fixing the boundaries differ, provided they reflect the same scenario. Content Type Journal Article Category SOCIETAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0448-1 Authors Vincent Lagarde, CREOP, Institut d’Administration des Entreprises, 13 rue de Genève, 87100 Limoges, France Catherine Macombe, Joint Unit ITAP, ELSA, Cemagref-IRSTEA, 361 rue Jean-François Breton, 34196 Montpellier cedex 5, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Differences in the practice of inclusion and the definition of specific and generic data when performing an LCA for an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) may lead to incomparable EPDs. The purpose of this paper is to illuminate the importance of precise definitions regarding data quality in EPDs. Method   The authors define relevant terminology before describing methodological differences between two versions of EPDs for an office chair. The analyses performed for one EPD use generic data for the foreground system, while the other uses specific data. Results for some impact categories as well as inventory findings are shown, and the reasons for differences are investigated and discussed. Results   Relevant dilemmas are examined with regard to the choice of generic or specific data. These include practical hindrances and the promotion of environmental improvement. Some preliminary methodological and organisational implications are described, followed by an outline of further research. Conclusions   This paper shows the substantial variations arising from using two datasets with different degrees of specificity, and concludes that they increase in relation to the distinctiveness of the process or material. This highlights the importance of EPD programmes in establishing precise, unambiguous definitions and vocabulary with regard to specific as against generic data, when combined with foreground and background processes. It is essential to take this into consideration so as to avoid misunderstandings or false agreement when discussing data quality. It is also necessary in order to avoid comparisons of products based on very different assumptions. Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0449-0 Authors Ingunn Saur Modahl, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Cecilia Askham, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Kari-Anne Lyng, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Camilla Skjerve-Nielssen, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Guro Nereng, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There are methodological questions concerning life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint evaluation of road pavements, including allocation among co-products or at end-of-life (EOL) recycling. While the development and adoption of a standard methodology for road pavement LCA would assist in transparency and decision making, the impact of the chosen method on the results has not yet been fully explored. Methods   This paper examines the methodological choices made in UK PAS 2050 and asphalt Pavement Embodied Carbon Tool (asPECT), and reviews the allocation methods available to conduct road pavement LCA. A case study of a UK inter-urban road construction (cradle-to-laid) is presented to indicate the impact of allocation amongst co-products (bitumen and blast furnace slag); a typical UK asphalt production (cradle-to-gate) is modelled to show the influence of allocation at EOL recycling. Results and discussion   Allocation based on mass is found to consistently lead to the highest figures in all impact categories, believed to be typical for construction materials. Changing from industry chosen allocation methods (Eurobitume, asPECT) to 100 % mass or economic allocation leads to changes in results, which vary across impact categories. This study illustrates how the allocation methods for EOL recycling affect the inventory of a unit process (asphalt production). Conclusions and recommendations   Sensitivity analysis helps to understand the impact of chosen allocation method and boundary setting on LCA results. This initial work suggests that economic allocation to co-products used as secondary pavement materials may be more appropriate than mass allocation. Allocation at EOL recycling by a substitution method may remain most appropriate, even where the balance of credits between producers and users may be hampered by an inability to confidently predict future recycling rates and methods. In developing sector-specific guidelines, further sensitivity checks are recommended, such as for alternative materials and traffic management during maintenance. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN TRANSPORTATION Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0450-7 Authors Yue Huang, Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK Alan Spray, Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK Tony Parry, Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A literature review is undertaken to understand how well existing studies of the environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles (EV) address the full life cycle of these technologies. Results of studies are synthesized to compare the global warming potential (GWP) of different EV and internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) options. Other impacts are compared; however, data availability limits the extent to which this could be accomplished. Method   We define what should be included in a complete, state-of-the-art environmental assessment of hybrid and electric vehicles considering components and life cycle stages, emission categories, impact categories, and resource use and compare the content of 51 environmental assessments of hybrid and electric vehicles to our definition. Impact assessment results associated with full life cycle inventories (LCI) are compared for GWP as well as emissions of other pollutants. GWP results by life cycle stage and key parameters are extracted and used to perform a meta-analysis quantifying the impacts of vehicle options. Results   Few studies provide a full LCI for EVs together with assessment of multiple impacts. Research has focused on well to wheel studies comparing fossil fuel and electricity use as the use phase has been seen to dominate the life cycle of vehicles. Only very recently have studies begun to better address production impacts. Apart from batteries, very few studies provide transparent LCIs of other key EV drivetrain components. Estimates of EV energy use in the literature span a wide range, 0.10–0.24 kWh/km. Similarly, battery and vehicle lifetime plays an important role in results, yet lifetime assumptions range between 150,000–300,000 km. CO 2 and GWP are the most frequently reported results. Compiled results suggest the GWP of EVs powered by coal electricity falls between small and large conventional vehicles while EVs powered by natural gas or low-carbon energy sources perform better than the most efficient ICEVs. EV results in regions dependant on coal electricity demonstrated a trend toward increased SO x emissions compared to fuel use by ICEVs. Conclusions   Moving forward research should focus on providing consensus around a transparent inventory for production of electric vehicles, appropriate electricity grid mix assumptions, the implications of EV adoption on the existing grid, and means of comparing vehicle on the basis of common driving and charging patterns. Although EVs appear to demonstrate decreases in GWP compared to conventional ICEVs, high efficiency ICEVs and grid-independent hybrid electric vehicles perform better than EVs using coal-fired electricity. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN TRANSPORTATION Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0440-9 Authors Troy R. Hawkins, Industrial Ecology Program/Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway Ola Moa Gausen, Industrial Ecology Program/Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway Anders Hammer Strømman, Industrial Ecology Program/Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Biofuels have received special research interest, driven by concerns over high fuel prices, security of energy supplies, global climate change as well as the search of opportunities for rural economic development. This work examines the production of biodiesel derived from the transesterification of crude rapeseed oil, one of the most important sources of biodiesel in Europe, paying special attention to the environmental profile-associated to the manufacture life cycle (i.e., cradle-to-gate perspective). Methods   To do so, a Spanish company with an average annual biodiesel production of 300,000 t was assessed in detail. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study covers the whole life cycle, from the production of the crude rapeseed oil to the biodiesel production and storage. The inventory data for the foreground system consisted of average annual data obtained by on-site measurements in the company, and background data were taken from databases. Seven impact categories have been assessed in detail: abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming, ozone layer depletion, land competition, and photochemical oxidant formation. An energy analysis was carried out based on the cumulative nonrenewable fossil and nuclear energy demand as an additional impact category. Furthermore, well-to-wheels environmental characterization results were estimated and compared per ton-kilometer for the biodiesel (B100) and the conventional diesel so as to point out the environmental drawbacks and strengths of using biodiesel as transport fuel in a 28 t lorry. Results and discussion   The results showed that the cultivation of the rapeseed was the main key issue in environmental terms (68 %–100 % depending on the category) mainly because of fertilizer doses and intensive agricultural practices required. With regard to the biorefinery production process, pretreatment and transesterification sections considerably contribute to the environmental profile mostly due to electricity and chemical requirements. Concerning the well-to-wheels comparison, using B100 derived from rapeseed oil instead of petroleum-based diesel would reduce nonrenewable energy dependence (−20 %), GHG emissions (−74 %), and ozone layer depletion (−44 %) but would increase acidification (+59 %), eutrophication (+214 %), photochemical smog (+119 %), and land competition. Conclusions   The information presented in this study could help to promote the use of renewable transport biofuels. However, the extensive implementation of biodiesel (particularly rapeseed oil-derived biodiesel) in our society is enormously complex with many issues involved not only from environmental but also economical and social points of view. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTS Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0444-5 Authors Sara González-García, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Daniel García-Rey, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Almudena Hospido, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The article presents the method and results of the life cycle assessments (LCAs) of the Vestas' 2-MW GridStreamer TM wind turbines and outlines the state-of-the-art approach adopted. For more than 10 years, Vestas has prepared LCAs of wind power. However, since 2010, a step change in comprehensiveness has been employed, for example, conducting the LCA to individually assess all components within a wind turbine (being composed of around 25,000 parts). Methods   Three LCAs have been conducted with the 2-MW GridStreamer TM turbines in accordance with ISO 14040/44 and critically reviewed by an expert. The goal was to evaluate potential environmental impacts and other non-impact indicators per kilowatt hour of electricity generated for a ‘typical’ 50-MW onshore wind plant. The LCAs assessed all life cycle stages and were built using GaBi DfX software. A significant quantity of primary data were gathered, for example, covering over 100 Vestas' sites for manufacturing, sales and servicing, as well as establishing turbine use-phase performance (i.e. electricity generation, servicing, etc.) based on over 20,000 monitored wind turbines around the world, covering around 20 % of the current worldwide installed capacity. Results and discussion   The baseline results show that per kilowatt hour of electricity generated by the 2-MW GridStreamer™ turbines have the following baseline performance: ADP elements 0.44 to 0.58 mg Sb-e, ADP fossil 0.10 to 0.13 MJ; acidification potential 37 to 45 mg SO 2 -e, eutrophication potential 3.7 to 4.5 mg PO4-e, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity 100 to 130 mg DCB-e, global warming potential 7 to 10 g CO2-e, human toxicity potential 1,150 to 1,400 mg DCB-e, marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential 1,100 to 1,300 g DCB-e, photochemical oxidant creation 4 to 5 mg ethene, terrestrial ecotoxicity potential 19 to 24 mg DCB-e, return-on energy 8 to 11 months and recyclability 81 to 85 % of turbine mass. Being equipped with extensive facts and comprehensive LCA models provides Vestas the basis to further integrate environmental considerations into product marketing, design and research, procurement and to deliver transparent information to stakeholders. Conclusions   Overall, the article presents a case study of the LCA approach used to assess the potential impacts of 2-MW GridStreamer™ turbines based upon comprehensive product knowledge and represents a state-of-the-art approach to LCA modelling of wind power. The article discusses further applications of LCA internally to direct product improvement and for external communications and also highlights the LCAs' aim to improve transparency and robustness of previous LCAs of wind power. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0445-4 Authors Peter Garrett, Vestas Wind Systems A/S, Hedeager 44, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark Klaus Rønde, Vestas Wind Systems A/S, Hedeager 44, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Improper disposal of used polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles constitute an eyesore to the environmental landscape and is a threat to the flourishing tourism industry in Mauritius. It is therefore imperative to determine a suitable disposal method of used PET bottles which not only has the least environmental load but at the same time has minimum harmful impacts on peoples employed in waste disposal companies. In this respect, the present study investigated and compared the environmental and social impacts of four selected disposal alternatives of used PET bottles. Methods   Environmental impacts of the four disposal alternatives, namely: 100 % landfilling, 75 % incineration with energy recovery and 25 % landfilling, 40 % flake production (partial recycling) and 60 % landfilling and 75 % flake production and 25 % landfilling, were determined using ISO standardized life cycle assessment (ISO 14040: 2006 ) and with the support of SimaPro 7.1 software. Social life cycle assessments were performed based on the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of products. Three stakeholder categories (worker, society and local community) and eight sub-category indicators (child labour, fair salary, forced labour, health and safety, social benefit/social security, discrimination, contribution to economic development and community engagement) were identified to be relevant to the study. A new method for aggregating and analysing the social inventory data is proposed and used to draw conclusions. Results and discussion   Environmental life cycle assessment results indicated that highest environmental impacts occurred when used PET bottles were disposed by 100 % landfilling while disposal by 75 % flake production and 25 % landfilling gave the least environmental load. Social life cycle assessment results indicated that least social impacts occurred with 75 % flake production and 25 % landfilling. Thus both E-LCA and S-LCA rated 75 % flake production and 25 % landfilling to be the best disposal option. Conclusions   Two dimensions of sustainability (environmental and social) when investigated using the Life Cycle Management tool, favoured scenario 4 (75 % % flake production and 25 % landfilling) which is a partial recycling disposal route. One hundred percent landfilling was found out to be the worst scenario. The next step will be to explore the third pillar of sustainability, economic, and devise a method to integrate the three dimensions with a view to determine the sustainable disposal option of used PET bottles in Mauritius. Content Type Journal Article Category SOCIETAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Pages 1-17 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0447-2 Authors Rajendra Kumar Foolmaun, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius Toolseeram Ramjeeawon, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Biological sequestration can increase the carbon stocks of non-atmospheric reservoirs (e.g. land and land-based products). Since this contained carbon is sequestered from, and retained outside, the atmosphere for a period of time, the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere is temporarily reduced and some radiative forcing is avoided. Carbon removal from the atmosphere and storage in the biosphere or anthroposphere, therefore, has the potential to mitigate climate change, even if the carbon storage and associated benefits might be temporary. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprinting (CF) are increasingly popular tools for the environmental assessment of products, that take into account their entire life cycle. There have been significant efforts to develop robust methods to account for the benefits, if any, of sequestration and temporary storage and release of biogenic carbon. However, there is still no overall consensus on the most appropriate ways of considering and quantifying it. Method   This paper reviews and discusses six available methods for accounting for the potential climate impacts of carbon sequestration and temporary storage or release of biogenic carbon in LCA and CF. Several viewpoints and approaches are presented in a structured manner to help decision-makers in their selection of an option from competing approaches for dealing with timing issues, including delayed emissions of fossil carbon. Results   Key issues identified are that the benefits of temporary carbon removals depend on the time horizon adopted when assessing climate change impacts and are therefore not purely science-based but include value judgments. We therefore did not recommend a preferred option out of the six alternatives presented here. Conclusions   Further work is needed to combine aspects of scientific and socio-economic understanding with value judgements and ethical considerations. Content Type Journal Article Category CARBON FOOTPRINTING Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0451-6 Authors Miguel Brandão, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Sustainability Assessment Unit, 21027 Ispra, Italy Annie Levasseur, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, Canada Miko U. F. Kirschbaum, Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand Bo P. Weidema, University of Aalborg, Aalborg, Denmark Annette L. Cowie, Rural Climate Solutions, University of New England, Armidale, Australia Susanne Vedel Jørgensen, Department of Management Engineering, Danish Technical University (DTU), 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Danish Technical University (DTU), 2800 Lyngby, Denmark David W. Pennington, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Sustainability Assessment Unit, 21027 Ispra, Italy Kirana Chomkhamsri, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Sustainability Assessment Unit, 21027 Ispra, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The assessment of water footprints of a wide range of products has increased awareness on preserving freshwater as a resource. The water footprint of a product was originally defined by Hoekstra and Hung ( 2002 ) as the sum of the volumetric water use in terms of green, blue and grey water along the entire life cycle of a product and, as such, does not determine the environmental impact associated with freshwater use. Recently, several papers were published that describe building blocks that enable assessment of the site-specific environmental impact associated with freshwater use along the life cycle of a global food chain, such as the impact on human health (HH), ecosystem quality (EQ) or resource depletion (RD). We integrated this knowledge to enable an assessment of the environmental impact associated with freshwater use along the life cycle of milk production, as a case for a global food chain. Material and methods   Our approach innovatively combined knowledge about the main impact pathways of freshwater use in life cycle assessment (LCA), knowledge about site-specific freshwater impacts and knowledge about modelling of irrigation requirements of global feed crops to assess freshwater impacts along the life cycle of milk production. We evaluated a Dutch model farm situated on loamy sand in the province of Noord-Brabant, where grass and maize land is commonly irrigated. Results and discussion   Production of 1 kg of fat-and-protein corrected milk (FPCM) on the model farm in Noord-Brabant required 66 L of consumptive water. About 76 % of this water was used for irrigation during roughage cultivation, 15 % for production of concentrates and 8 % for drinking and cleaning services. Consumptive water use related to production of purchased diesel, gas, electricity and fertiliser was negligible (i.e. total 1 %). Production of 1 kg of FPCM resulted in an impact on HH of 0.8 × 10 −9 disability adjusted life years, on EQ of 12.9 × 10 −3  m 2  × year and on RD of 6.7 kJ. The impact of producing this kilogram of FPCM on RD, for example, was caused mainly by cultivation of concentrate ingredients, and appeared lower than the average impact on RD of production of 1 kg of broccoli in Spain. Conclusions   Integration of existing knowledge from diverse science fields enabled an assessment of freshwater impacts along the life cycle of a global food chain, such as Dutch milk production, and appeared useful to determine its environmental hotspots. Results from this case study support earlier findings that LCA needs to go beyond simple water volume accounting when the focus is on freshwater scarcity. The approach used, however, required high-resolution inventory global data (i.e. especially regarding crop yield, soil type and root depth), and demonstrated a trade-off between scientific quality of results and applicability of the assessment method. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0446-3 Authors Imke J. M. De Boer, Animal Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands Idse E. Hoving, Wageningen UR Livestock Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB, Lelystad, The Netherlands Theun V. Vellinga, Wageningen UR Livestock Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB, Lelystad, The Netherlands Gerrie W. J. Van de Ven, Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK, Wageningen, The Netherlands Peter A. Leffelaar, Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK, Wageningen, The Netherlands Pierre J. Gerber, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agricultural Organization, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Protected crops have expanded significantly in the Mediterranean area over the last few decades as a successful means to provide abundant and high-quality produce. Although resources are generally used efficiently, greenhouse areas cause major environmental impacts. The aim of this work was to study, from an environmental point of view, the improvement capacity of greenhouse areas in the Mediterranean region and to assess several alternative agricultural practices to decrease their contribution to the environmental impacts in this system. Materials and methods   The methodology used was life cycle assessment (LCA) based on a tomato crop grown in a multi-tunnel greenhouse in Almeria, on the southeast coast of Spain. The functional unit chosen was 1 ton of loose classic tomatoes. Five midpoint impact categories and one energy flow indicator were selected for their relevance. The agricultural practice alternatives evaluated were reduction of volume of substrate and fertilizers, extension of substrate and greenhouse life span and increase in renewable energy for electricity production. Results and discussion   The results indicated that the main contributors to impact categories in the tomato production were structure, auxiliary equipment and fertilizers. Structure accounted for between 30 and 48 % of the contributions, depending on the impact category. The principal burdens in the auxiliary equipment stage were substrate and consumption of electricity. Fertilizers environmental impacts were due to emissions during their manufacture and application to the crop. In a best-case option, taking into account the best alternatives, contributions to the impact categories were reduced by between 17 and 30 %. The LCA methodology proved to be a useful tool to evaluate the environmental damage of this agricultural activity. The importance of including farm infrastructure in the assessment was demonstrated as it was a major contributor. The risk of eutrophication could be reduced by adjustment of the fertilizers–water balance and implementation of a closed-loop irrigation system. Future technological improvements should be developed to increase yields and thereby directly reduce the environmental burdens per unit produce. Conclusions   The present study served to assess the environmental impacts of a tomato crop in a multi-tunnel greenhouse on the coast of Almeria. The assessment was used to evaluate alternatives for improvement of cleaner production in greenhouse areas. Further research should focus on assuring the feasibility of the suggested options. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR AGRICULTURE Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0409-8 Authors Marta Torrellas, IRTA (Research and Technology Food and Agriculture), Ctra. de Cabrils, km 2, 08348 Cabrils Barcelona, Spain Assumpció Antón, IRTA (Research and Technology Food and Agriculture), Ctra. de Cabrils, km 2, 08348 Cabrils Barcelona, Spain Juan Carlos López, Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar “Las Palmerillas” Autovía del Mediterráneo, km 416,7, 04710 El Ejido, Almeria, Spain Esteban José Baeza, Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar “Las Palmerillas” Autovía del Mediterráneo, km 416,7, 04710 El Ejido, Almeria, Spain Jerónimo Pérez Parra, Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar “Las Palmerillas” Autovía del Mediterráneo, km 416,7, 04710 El Ejido, Almeria, Spain Pere Muñoz, IRTA (Research and Technology Food and Agriculture), Ctra. de Cabrils, km 2, 08348 Cabrils Barcelona, Spain Juan Ignacio Montero, IRTA (Research and Technology Food and Agriculture), Ctra. de Cabrils, km 2, 08348 Cabrils Barcelona, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In order to assess the global and local environmental impacts of different penetration rates of electric vehicles (EVs) within a region, we developed a life cycle approach based on a detailed traffic simulation assessing local emissions for individual roads with a high time resolution. The aim was to estimate the reduction potential of local emissions such as particulate matter within a region through a substitution of conventional with electric vehicles. Materials and methods   The chosen approach assessing local emissions includes a detailed traffic simulation of a vehicle fleet composed of individual vehicles with a daily schedule. The driving pattern is modeled based on a survey of driving patterns in Germany. Incorporation of traffic density for each road and emissions of electric and conventional vehicles permits conclusions on the reduction potential for each street. Moreover, a feasible reduction potential for a particular region can be assessed. A case study for Aachen, Germany is presented within this paper. For the classification of the local emissions with the usual life cycle assessment approach, a comparison of EV, PHEV, and conventional vehicles has been conducted for Germany providing the results for impact categories according to CML 2001. Results and discussion   Based on simulation results, an estimation of the reduction potential for Aachen for different penetration rates of electric vehicles including particulate matter (PM 10 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxygen (NOx) is carried out. Electric vehicles possess the highest reduction potential for CO and NOx. Assuming 50 % of the total vehicle fleet in 2010 substituted by electric vehicles, local emissions of CO reduce by 46.6 %, for NOx by 38.8 %, and for PM 10 by 22.4 %. Due to fluctuations in driving patterns throughout a day, the results are highly time dependent. However, improvements in combustion engine technologies results in an increased reduction potential for conventional vehicles. The direct comparison between the vehicle types showed that the benefit of electric vehicles depends on the considered impact category. Conclusions   Electric vehicles are able to reduce local emissions within a region. Moreover, this approach focusing on the use phase of vehicles within a regional assessment and the resulting local emissions as well as the detailed analysis of the driving behavior allows a distinguished assessment of the reduction potential of electric vehicles. Additionally, an assessment of policy measures such as drive restrictions for conventional vehicles can be simulated on the base of this approach. Content Type Journal Article Category PROMOTION OF YOUNG SCIENTISTS IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0425-8 Authors Eva Szczechowicz, Institute for High Voltage Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstr. 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany Thomas Dederichs, Institute for High Voltage Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstr. 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany Armin Schnettler, Institute for High Voltage Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstr. 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   We present experiences and reflections from social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) case study, the aim of which was to identify social hotspots, test and evaluate the methodology and propose improvements. This paper discusses the usability and applicability of the methodology used based on our experiences from the study. The main issues considered are whether the gathering of data and other information is feasible and straightforward to perform, whether the method provides added value and relevant results and how these can be presented. Method   We have conducted a generic hotspot assessment on a laptop computer according to the Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products (Benoît and Mazijn 2009 ). The experiences presented were gathered throughout the case study. The supply chain of the laptop was simplified, and we focused on a limited number of materials. The impacts were assessed in relation to the area of protection on human well-being and to affected stakeholders. Social impacts from the actual use of the product were not included. Methodological sheets were used for guidance on inventory indicators and data sources for data collection. Country-specific data were collected and entered into a spreadsheet. The process has been guided by regular meetings in a reference group, composed of representatives of all stakeholder groups. Results and discussion   The data collection process was impaired by a lack of data and low data quality. In order to relate the data collected to the product assessed, each country's share of the activity performed in each phase was determined, and the activity percentage was calculated. In order to consider and relate all the phases in the product system, we used an estimated activity variable due to the lack of data. We developed a new approach to impact assessment. By determining the combination of the most extensive activity, as well as the most negative in the range of possible values for involved countries, we identified the hotspots. The results were not further aggregated in order to promote transparency. Conclusions   We found the S-LCA methodology to be feasible and useful. By handling all relevant issues within one study using a systems perspective on the product life cycle, knowledge can be gained. However, there are still some major challenges. The definition of relevant indicators, data availability, impact pathways, activity variables, results presentation and possible aggregation, the handling of stakeholder context and the restricted assessment of the use phase were identified as major issues to deal with in further studies. Communication, and hence use of the results, is a crucial issue to enable the outcome of a study to result in actions that actually improve human well-being. Content Type Journal Article Category SOCIETAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0443-6 Authors Elisabeth Ekener-Petersen, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, Division of Environmental Strategies Research, KTH–Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Åsa Moberg, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, Division of Environmental Strategies Research, KTH–Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The spatial dependency of pesticide emissions to air, surface water and groundwater is illustrated and quantified using PestLCI 2.0, an updated and expanded version of PestLCI 1.0. Methods   PestLCI is a model capable of estimating pesticide emissions to air, surface water and groundwater for use in life cycle inventory (LCI) modelling of field applications. After calculating the primary distribution of pesticides between crop and soil, specific modules calculate the pesticide’s fate, thus determining the pesticide emission pattern for the application. PestLCI 2.0 was developed to overcome the limitations of the first model version, replacement of fate calculation equations and introducing new modules for macropore flow and effects of tillage. The accompanying pesticide database was expanded, the meteorological and soil databases were extended to include a range of European climatic zones and soil profiles. Environmental emissions calculated by PestLCI 2.0 were compared to results from the risk assessment models SWASH (surface water emissions), FOCUSPEARL (groundwater via matrix leaching) and MACRO (groundwater including macropore flow, only one scenario available) to partially validate the updated model. A case study was carried out to demonstrate the spatial variation of pesticide emission patterns due to dependency on meteorological and soil conditions. Results   Compared to PestLCI 1.0, PestLCI 2.0 calculated lower emissions to surface water and higher emissions to groundwater. Both changes were expected due to new pesticide fate calculation approaches and the inclusion of macropore flow. Differences between the SWASH and FOCUSPEARL and PestLCI 2.0 emission estimates were generally lower than 2 orders of magnitude, with PestLCI generally calculating lower emissions. This is attributed to the LCA approach to quantify average cases, contrasting with the worst-case risk assessment approach inherent to risk assessment. Compared to MACRO, the PestLCI 2.0 estimates for emissions to groundwater were higher, suggesting that PestLCI 2.0 estimates of fractions leached to groundwater may be slightly conservative as a consequence of the chosen macropore modelling approach. The case study showed that the distribution of pesticide emissions between environmental compartments strongly depends on local climate and soil characteristics. Conclusions   PestLCI 2.0 is partly validated in this paper. Judging from the validation data and case study, PestLCI 2.0 is a pesticide emission model in acceptable accordance with both state-of-the-art pesticide risk assessment models. The case study underlines that the common pesticide emission estimation practice in LCI may lead to misestimating the toxicity impacts of pesticide use in LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR AGRICULTURE Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0439-2 Authors T. J. Dijkman, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark M. Birkved, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark M. Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Consequential LCA (CLCA) is becoming widely used in the scientific community as a modelling technique which describes the consequences of a decision. However, despite the increasing number of case studies published, a proper systematization of the approach has not yet been achieved. This paper investigates the methodological implications of CLCA and the extent to which the applications are in line with the theoretical dictates. Moreover, the predictive and explorative nature of CLCA is discussed, highlighting the role of scenario modelling in further structuring the methodology. Methods   An extensive literature review was performed, involving around 60 articles published over a period of approximately 18 years, and addressing both methodological issues and applications. The information was elaborated according to two main aspects: what for (questions and modes of LCA) and what (methodological implications of CLCA), with focus on the nature of modelling and on the identification of the affected processes. Results and discussion   The analysis points out that since the modelling principles of attributional LCA (ALCA) and CLCA are the same, what distinguishes the two modes of LCA is the choice of the processes to be included in the system (i.e. in CLCA, those that are affected by the market dynamics). However, the identification of those processes is often done inconsistently, using different arguments, which leads to different results. We suggest the use of scenario modelling as a way to support CLCA in providing a scientifically sound basis to model specific product-related futures with respect to technology development, market shift, and other variables. Conclusions   The CLCA is a sophisticated modelling technique that provides a way to assess the environmental consequences of an action/decision by including market mechanisms into the analysis. There is still room for improvements of the method and for further research, especially in relation to the following aspects: clarifying when and which market information is important and necessary; understanding the role of scenario modelling within CLCA; and developing a procedure to support the framing of questions to better link questions to models. Moreover, we suggest that the logic of mechanisms could be the reading guide for overcoming the dispute between ALCA and CLCA. Going further, this logic could also be extended, considering CLCA as an approach—rather than as a modelling principle with defined rules—to deepen LCA, providing the conceptual basis for including more mechanisms than just the market ones. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0423-x Authors Alessandra Zamagni, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Jeroen Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, PO Box 9518, Leiden, 2300 RA the Netherlands Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, PO Box 9518, Leiden, 2300 RA the Netherlands Paolo Masoni, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Andrea Raggi, Department of Economic Studies, University “G. d’Annunzio”, Viale Pindaro 42, 65127 Pescara, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The goal of this paper is to describe the life cycle inventory (LCI) approach of pig iron produced by Mittal’s Steel Poland Blast Furnace (MSPBF) in Kraków, Poland. The present LCI is representative for the reference year 2005 by application of PN-EN ISO 14040: 2009 (PN-EN ISO 2009). The system boundaries were labeled as gate-to-gate (covering a full chain process of pig iron production). The background input and output data from the blast furnace (BF) process have been inventoried as follows: sinter, several types of pellets, ore (from Brazil or Venezuela), limestone, coke, and from 2005 coal powder, pig iron, blast furnace gas, blast furnace slug, consumption of energy and fuels, including: pulverized coal, natural gas, blast furnace gas and coke oven gas, and emission of air pollutants. Main feature   LCI energy generation was developed mainly on the basis of following sources: site specific measured or calculated data, study carried out by Mittal Steel Poland (MSP) Environmental Impact Report, study carried out by the Faculty of Mining Surveying and Environmental Engineering of the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków, literature information, and expert consultations. The functional unit is represented by 1,504,088 Mg of pig iron, produced BF process. Time coverage is 2005. Operating parameters as well as air emissions associated with the BF process were presented. The production data (pig iron) was given. The emissions of SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, CO 2 , aliphatic hydrocarbons, dust, heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Mn), and waste are the most important outcomes of the pig iron process. Results   With regard to 1,504,088 Mg of pig iron produced by MSP, the consumption of coke, pulverized coal, sinters, pellets, and natural gas were 808,509, 16,921, 1,669,023, and 914,080 Mg, respectively. Other material consumption, industrial water, was 1,401,419 m 3 /year. Conclusions   The LCI study is the first tentative study to express pig iron production in Poland in terms of LCA/LCI for the pig iron in steel industry. The results may help steel industry government make decisions in policy making. Presentation of the study in this paper is suitable for the other industries. Recommendations and outlook   The LCI offers environmental information consisting on the list of environmental loads. The impact assessment phase aims the results from the inventory analysis more understandable and life cycle impact assessment will be direction for future research. Another issue to discuss is integration of LCA and risk assessment for industrial processed. Content Type Journal Article Category LCI METHODOLOGY AND DATABASES Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0422-y Authors Bogusław Bieda, Management Department, AGH University of Science and Technology, ul. Gramatyka 10, 30-067 Krakówl, Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purposes   The revision of the ISO LCA (life cycle assessment) standards in October 2006 brought some changes of the critical review process compared to the older series ISO 14040–43 ( 1997 , 1998 , 2000a , b ). Furthermore, the importance of LCA has grown rapidly in recent years, but this growth was not accompanied by a corresponding increase of knowledge about the voluntary and obligatory review processes. It is the intention of this paper to analyse the relevant standards and to present some personal experiences in conducting critical reviews. Results and discussion   A peer review for LCA studies was first proposed in the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) guidelines “A Code of Practice” ( 1993 ). The ISO standard 14040 ( 1997 ) took up this proposition and described three types of “Critical review” which are optional in general, but mandatory “for LCA studies used to make a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public”. This strong prescription was reinforced in the revised standards ISO 14040 and 14044 ( 2006a , b ) and even stricter, unambiguous formulations were added to the text. In addition, the minimum number of experts in a “review by interested parties” is now three (including the chair). Large panels with more than four experts are rare, but do occur occasionally. Recommendations   Out of personal experience, I strongly support the interactive (accompanying) mode of conducting the critical review process (ISO also allows the “a posteriori” mode). I also suggest the removal of some inconsistencies during the next update of the standards. No major changes are recommended, however, since ISO 14040 + 14044 has become the reference standard for several other international standards based on the life cycle concept. Content Type Journal Article Category PROMOTION OF YOUNG SCIENTISTS IN LCA Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0426-7 Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In the last decade, the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool for selection between different technologies or products fulfilling the same function has spread rapidly in Latin American countries. However, this accelerated growth in the use of LCA has not always been supported with progress in construction of local inventories or the development of impact assessment methods that consider local and regional characteristics of the sites where technologies, products, and activities or services are being produced or developed. The aim of this study is to propose a local methodology to estimate regional factors for the terrestrial acidification impact category in Argentina based on the critical load exceedance in sensitive areas. Material and methods   Acidification factors for ecological regions in Argentina were calculated following a procedure that compares acidic deposition with critical loads, using a linear function to represent the damage, when the deposition is above the soil buffering capacity. The acidic deposition in the study area was estimated using the air transport model wind trajectory model, with emissions from the global inventory EDGAR. Detailed soil maps were used in order to include the acidification sensitivity of the receiving ecosystems. Also, an application case of the calculated factors is presented in order discuss the relevance of the regional factors implementation in local studies. Results and discussion   Deposition fluxes were estimated for different ecoregions in Argentina. The regional factors calculated differ from site-generic factors used commonly to estimate potential impacts, demonstrating that their use in local studies could lead to erroneous outcomes. This was more evident in the application case, where the potential impact calculated was very different, depending on the impact factor used. Conclusions and recommendations   The model presented in this study allows the assessment of the impact caused by deposition of acidifying substances emitted during the life cycle of a product or process, taking into account the local characteristics where the intervention occurs, and it is the first development of a regional model for acidification within the LCA context carried out in Argentina. The obtained results highlight the importance of developing regional characterization factors for local or regional impacts referred to a definite region. Content Type Journal Article Category NON-TOXIC IMPACT CATEGORIES ASSOCIATED WITH EMISSIONS TO AIR, WATER, SOIL Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0427-6 Authors Bárbara Civit, Grupo CLIOPE, Facultad Regional Mendoza - Universidad Tecnológica Nacional/INCIHUSA CONICET, Cnel. Rodríguez 273, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina Alejandro Pablo Arena, Grupo CLIOPE, Facultad Regional Mendoza - Universidad Tecnológica Nacional/INCIHUSA CONICET, Cnel. Rodríguez 273, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina David Allende, Grupo GEAA, Facultad Regional Mendoza - Universidad Tecnológica Nacional/CONICET, Cnel. Rodríguez 273, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Product category rules (PCRs) provide category-specific guidance for estimating and reporting product life cycle environmental impacts, typically in the form of environmental product declarations and product carbon footprints. Lack of global harmonization between PCRs or sector guidance documents has led to the development of duplicate PCRs for the same products. Differences in the general requirements (e.g., product category definition, reporting format) and LCA methodology (e.g., system boundaries, inventory analysis, allocation rules, etc.) diminish the comparability of product claims. Methods   A comparison template was developed to compare PCRs from different global program operators. The goal was to identify the differences between duplicate PCRs from a broad selection of product categories and propose a path toward alignment. We looked at five different product categories: milk/dairy (two PCRs), horticultural products (three PCRs), wood–particleboard (two PCRs), and laundry detergents (four PCRs). Results and discussion   Disparity between PCRs ranged from broad differences in scope, system boundaries, and impacts addressed (e.g., multi-impact vs. carbon footprint only) to specific differences of technical elements. The differences primarily reflected the different purposes of the PCR (e.g., label/report), the different standards they were based on (e.g., ISO 14025/PAS 2050), the use of different product categorization systems, or simply the result of being developed independently. Differing degrees of specificity and terminology between PCRs allowed for varied interpretation—at times making direct comparison difficult. For many of the differences between PCRs, however, there was no clear rationale why they could not be consistent in the future. Conclusions   These results were used to outline a general guidance document for global alignment of PCRs which recommends (1) alignment of PCRs for different purposes, (2) provision of guidance for the adoption of aspects of other PCRs, and (3) provision of greater specificity on content. The overall recommendations also suggest collaboration among program operators to facilitate alignment on issues that evolve from independent development. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0419-6 Authors Vairavan Subramanian, School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, PO Box 875502, Tempe, AZ 85287-5502, USA Wesley Ingwersen, Sustainable Technology Division, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., MS-483, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA Connie Hensler, Corporate LCA Programs, Interface Inc., 2859 Paces Ferry Road, Suite 2000, Atlanta, GA 30339, USA Heather Collie, Sustainable Products and Consumers, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), Area 5D, Ergon House, 17 Smith Square, London, SW1P 3JR UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Before the advent of large databases, practitioners often lacked data for calculating life cycle inventories, but the actual computation was a straightforward task. Now that databases represent supply chains including feedback loops and several thousand unit processes and emissions, more formalized calculation methods are necessary. Two methods are widely used: sequential method and matrix inversion. They both exhibit different advantages and drawbacks. The present paper proposes a hybrid algorithm combining the advantages of both methods while minimizing their inconveniences. Methods   Sequential algorithm requires a form of cutoff criteria, as the supply chains are of infinite length in the presence of feedback loops. The proposed implementation allows the detailing of individual paths until their upstream contribution falls below a user-defined disaggregation criteria, while also allowing the total impact scores of all paths to be stored and considered. The output is then structured to facilitate consultation and re-aggregation, enhancing the work of practitioners in the interpretation phase of LCA. The algorithm is a variation on structural path analysis and accumulative structural path analysis. It is computationally efficient and uses a reporting threshold criterion based on multiple impact categories. Results   Although the algorithm leads to a more voluminous inventory than matrix inversion, it produces detailed, useful information on the particular instances of processes responsible for the impacts. An average laptop can compute the results within seconds. This algorithm has the potential to improve the interpretation phase of LCA. More specifically, selective replacement of values (characterization factors, input from technosphere, or emission intensities) in parts of the process tree can be applied without affecting the rest of the system. Conclusions   LCA software would benefit from the inclusion of the algorithm presented in this paper. It produces additional information on the structure of the supply chain and the impacts of its constituents, which would be available for a more in-depth interpretation by practitioners. Its potential for understanding the propagation of uncertainty and acceleration of Monte Carlo assessment should also be investigated. Content Type Journal Article Category LCI METHODOLOGY AND DATABASES Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0418-7 Authors Guillaume Bourgault, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Pascal Lesage, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Réjean Samson, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Land use is a main driver of global biodiversity loss and its environmental relevance is widely recognized in research on life cycle assessment (LCA). The inherent spatial heterogeneity of biodiversity and its non-uniform response to land use requires a regionalized assessment, whereas many LCA applications with globally distributed value chains require a global scale. This paper presents a first approach to quantify land use impacts on biodiversity across different world regions and highlights uncertainties and research needs. Methods   The study is based on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) land use assessment framework and focuses on occupation impacts, quantified as a biodiversity damage potential (BDP). Species richness of different land use types was compared to a (semi-)natural regional reference situation to calculate relative changes in species richness. Data on multiple species groups were derived from a global quantitative literature review and national biodiversity monitoring data from Switzerland. Differences across land use types, biogeographic regions (i.e., biomes), species groups and data source were statistically analyzed. For a data subset from the biome (sub-)tropical moist broadleaf forest, different species-based biodiversity indicators were calculated and the results compared. Results and discussion   An overall negative land use impact was found for all analyzed land use types, but results varied considerably. Different land use impacts across biogeographic regions and taxonomic groups explained some of the variability. The choice of indicator also strongly influenced the results. Relative species richness was less sensitive to land use than indicators that considered similarity of species of the reference and the land use situation. Possible sources of uncertainty, such as choice of indicators and taxonomic groups, land use classification and regionalization are critically discussed and further improvements are suggested. Data on land use impacts were very unevenly distributed across the globe and considerable knowledge gaps on cause–effect chains remain. Conclusions   The presented approach allows for a first rough quantification of land use impact on biodiversity in LCA on a global scale. As biodiversity is inherently heterogeneous and data availability is limited, uncertainty of the results is considerable. The presented characterization factors for BDP can approximate land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA studies that are not intended to directly support decision-making on land management practices. For such studies, more detailed and site-dependent assessments are required. To assess overall land use impacts, transformation impacts should additionally be quantified. Therefore, more accurate and regionalized data on regeneration times of ecosystems are needed. Content Type Journal Article Category GLOBAL LAND USE IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN LCA Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0412-0 Authors Laura de Baan, Institute for Environmental Decisions, Natural and Social Science Interface, ETH Zurich, Universitaetsstr. 22, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland Rob Alkemade, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, P. O. Box 303, 3720 AH Bilthoven, The Netherlands Thomas Koellner, Professorship of Ecological Services, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry and Geosciences, University of Bayreuth, GEO II, Room 1.17, Universitaetsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is increasingly acknowledged as a potent global warming abatement option. It is demonstrated that whilst the global warming potential (GWP) decreases, the other environmental impact category potentials often increase in a life cycle perspective. Despite this, only a few studies clearly address this trade-off or use weighting to compare the positive and negative effects of CCS. The present life cycle assessment (LCA) study focuses, therefore, on presenting several environmental indicators and on weighting the inventory results in order to ascertain which of the analysed systems is to be preferred. Method   The case studied is a projected gas power plant at Tjeldbergodden (Norway), where it is proposed to include post-combustion CCS. Four main scenarios have been analysed, one without and three with CCS. The principal variation between the CCS scenarios is that the steam required for amine regeneration is produced in three different ways: in a separate gas fuelled steam boiler; in a separate biomass fuelled steam boiler; and delivered from the low-pressure steam turbine in the power plant. Design information and technical specifications have been available. The study has used LCA methodology based on the ISO standard 14044, SimaPro 7.3.2.4 software and the Ecoinvent 2.0 database. The functional unit is 1 TWh electricity delivered to the grid. The following environmental impact categories have been included: GWP, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) and cumulative energy demand (CED). Three weighting methods have been used to ascertain the robustness of the weighting results: ReCiPe, EPS 2000 and IMPACT 2002+. Results and discussion   The characterisation results show that the CCS scenarios have reduced impacts only in the case of GWP. The weighting demonstrates that in the ReCiPe model, climate change is strongly in focus, whilst in EPS 2000, human health and depletion of reserves are dominant. Climate change is also an important factor in IMPACT 2002+, together with effects on human health (respiratory inorganics). The process integration scenario has, however, the best result for all three weighting models. This contrasts with the results from the impact analysis where four of the five analysed impact categories rated the CCS-3 scenario as worse than the reference scenario. One possible option for improving the biofuel boiler scenario is to capture the CO 2 from the combustion of biomass in the external steam boiler. This would not, in all probability, affect the acidification, eutrophication, POCP and CED to any significant degree, but the GWP, and hence the ReCiPe and the IMPACT 2002+, weighting results could be expected to improve. Conclusions   The weighting exercise has identified toxicity as a concern with regard to the biofuel boiler scenarios (CCS-2) and human health issues as having importance for the CCS-3 scenario. It would seem that process integration is a better CCS option than that of CCS providing steam from a separate steam boiler (without CCS), even where this boiler is biomass-fuelled. Any future analysis should focus both on the process integration scenario and the biofuel boiler scenario with CCS of biological CO 2 . Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0421-z Authors Ingunn Saur Modahl, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Cecilia Askham, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Kari-Anne Lyng, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Andreas Brekke, Ostfold Research, Gamle Beddingvei 2b, 1671 Kråkerøy, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This article evaluates the parameters that influence the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) of biogas production from maize and the conversion of biogas into electricity. The environmental impacts of biogas vary according to regional farming procedures and, therefore, the soil, climate conditions, crop yield, and cultivation management. This study focuses on these regional parameters and the existing infrastructure, including the number of installed biogas plants and their share of used heat. Materials and methods   To assess the regional impact, the LCAs of maize cultivation, on the one hand, and the production and use of biogas, on the other, were performed for three different areas. These areas were the administrative districts of Celle, Hildesheim, and Goettingen; all located in the south of Lower Saxony, Germany. The areas differed in geographic location conditions, crop yield, and the number of installed biogas plants. The necessary data for modeling the cultivation of maize were derived from the specific regional and local parameters of each area. The most important parameters were the soil characteristics and the climate conditions for cultivating maize. The share of used heat from combined heat and power unit (CHP) was another relevant factor for biogas production and use. Results   Our results demonstrate significant differences among the investigated areas. The smallest environmental impact of all the considered categories occurs in Goettingen and the largest in Celle. The net greenhouse gas emissions vary from 0.179 kg CO 2 eq./kWh el in Celle to 0.058 kg CO 2 eq./kWh el in Goettingen. This result is due to the maize cultivation system and the different credits for using heat from the CHP. Variances in energy crop cultivation result from different nitrogen and irrigation demands. In addition, despite higher applications of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation, the maize yield is lower in Celle. The impact category of total fossil energy shows similar results to that of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The results range from −0.274 to 0.175 kWh/kWh el . The results of acidification and eutrophication vary from 1.62 in Goettingen to 1.94 g SO 2 eq./kWh el in Celle and respectively 0.330 to 0.397 g PO 4 3− eq./kWh el . These differences are primarily caused by maize cultivation, especially irrigation. Conclusions and perspectives   Cultivating maize and using waste heat from the CHP were identified as the most influential parameters for the GHG emissions and total fossil energy demand. Regarding acidification and eutrophication, the most relevant factors are the application of digester output and the emissions from the CHP. Our results show the need to consider regional parameters in the LCA of bioenergies, particularly biogas production and use, especially if the LCA studies are used for generalized evaluations such as statements on the climate protection potential of biogas. Content Type Journal Article Category PROMOTION OF YOUNG SCIENTISTS IN LCA Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0424-9 Authors Daniela Dressler, Faculty of Resource Management, University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Hildesheim/Holzminden/Goettingen, Büsgenweg 1a, 37077 Goettingen, Germany Achim Loewen, Faculty of Resource Management, University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Hildesheim/Holzminden/Goettingen, Büsgenweg 1a, 37077 Goettingen, Germany Michael Nelles, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 6, 18059 Rostock, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    The discussion forum on life cycle assessment (LCA) on September 15, 2011, aimed at summarizing recent environmentally extended input–output analysis (EE-IOA) and the combination with LCA for the computation of environmental impact of imports. Input–output tables (IOT) represent the financial flows in a country or economic regions. Extending IOT with information on emissions and resource uses allows for the analysis of environmental impacts due to production and consumption activities in a country. This instrument is called EE-IOA. It enables the analysis of total environmental impacts of countries or economic regions. The combination with trade statistics and LCA was presented as an alternative to multiregional input–output models for determining environmental impacts of imports over the whole life cycle. The 45th LCA forum gathered several international speakers who provided a broad and qualified view on the topic. The theoretical background, results for different countries and regions, uncertainties, and possible improvement options for EE-IOA were discussed. The following main conclusions were drawn at the end of the discussion forum: EE-IOA is a useful instrument for analyzing the total environmental impacts of countries and the main drivers of environmental impacts. As a next important step, the participants would like to see an increase in user friendliness of EE-IOA combined with LCA, e.g., by harmonizing data, data formats, and classifications. Content Type Journal Article Category CONFERENCE REPORT Pages 1-5 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0428-5 Authors Romina Schuerch, Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), Papiermühlestrasse 172, 3003 Bern, Switzerland Josef Kaenzig, Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), Papiermühlestrasse 172, 3003 Bern, Switzerland Niels Jungbluth, ESU-services Ltd., Kanzleistrasse 4, 8610 Uster, Switzerland Carsten Nathani, Rütter+Partner, Weingartenstrasse 5, 8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The common practice of summing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and applying global warming potentials (GWPs) to calculate CO 2 equivalents misrepresents the global warming effects of emissions that occur over a product or system’s life cycle at a particular time in the future. The two primary purposes of this work are to develop an approach to correct for this distortion that can (1) be feasibly implemented by life cycle assessment and carbon footprint practitioners and (2) results in units of CO 2 equivalent. Units of CO 2 equilavent allow for easy integration in current reporting and policy frameworks. Methods   CO 2 equivalency is typically calculated using GWPs from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. GWPs are calculated by dividing a GHG’s global warming effect, as measured by cumulative radiative forcing, over a prescribed time horizon by the global warming effect of CO 2 over that same time horizon. Current methods distort the actual effect of GHG emissions at a particular time in the future by summing emissions released at different times and applying GWPs; modeling them as if they occur at the beginning of the analytical time horizon. The method proposed here develops time-adjusted warming potentials (TAWPs), which use the reference gas CO 2 , and a reference time of zero. Thus, application of TAWPs results in units of CO 2 equivalent today. Results and discussion   A GWP for a given GHG only requires that a practitioner select an analytical time horizon. The TAWP, however, contains an additional independent variable; the year in which an emission occurs. Thus, for each GHG and each analytical time horizon, TAWPs require a simple software tool (TAWPv1.0) or an equation to estimate their value. Application of 100-year TAWPs to a commercial building’s life cycle emissions showed a 30 % reduction in CO 2 equivalent compared to typical practice using 100-year GWPs. As the analytical time horizon is extended the effect of emissions timing is less pronounced. For example, at a 500-year analytical time horizon the difference is only 5 %. Conclusions and recommendations   TAWPs are one of many alternatives to traditional accounting methods, and are envisioned to be used as one of multiple characterizations in carbon accounting or life cycle impact assessment methods to assist in interpretation of a study’s outcome. Content Type Journal Article Category CARBON FOOTPRINTING Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0436-5 Authors Alissa Kendall, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   While the application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to lubricants can be considered fully operational for general purposes outside the lubricants industry, where Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs) of mineral and synthetic base oils can be used interchangeably and where additives can be excluded, this is not the case for research and development purposes within the industry. Previous LCAs of base oils are not sufficiently detailed and comprehensive for R&D purposes, and there are no LCAs of lube additives and fully formulated lubricants. The aim of this paper is to integrate and expand previous LCAs of base oils and to investigate on the contribution of lube additives to the environmental impacts of a fully formulated lubricant. Materials and methods   This study considers three base oils (mineral, poly-alpha-olefins (PAO) and hydrocracked) and a set of lubricating additives typically used in fully formulated engine oil. The LCA model is based on both industry and literature data. Results and discussion   Trends in the lubricants industry towards more sophisticated base oils correspond to remarkably higher environmental impacts per kilogram of product but lead to reduced impacts per kilometre. The contribution of additives to the life cycle impacts of commercial lube oil was found to be remarkably high for some impact categories (nearly 35 % for global warming). Conclusions   As base oil is concerned, this study made the point on data availability and provided a contribution in order to integrate and expand previous LCAs of mineral base oil and PAO. On the side of additives, the main conclusion is that in modern lubricants, the contribution of additives in terms of environmental impact can be remarkably high and, therefore, they should not be excluded. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN TRANSPORTATION Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0437-4 Authors Andrea Raimondi, DISAT—Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy Giorgia Girotti, DIATI—Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructures Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy Gian Andrea Blengini, DIATI—Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructures Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy Debora Fino, DISAT—Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The rating of environmental aspects plays a central role in the ISO 14001 environmental management system (EMS) and EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme because it is the basis for the identification of an organization's environmental targets. The existing methods for the assessment of environmental aspects are grouped into three categories: risk assessment-based (RA-based), life cycle assessment (LCA)-based, and criterion-based methods. The first category accurately determines abnormal, or accidental aspects, as well as the probabilistic causality of aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationships, but when evaluating environmental impact, it cannot provide a sound theoretical basis. The second category provides a theoretical foundation for the assessment of environmental impact, due to LCA, but cannot adequately represent the probabilistic aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationship. The third category puts emphasis on the significance criteria, but the scoring methods are too simple. To combine the benefits of these three categories of research, this study proposes an integrated framework, combining RA-, LCA-, and criterion-based methods. Materials and methods   The integrated framework incorporates LCA techniques for the identification of the causal linkage for aspect–pathway–receptor–impact, uses fuzzy logic to assess aspects, considers fuzzy conditions, in likelihood assessment, and employs a new multi-criteria decision analysis method—multi-criteria and multi-connection comprehensive assessment (MMCA)—to estimate significant aspects in EMS. Results and discussion   The proposed model is verified, using a real case study—a waste-recycling factory. The results show that this method successfully prioritizes the environmental aspects. Compared with criterion-based methods, the case study demonstrates that the proposed method provides a more solid theoretical basis. Conclusions   This study integrates RA, LCA, and MMCA, to assess environmental aspects. The method identifies the probabilistic causality of aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationships, enhances the theoretical foundations, and strengthens decision-making. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0407-x Authors Kevin Fong-Rey Liu, Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City, Taiwan 24301, Republic of China Chih-Yuan Ko, SG Development Environmental Consultants Ltd., Changhua, Taiwan 51591, Republic of China Chihhao Fan, Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City, Taiwan 24301, Republic of China Cheng-Wu Chen, Institute of Maritime Information and Technology, National Kaohsiung Marine University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 80543, Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is a well-established analytical method to quantify environmental impacts, which has been mainly applied to products. However, recent literature would suggest that it has also the potential as an analysis and design tool for processes, and stresses that one of the biggest challenges of this decade in the field of process systems engineering (PSE) is the development of tools for environmental considerations. Method   This article attempts to give an overview of the integration of LCA methodology in the context of industrial ecology, and focuses on the use of this methodology for environmental considerations concerning process design and optimization. Results   The review identifies that LCA is often used as a multi-objective optimization of processes: practitioners use LCA to obtain the inventory and inject the results into the optimization model. It also shows that most of the LCA studies undertaken on process analysis consider the unit processes as black boxes and build the inventory analysis on fixed operating conditions. Conclusions   The article highlights the interest to better assimilate PSE tools with LCA methodology, in order to produce a more detailed analysis. This will allow optimizing the influence of process operating conditions on environmental impacts and including detailed environmental results into process industry. Content Type Journal Article Category DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0432-9 Authors Leslie Jacquemin, Laboratoire de Chimie Agro-industrielle, Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, LCA, 31030 Toulouse, France Pierre-Yves Pontalier, Laboratoire de Chimie Agro-industrielle, Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, LCA, 31030 Toulouse, France Caroline Sablayrolles, Laboratoire de Chimie Agro-industrielle, Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, LCA, 31030 Toulouse, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study aims to analyze and quantify the environmental impacts associated with the production of testliner paper using 100 % recovered paper as fiber raw material, by applying the life cycle assessment principles. A simulation of advanced sorting technology was done to prepare and use batches of raw materials with different levels of contaminants. Comparative studies of environmental impact assessment were focused on the quality of recovered paper, which is decisively influenced by the efficiency of the sorting process. The particularity of the study is that so far it is the only one that analyzes the environmental impact generated by recovered paper quality. Methods   To analyze the environmental impacts in the scenarios, life cycle assessment methodology was considered. Potential environmental impacts were assessed by using the CML 2009 , Dec.07 method developed by the Centre for Environmental Science from the University of Leiden. Results and discussion   In this study, acidification potential, abiotic resources depletion potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential, photochemical ozone creation potential, and human toxicity potential were the impact categories analyzed. Considering that the system boundaries refer only to the paper mill that was obtained, all unitary processes involved in the manufacturing of product system influence in varying proportions the impact categories chosen for evaluation. A higher concentration of contaminants leads to a higher amount of energy and water used, and thus, a significant amount of waste and emissions generated. Simulations performed have highlighted the importance of sorting technology that influences the quality of raw material that will be used. Conclusions   Utilization of recovered paper batches with a low quality contributes to an increased environmental impact associated with the testliner paper manufacturing stage. A low quality of recovered paper will influence energy consumption in different modules of the system (recycled fiber pulp preparation, paper machine, and wastewater treatment), the volume of waste generated, and consequently the emissions released both in air and water. Content Type Journal Article Category PACKAGING SYSTEMS INCLUDING RECYCLING Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0430-y Authors Alina Iosip, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University, Bvd. Mangeron, No 71, 700050 Iasi, Romania Antonio Dobon, Packaging, Transport & Logistics Research Center–ITENE, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Mercedes Hortal, Packaging, Transport & Logistics Research Center–ITENE, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Elena Bobu, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University, Bvd. Mangeron, No 71, 700050 Iasi, Romania Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this paper is to supply an open method for weighting different environmental impacts, open to basically different evaluation approaches and open to easy revisions. From the partial, diverse and conflicting weighing methods available, a most consistent and flexible meta-method is constructed, allowing for a transparent discussion on weighting. Methods   The methods incorporated are as general as possible, each single one being as pure as possible. We surveyed encompassing operational methods for evaluation, applicable in LCA and in larger systems like countries. They differ in terms of modelling, as to midpoint or as to endpoint; as to evaluation set-up, in terms of collective preferences or individual preferences; and as to being either revealed or stated. The first is midpoint modelling with collectively stated preferences, with operational weighting schemes from Dutch and US government applications. Second is the LCA-type endpoint approach using individual stated preferences, with public examples from Japan and the Netherlands. The third is the integrated modelling approach by economists. Results   All methods are internally inconsistent, as in terms of treatment of place and time, and they are incomplete, lacking environmental interventions and effect routes. We repaired only incompleteness, by methods transfer. Finally, we combined the three groups of methods into a meta-weighting method, aligned to the ILCD Handbook requirements for impact assessment. Application to time series data on EU-27 consumption shows how the EU developed in terms of overall environmental decoupling. Conclusions   The disparate methods available all can be improved substantially. For now, a user adjustable meta-method is the best option, allowing for public discussion. A flexible regularly updated spreadsheet is supplied with the article. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0415-x Authors Gjalt Huppes, CML, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, PO Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Lauran van Oers, CML, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, PO Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Ugo Pretato, JRC-IES — European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy David W. Pennington, JRC-IES — European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   While life cycle assessment (LCA) has standardized methods for assessing emission impacts, some comparable methods for the accounting or impact assessment of resource use exist, but are not as mature or standardized. This study contributes to the existing research by offering a comprehensive comparison of the similarities and differences of different resource indicators, in particular those based on thermodynamics, and testing them in a case study on titania (titanium dioxide pigment) produced in Panzhihua city, southwest China. Materials and methods   The system boundary for resource indicators is defined using a thermodynamic hierarchy at four levels, and the case data for titania also follow that hierarchy. Seven resource indicators are applied. Four are thermodynamics-based—cumulative energy demand (CED), solar energy demand (SED), cumulative exergy demand (CExD), and cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment (CEENE)—and three have different backgrounds: abiotic resource depletion potential, environmental priority strategies, and eco-indicator 99. Inventory data for the foreground system has been collected through on-site interviews and visits. Background inventory data are from the database ecoinvent v2.2. Characterizations factors are based on the CML-IA database covering all major methods. Computations are with the CMLCA software. Results and discussion   The scores of resource indicators of the chloride route for titania system are lower than that of the sulfate route by 10–35 %, except in terms of SED. Within the four thermodynamic indicators for resources, CED, CExD, and CEENE have similar scores, while their scores are five orders of magnitude lower than the SED score. Atmospheric resources do not contribute to the SED or CEEND score. Land resources account for a negligible percentage to the SED score and a small percentage to the CEENE score. Non-renewable resources have a dominant contribution to all seven resource indicators. The global production of titania would account for 0.12 and 0.14 % of the total anthropogenic non-renewable resource demand in terms of energy and exergy, respectively. Conclusions   First, we demonstrate the feasibility of thermodynamic resource indicators. We recommend CEENE as the most appropriate one within the four thermodynamic resource indicators for accounting and characterizing resource use. Regarding the case study on the titania produced in China, all the resource indicators except SED show that the sulfate route demands more resource use than the chloride route. Content Type Journal Article Category EXERGY AND LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0429-4 Authors Wenjie Liao, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Faculty of Science, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Faculty of Science, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands Gjalt Huppes, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Faculty of Science, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Life cycle assessment (LCA) has largely focused on characterizing the impact of outdoor emissions. However, the intake fraction ( iF ) of indoor air emissions could be more important. The present paper aims to determine the long-term intake fractions of indoor emissions, including multiple indoor removal pathways such as sorption on indoor surfaces, and to compare it to the outdoor intake fraction. Method   The developed model accounts for the different removal pathways in buildings, including air exchange, degradation in the gas phase, degradation on surfaces, and finally partitioning between air, walls, and furniture assuming a kinetically limited material transfer between gas phase and a near-surface film. The indoor intake fraction is presented as a function of the adsorption and degradation rate on surfaces. Results and discussion   The intake fraction of volatile substances is only affected by the ventilation rate, with a constant intake fraction of 1 × 10 −2 . For ozone-sensitive substances, indoor gas phase reactions can significantly reduce the intake fraction. Semi-volatile substances are affected by the adsorption and degradation on room surfaces. For highly adsorbing substances, the decrease in intake fraction is limited to a minimum value of 2.5 × 10 −4 by the mass transfer rate between air and room surfaces for a typical office or residence room in developed countries with temperate climate. Indoor intake fraction is compared to outdoor intake fraction calculated using the Impact 2002 multimedia model. Typical calculated indoor intake fraction values are in a significantly higher range (2.5 × 10 −4 to 1 × 10 −2 ) than inhalation outdoor values (1 × 10 −9 to 1 × 10 −6 ). Conclusions   This paper opens new possibilities to assess the health impact of indoor and outdoor air emissions in a consistent way, including surface sorption—a major removal pathway for semi-volatile compounds. By combining the newly calculated intake fractions with effect factors and with indoor and outdoor emissions per functional unit, it becomes possible to consistently account for indoor exposure in methods such as LCA Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0420-0 Authors Yvan Wenger, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029, USA Dingsheng Li, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029, USA Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The increasing concern for adverse effects of climate change has spurred the search for alternatives for conventional energy sources. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has increasingly been used to assess the potential of these alternatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The popularity of LCA in the policy context puts its methodological issues into another perspective. This paper discusses how bio-electricity directives deal with the issue of allocation and shows its repercussions in the policy field. Methods   Multifunctionality has been a well-known problem since the early development of LCA and several methods have been suggested to deal with multifunctional processes. This paper starts with a discussion of the most common allocation methods. This discussion is followed by a description of bio-energy policy directives. The description shows the increasing importance of LCA in the policy context as well as the lack of consensus in the application of allocation methods. Methodological differences between bio-energy directives possibly lead to different assessments of bio-energy chains. To assess the differences due to methodological choices in bio-energy directives, this paper applies three different allocation methods to the same bio-electricity generation system. The differences in outcomes indicate the importance of solving the allocation issue for policy decision making. Results and discussion   The case study focuses on bio-electricity from rapeseed oil. To assess the influence of the choice of allocation in a policy directive, three allocation methods are applied: economic partitioning (on the basis of proceeds), physical partitioning (on the basis of energy content), and substitution (under two scenarios). The outcomes show that the climate change score is assessed quite differently; ranging from 0.293 kg to 0.604 kg CO 2 eq/kWh. It is argued that this uncertainty hampers the optimal use of LCA in the policy context. The aim of policy LCAs is different from the aim of LCAs for analysis. Therefore, it is argued that LCAs in the policy context will benefit from a new guideline based on robustness. Conclusions   The case study confirms that the choice of allocation method in policy directives has large influence on the outcomes of an LCA. With the growing popularity of LCA in policy directives, this paper recommends a new guideline for policy LCAs. The high priority of robustness in the policy context makes it an ideal starting point of this guideline. An accompanying dialog between practitioners and commissioners should further strengthen the use of LCA in policy directives. Content Type Journal Article Category POLICIES AND SUPPORT IN RELATION TO LCA Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0431-x Authors Tjerk Wardenaar, Science System Assessment, Rathenau Instituut, P.O. Box 95366, The Hague, The Netherlands Theo van Ruijven, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5015, Delft, The Netherlands Angelica Mendoza Beltran, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, P.O. Box 303, Bilthoven, The Netherlands Kathrine Vad, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, Leiden, The Netherlands Jeroen Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, Leiden, The Netherlands Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, Leiden, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Sustainability assessments of buildings using the life cycle approach have become more and more common. This includes the assessment of the environmental performance of buildings. However, the influence of the construction products used for the fabric, the finishing, and the technical building equipment of buildings has hardly been described in literature. For this reason, we evaluated the influence of the technical building equipment and its impact on the environment for different residential buildings. Materials and methods   Five residential buildings were evaluated by applying the methodology of life cycle assessment (LCA) (ISO14040) expressed using quantitative assessment categories according to prEN15978. Results and discussion   Results show that the optimization of energy performance has already reached a high level in Austria, so that the overall potential for possible improvements is quite low. Especially in low-energy and passive–house-standard residential buildings, the limits for energy optimization in the use phase have mostly been achieved. In contrast to this, the integrated LCA (iLCA) findings attribute a high optimization potential to the construction products used for the technical building equipment as well as to the building fabric and finishing. Additionally, the passive house shows the lowest contribution of the technical building equipment on the overall LCA results. Conclusions   The iLCA findings suggest that it is recommended to include the technical building equipment for future assessments of the environmental performance of buildings. It is also suggested to use a broad number of environmental indicators for building LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category PROMOTION OF YOUNG SCIENTISTS IN LCA Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0435-6 Authors Alexander Passer, Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 24, 8010 Graz, Austria Helmuth Kreiner, Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 24, 8010 Graz, Austria Peter Maydl, Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 24, 8010 Graz, Austria Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that influence the sustainability of disposable baby diapers (nappies) using life cycle assessments (LCAs). Size 4 Pampers® Cruisers (North American name) and ActiveFit (European name) from 2007 are compared to new versions made in 2010 to determine if the design and materials changes intended to improve performance also lead to reductions in the most relevant environmental indicators. Materials and methods   Cradle-to-grave LCAs, consistent with ISO 14040/14044 Standards, are conducted. The functional unit is “the number of diapers needed to collect excreta over a child’s diapering lifetime.” Input data come from P&G, suppliers, trade association reports, Franklin and ecoinvent databases, and Google. SimaPro 7 is used to model the LCA. Several life cycle impact assessments (LCIA) methods, sensitivity analyses, normalization to annual consumption, and Monte Carlo analysis are used to produce and check results. Results and discussion   The consumption normalization identified that the diaper’s “environmental footprint” should include the IMPACT2002+ indicators: nonrenewable energy, global warming potential (GWP), respiratory effects from inorganics, total solid waste, and cumulative energy demand (CED). Other indicators are insignificant. Contribution analysis shows that the sourcing and production of diaper materials contribute most to the environmental indicators evaluated, accounting for ∼84% of all non-renewable energy uses and ∼64% of global warming potential. Diaper disposal is a small contributor (1–12%) to potential environmental impacts. Reductions observed for the 2010 US product are: CED—8%, solid waste—12%, non-renewable energy—1%, GWP 500 —4%, and respiratory inorganics—6%. For the European product, reductions are: CED—11%, solid waste—8%, non-renewable energy—3%, GWP 500 —5%, and respiratory inorganics—14%. Conclusions   The new Pampers® diapers sold in the USA and Europe have a reduced environmental footprint versus the previous versions (2007). Significant reductions are achieved in non-renewable energy use and global warming potential, as well as other environmental indicators by optimizing the diaper design and the materials. Although some of the results are single digit reductions, Monte Carlo analysis indicates that there is a high probability that the differences are real. The use of multiple LCIA methods to compare products is helpful to confirm consistency of results. Normalizing the LCIA scores to annual consumption also helps prioritize which environmental indicators can be impactful and affected by changing a product. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0343-1 Authors Anne V. Weisbrod, The Procter & Gamble Company, 6280 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA Gert Van Hoof, The Procter & Gamble Company, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Chain efficiency is currently a key issue for evaluating the sustainability of products and processes. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate how the overall efficiency process improvement carried out in the upstream manufacturing chain of LPB (Liquid Packaging Board) has affected the environmental profile over the last 10 years. Methods   The method employs a life cycle methodology in a cradle-to-gate approach as the material can be used for obtaining beverage containers for different purposes. The scope of this study includes data from forest to rolls of finished cartons. Results and discussion   Due to a current slightly larger boundary and more detailed data collection, the following improvements (at the minimum) over the last decade can be observed: a) energy consumption has been reduced by 38% reaching the value of 36,700 MJ/t LPB paperboard; b) water consumption has been reduced by 30% reaching a level of 45.85 m 3 /t LPB paperboard; c) wood consumption has been reduced by 40%, mainly as a result of the introduction of high yield CTMP (chemithermomechanical pulp) along with the increased overall efficiency of the production process and d) land use has been reduced by 69% due to increased forest productivity along with greater efficiency in the use of wood. Significant reductions have also been found related to environmental impacts such as global warming (49% less), photochemical ozone creation (14 times less), acidification (10 times less), eutrophication (8 times less) and human toxicity (6 times less). Conclusions   The results have clearly shown how important it is to invest in new technologies and more efficient processes to achieve better sustainable levels. This historical perspective is also a benefit from Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology that allows these types of comparisons and also shows the importance of using new inventories for environmental decisions. Content Type Journal Article Category PULP AND PAPER Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0347-x Authors Anna Lúcia Mourad, Packaging Technology Center, Institute of Food Technology (CETEA/ITAL), Av. Brasil, P.O. Box 139, 13070-178 Campinas, SP, Brazil Henrique Luvison Gomes da Silva, Klabin S/A, Fazenda Monte Alegre, S/N, ZIP 84275-000 Telêmaco Borba, PR, Brazil Júlio César Batista Nogueira, Klabin S/A, Fazenda Monte Alegre, S/N, ZIP 84275-000 Telêmaco Borba, PR, Brazil Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this paper is to take steps towards a life cycle assessment that is able to account for changes over time in resource flows and environmental impacts. The majority of life cycle inventory (LCI) studies assume that computation parameters are constants or fixed functions of time. This assumption limits the opportunities to account for temporal effects because it precludes consideration of the dynamics of the product system. Methods   System dynamics methods are used in a consequential, fleet-based LCI that accounts for some aspects of the dynamics of the wider system. The LCI model compares the life-cycle energy consumption of car body-in-whites (BIWs) in Australia made from steel and aluminium. It incorporates two dynamic processes: the flow of BIWs into and out of the fleet, and the recycling of aluminium from end-of-life BIWs back into new BIW production. The dynamical model computes both product-based and fleet-based estimates. Results and discussion   The product-based computations suggest that an aluminium BIW consumes less energy than a steel BIW over a single life cycle. The fleet-based computations suggest that the energy benefits of aluminium BIWs do not begin to emerge for some time. The substitution of aluminium for steel is a low-leverage intervention that changes the values of a few parameters of the system. The system has a delayed, damped response to this intervention because the large stock of BIWs is a source of high inertia, and the long useful life leads to a slow decay of steel BIWs out of the fleet. The recycling of aluminium back into BIW production is a moderate-leverage intervention that initially strengthens a reinforcing feedback loop, driving a rapid accumulation of energy benefits. Dominance then shifts to a balancing loop, slowing the accumulation of energy benefits. Both interventions result in a measureable reduction in life-cycle energy consumption, but only temporarily divert the underlying growth trend. Conclusions   The results suggest that product-based LCIs overestimate the short-term energy benefits of aluminium by not accounting for the time required for the stock of preexisting steel components to decay out of the fleet, and underestimate the long-term energy benefits of aluminium components by not accounting for changes in the availability of recycled aluminium. The results also suggest that interventions such as lightweighting and other efficiency measures alone can slow the growth of energy consumption, but are probably inadequate to achieve sustainable energy consumption levels if the fleet is large. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN TRANSPORTATION Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0344-0 Authors Peter Stasinopoulos, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Paul Compston, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Barry Newell, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Haley M. Jones, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Life cycle sustainability assessment Content Type Journal Article Category EDITORIAL Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0389-8 Authors Alessandra Zamagni, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), LCA & Ecodesign Laboratory, via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study assesses the impacts of three different disinfection processes of sewage effluent, namely the electron beam (E-beam), ultraviolet (UV), and ozone systems, on the environment by using life cycle assessment (LCA). Methods   The LCA employed was the comparative LCA which consists of three parts according to life cycle stages. Electricity consumption was the reference flow that can yield 99% disinfection efficiency for microorganisms present in a 1 × 10 5  m 3  day −1 sewage treatment plant effluent over 20 years. Results   The comparison of the LCA results indicated that the environmental impact of the UV disinfection system was the lowest, followed by the E-beam and ozone disinfection systems. The key issues of the E-beam, UV, and ozone disinfection systems are electricity consumption and SF 6 usage, electricity consumption and UV lamp, and electricity consumption and liquid oxygen feeding system, respectively. Conclusions   Electricity consumption is the key input parameter that determines the LCA results. Content Type Journal Article Category SIMPLIFIED LCA Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0388-9 Authors Kun-Mo Lee, School of Environmental Engineering, Ajou University, San 5 Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 443-749 South Korea Seungho Yu, Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, 1266 Sinjeong-dong, Jeongeup, Jeollabuk, 580-185 South Korea Yo-Han Choi, School of Environmental Engineering, Ajou University, San 5 Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 443-749 South Korea Myunjoo Lee, Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, 1266 Sinjeong-dong, Jeongeup, Jeollabuk, 580-185 South Korea Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Due to their production intensity, different foods of animal or plant origin play a crucial role in the assessment of the environmental impacts of human nutrition and diets. Based on a representative nutrition survey in Germany from the year 2006, a life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to quantify nutrition-related emissions of animal and plant-based foods (excluding beverages), with a special focus on the socio-demographic factor gender. Materials and methods   For the study, representative data sets concerning German food production and consumption were used. These were complemented by the Danish LCA Food database and other LCA data to analyse the impact of food imports. As regards environmental impact assessment, global warming potential (GWP) was assessed, which included emissions from direct land use change and land use (dLUC, LU), along with three inventory indicators (ammonia emissions, land use, blue water use). The following food groups were analysed from cradle-to-store and their impacts were evaluated and compared with each other: animal-based foods (meat products, milk products, egg products and fish products), plant-based foods (grain products, vegetables, fruits, potato products, margarine/oils, sugar/sweets). The reference year in the study is the year 2006. Results and discussion   For all indicators, the results show strong variation between the genders. Even if the physiologically different consumption patterns among men and women are adjusted on a weight basis, men show a higher impact in terms of GWP (CO 2 eq. +25%), ammonia emissions (+30%) and land use (+24%). In contrast, women demonstrate a higher water demand (+11%). These differences are primarily caused by a higher share of meat and meat products in the usual diet of men (+28%) as well as of fruit and vegetables in the diet of women (+40%). If men were to shift qualitatively to the usual diet of women, then 14.8 Mt CO 2 eq. and 60.1 kt ammonia emissions could be saved annually. Within the system boundaries of our study, this would translate into a reduction of 12% of CO 2 eq. and 14% of ammonia emissions. With regard to land use, this equals an area of 15,613 km 2  year −1 (−11%), whereas the total blue water demand would be increased by 94 Mm 3  year −1 (+7%). Limitations within this study are caused by the system boundaries cradle-to-store and are also due to the restricted set of environmental indicators which were analysed. Nonetheless, our results for GWP and land use are in keeping with previous studies. The results concerning ammonia and blue water use are limited when compared with other study results. Conclusions   The study shows that within one society distinct diet profiles with markedly different environmental impacts are already established. Taking cultural and physiological considerations among the genders into account, these differences could be seen as offering potential opportunities to strengthen sustainable diet profiles. Further research should also consider health impact assessments to ensure that alterations in diet profiles due to environmental constraints do not lead to disadvantageous public health effects. Particular attention should be paid here to potentially undernourished subgroups (such as the elderly, sick people, pregnant women). Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR FOOD PRODUCTS Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0387-x Authors Toni Meier, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Chair of Agronomy and Organic Farming, University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany Olaf Christen, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Chair of Agronomy and Organic Farming, University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A greenhouse gas emissions analysis (carbon footprint) was conducted for cultivation, harvesting, and production of common dairy feeds used for the production of dairy milk in the USA. The goal was to determine the carbon footprint (grams CO 2 equivalents (gCO 2 e)/kg of dry feed) in the USA on a regional basis, identify key inputs, and make recommendations for emissions reduction. Methods   Commonly used dairy feeds in the USA, such as soybeans, alfalfa, corn, and others, were identified based on a recent literature review and information from dairy farm surveys. The following input data for the cultivation and harvesting of dairy feeds were collected for five US regions: crop production data, energy input, soil amendments, and crop protection chemicals. Life cycle inventory input data were mainly collected from the US Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistical Service on a state-by-state basis as well as from state extension services forage crop budget estimates. In addition to consulting other life cycle assessment studies and published articles and reports, this cradle-to-farm gate carbon footprint analysis was conducted using the Ecoinvent™ unit processes in SimaPro version 7.1© (PRé Consultants 2009 ). Results   The final carbon footprint results (gCO 2 e/kg of dry dairy feed) varied regionally depending on a number of factors such as lime and fertilizer application rates. The average national US carbon footprint results of the main feeds were: corn grain (390), corn silage (200), dried distillers grains with solubles (910 dry mill, 670 wet mill), oats (850), soybeans (390), soybean meal (410), winter wheat (430), alfalfa hay (170), and forage mix (160). Conclusions and recommendations   The southeast dairy region generally showed a relatively high level of carbon footprint for most feeds, and this is attributable to the higher application rates of both synthetic fertilizers and lime. The highest contributor to carbon footprint for most regions (apart from soybeans and soybean meal) was due to the application of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. Efficient transfer of knowledge to farmers with regards to fertilizer best management practices such as precision application of farm nutrients may contribute significantly to reducing regional crop carbon footprints. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR AGRICULTURE Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0386-y Authors Felix Adom, Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA Ashley Maes, Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA Charles Workman, Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA Zara Clayton-Nierderman, Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA Greg Thoma, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA David Shonnard, Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This report proposes a life-cycle analysis (LCA)-oriented methodology for systematic inventory analysis of the use phase of manufacturing unit processes providing unit process datasets to be used in life-cycle inventory (LCI) databases and libraries. The methodology has been developed in the framework of the CO 2 PE! collaborative research programme (CO2PE! 2011a ) and comprises two approaches with different levels of detail, respectively referred to as the screening approach and the in-depth approach. Methods   The screening approach relies on representative, publicly available data and engineering calculations for energy use, material loss, and identification of variables for improvement, while the in-depth approach is subdivided into four modules, including a time study, a power consumption study, a consumables study and an emissions study, in which all relevant process in- and outputs are measured and analysed in detail. The screening approach provides the first insight in the unit process and results in a set of approximate LCI data, which also serve to guide the more detailed and complete in-depth approach leading to more accurate LCI data as well as the identification of potential for energy and resource efficiency improvements of the manufacturing unit process. To ensure optimal reproducibility and applicability, documentation guidelines for data and metadata are included in both approaches. Guidance on definition of functional unit and reference flow as well as on determination of system boundaries specifies the generic goal and scope definition requirements according to ISO 14040 ( 2006 ) and ISO 14044 ( 2006 ). Results   The proposed methodology aims at ensuring solid foundations for the provision of high-quality LCI data for the use phase of manufacturing unit processes. Envisaged usage encompasses the provision of high-quality data for LCA studies of products using these unit process datasets for the manufacturing processes, as well as the in-depth analysis of individual manufacturing unit processes. Conclusions   In addition, the accruing availability of data for a range of similar machines (same process, different suppliers and machine capacities) will allow the establishment of parametric emission and resource use estimation models for a more streamlined LCA of products including reliable manufacturing process data. Both approaches have already provided useful results in some initial case studies (Kellens et al. 2009 ; Duflou et al. (Int J Sustain Manufacturing 2:80–98, 2010 ); Santos et al. (J Clean Prod 19:356–364, 2011 ); UPLCI 2011 ; Kellens et al. 2011a ) and the use will be illustrated by two case studies in Part 2 of this paper (Kellens et al. 2011b ). Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0340-4 Authors Karel Kellens, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven 3001, Belgium Wim Dewulf, Group T—International University College Leuven, K.U.Leuven Association, Andreas Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven, Belgium Michael Overcash, College of Engineering, Wichita State University, Wichita, 1845 Fairmount Street, 67260 Kansas, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Joost R. Duflou, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven 3001, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Outdoor lighting is facing major changes due to the EU legislation on ecodesign of energy-related products, such as the ban of high-pressure mercury (HPM) lamps widely used in outdoor lighting. This article presents life cycle costs (LCC) of three examples of replacing HPM lamps in street lighting in Finland. The purpose of the article is to assess how the development of light-emitting diode (LED) technology affects LCCs and how the division of LCCs differentiates in the cases. Methods   Two of the cases change from HPM lamps to high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. In the third one, HPM lamps are replaced by LED luminaires. LED technology predictions of price and luminous efficacy are included in different scenarios. The calculations consider investment and operating costs and residual value. Results and discussion   Each replacement reduces the energy costs approximately by half compared to the original HPM lamp luminaires. Energy costs dominate the LCCs of the HPS lamp installations while investment cost is the dominating one in LED luminaire case. The changes from HPM to HPS technology have payback times lower than 9 years, while changing to LED luminaires is not economic. However, the electricity price is low in this case. The payback times of LED installations can be as low as 6 years if the luminaires are installed in 2015 and an average electricity price is used. Conclusions   The LCCs of real-life case studies cannot be directly compared, since their luminous properties vary. There is a need for a method for including luminous properties in LCC calculations. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0345-z Authors Leena Tähkämö, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Anne Ylinen, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Marjukka Puolakka, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Liisa Halonen, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Herein is reported an application of life cycle analysis (LCA), using the Methodology for the Ecodesign of Energy Using Products (MEEUP), in order to assess the influence of some design parameters in the environmental impact of three-phase induction motors. A motor design procedure to minimize the total environmental impact, based on data obtained from commercial motors, is presented. This procedure is specially intended for the low power range due to the greater potential for energy savings in motors having an output power of 0.75 to 4 kW. Methods   A procedure has been developed, based on previously acquired data, to determine the parameters required for application of the MEEUP methodology. These comprise the quantity of each of the motor's main constituent materials used in the production phase, and the two operating variables that directly influence the LCA results: output power and efficiency. Results and discussion   The procedure was applied to two 1.5 kW induction motors of different efficiency (according to standard IEC60034-2-1). The calculation results were compared satisfactorily with the laboratory test results. The total environmental impact of the two real motors and of the proposed motor was determined in the production, service life, and end-of-life phases. Conclusions   Given the potential for energy savings in electric motors, LCA-based environmental impact assessment should be incorporated into motor design. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0332-4 Authors Marcel Torrent, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Eusebi Martínez, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Pere Andrada, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   At present, many urban areas in Mediterranean climates are coping with water scarcity, facing a growing water demand and a limited conventional water supply. Urban design and planning has so far largely neglected the benefits of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in the context of a sustainable management of this resource. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the most environmentally friendly strategy for rainwater utilization in Mediterranean urban environments of different densities. Materials and methods   The RWH systems modeled integrate the necessary infrastructures for harvesting and using rainwater in newly constructed residential areas. Eight scenarios were defined in terms of diffuse (D) and compact (C) urban models and the tank locations ((1) underground tank, (2) below-roof tank, (3) distributed-over-roof tank, and (4) block tank). The structural and hydraulic sizing of the catchment, storage, and distribution subsystems was taken into account using an average Mediterranean rainfall, the area of the harvesting surfaces, and a constant water demand for laundry. The quantification of environmental impacts was performed through a life cycle assessment, using CML 2001 Baseline method. The necessary materials and processes were considered in each scenario according to the lifecycle stages (i.e., materials, construction, transportation, use, and deconstruction) and subsystems. Results and discussion   The environmental characterization indicated that the best scenario in both urban models is the distributed-over-roof tank (D3, C3), which provided a reduction in impacts compared to the worst scenario of up to 73% in diffuse models and even higher in compact ones, 92% in the most dramatic case. The lower impacts are related to the better distribution of tank weight on the building, reducing the reinforcement requirements, and enabling energy savings. The storage subsystem and the materials stage contributed most significantly to the impacts in both urban models. In the compact density model, the underground-tank scenario (C1) presented the largest impacts in most categories due to its higher energy consumption. Additionally, more favorable environmental results were observed in compact densities than in diffuse ones for the Global Warming Potential category along with higher water efficiencies. Conclusions   The implementation of one particular RWH scenario over another is not irrelevant in drought-stress environments. Selecting the most favorable scenario in the development of newly constructed residential areas provides significant savings in CO 2 emissions in comparison with retrofit strategies. Therefore, urban planning should consider the design of RWH infrastructures using environmental criteria in addition to economic, social, and technological factors, adjusting the design to the potential uses for which the rainwater is intended. Recommendations and perspectives   Additional research is needed to quantify the energy savings associated with the insulation caused by using the tank distributed over the roof. The integration of the economic and social aspects of these infrastructures in the analysis, from a life cycle approach, is necessary for targeting the planning and design of more sustainable cities in an integrated way. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0330-6 Authors Sara Angrill, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Ramon Farreny, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Carles M. Gasol, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Xavier Gabarrell, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Bernat Viñolas, Department of Geotechnical Engineering and Geosciences, School of Civil Engineering (ETSECCPB), Technical University of Catalonia—Barcelona Tech (UPC), Campus Nord, C/ Jordi Girona 1-3, Building D2, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Alejandro Josa, Department of Geotechnical Engineering and Geosciences, School of Civil Engineering (ETSECCPB), Technical University of Catalonia—Barcelona Tech (UPC), Campus Nord, C/ Jordi Girona 1-3, Building D2, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Joan Rieradevall, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this study was to evaluate the environmental impacts linked to fish extraction on a temporal basis, in order to analyze the effect that stock abundance variations may have on reporting environmental burdens. Inventory data for the North-East Atlantic Mackerel (NEAM) fishing season were collected over an 8-year period and used to carry out a life cycle assessment (LCA). The selected fishery corresponds to the Basque coastal purse seining fleet. Materials and methods   The functional unit (FU) was set as 1 t of landed round fish in a Basque port during the NEAM fishing season for each of the selected years. The selected data for the life cycle inventory were gathered from personal communication from ship owners and from a fish first sale register in the Basque Country. A series of fishery-specific impact categories and indicators were included in the evaluation together with conventional impact categories. Results and discussion   Conventional LCA impact categories showed that the environmental impact is dominated by the energy use in the fishery, despite of the low fuel effort identified with respect to other purse-seining fisheries. Nevertheless, strong differences were identified between annual environmental impacts, attributed mainly to remarkable variations in NEAM stock abundance from 1 year to another, whereas the fishing effort remained relatively stable throughout the assessed years. Fishery-specific categories, such as the discard rate or seafloor impact showed reduced impacts of this fishery respect to other small pelagic fish fisheries. Finally, the fishery in balance (FiB) index identified the evolution of NEAM stock abundance for this particular fishery. Conclusion   To our knowledge, this is the first fishery LCA study in which there is sufficient inventory data in order to conduct the methodology throughout a wide period of time. The outstanding variance in environmental impacts from one season to another evidences the need to expand fishery LCAs in time, in order to attain a more integrated perspective of the environmental performance of a certain fishery or species. The extension of LCA inventories in the timeline may be an important improvement for activities that rely entirely on the extraction of organisms from wild ecosystems. For instance, future research will have to determine the importance of increasing the timeline in fishery LCAs for species that do not show large stock abundance variations through time, unlike NEAM. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0304-8 Authors Saioa Ramos, Food Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 48160 Derio, Spain Ian Vázquez-Rowe, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Iñaki Artetxe, Marine Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 20110 Pasaia, Spain Maria Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Jaime Zufía, Food Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 48160 Derio, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   USEtox ™ (Rosenbaum et al. 2008 ) is a new model which can be used to calculate characterization factors for human and ecotoxicity impact categories used in life cycle assessment. The French ADEME-AFNOR ( http://affichage-environnemental.afnor.org/ ) is currently considering this model to develop a new environmental labelling standard for consumer goods. The objective of this short study is to compare USEtox ™ impact scores with critical dilution volume (CDV) scores from the European Ecolabel ( http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel ), a well-established tool widely used in Europe aiming at discriminating environmental friendly products. Material and methods   The same range of chemicals (high scores to low scores) listed in both the USEtox ™ database and the EU Ecolabel detergent ingredient database (DID-list) were used for the comparison. The DID-list is a reference list, which contains agreed and verified fate and ecotoxicity data. The ranking was made based on two different ranking parameters, one from each model: the environmental impact score from USEtox ™ and the CDV from the EU Ecolabel. Additionally, a Spearman’s rank correlation ( ρ ) coefficient was calculated. Results and discussion   Sixty-nine chemicals common in personal care and cleaning products were selected for the comparison between USEtox ™ and EU Ecolabel methods. A “fair” agreement was found between the two models with a Spearman correlation coefficient ρ of 0.74, but a significant number of chemicals was ranked rather differently. The presence of outliers (i.e., different ranking) may be explained by several factors, which include the use of discrete versus continuous values to estimate the substance’s degradation constant. Another factor could be that the substances are grouped under classes in the DID-list, thus having average parameter values. The main factor though probably lays in the different sources of the physico-chemical, fate and ecotoxicity data within the two model databases and the different way they are used for the ranking parameter calculation. Conclusions   Provided there is scientific consensus (and full transparency) on the raw data, both USEtox ™ and EU Ecolabel methods are relevant for ranking chemicals based on their physico-chemical and toxicological properties, and therefore for calculating product environmental impact scores related to their hazard. However, the presence of a number of chemicals with different ranking scores creates the risk of inconsistent consumer product information when either the CDV (EU ecolabel) or USEtox ™ (French “Affichage Environnemental”) is used for environmental labelling. To date, and for sake of consistency with an existing and used labelling scheme, the CDV appears much easier to implement with less uncertainty to calculate ecotoxicity impact score of products. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0314-6 Authors Erwan Guy Saouter, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Chiara Perazzolo, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Laure Delphine Steiner, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As liquid crystal display (LCD) flat-screen televisions increase in popularity, their potential contribution to global warming has received wide attention. This study presents global warming impacts resulting from the life cycle assessment (LCA) of LCD flat-screen televisions for key global warming contributors from the “cradle-to-gate” and use stages of the product’s life cycle. The emissions from nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ), a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) 17,000 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), are not monitored in the Kyoto Protocol. Emissions in the cradle-to-gate and use stages were modeled in this study according to their GWP (kg CO 2 equivalent), focusing and analyzing the most significant source of NF 3 emissions. Materials and methods   NF 3 is used during the manufacturing process of LCDs to clean the vacuum chambers. In this study, a system diagram of the cradle-to-gate stage and use stage of a 40-in. LCD television was proposed using the software package Gabi®, particularly investigating NF 3 to determine its possible effects on global warming based on a typical LCA. Results and discussion   The energy inputs in the use stage of the LCD flat-screen television resulted in major global warming impacts, while the contribution of GWP resulting from NF 3 was trivial. However, as energy efficiency continuously improves over time, the GWP resulting from NF 3 may become significant. Findings in this study allow industry to focus on those critical stages of the production life cycle that most directly affect global warming while permitting government agencies to enact proper regulations to help decrease CO 2 equivalent emissions. Conclusions   The preliminary assessment of our LCA also offers manufacturers the ability to determine the largest sources of greenhouse gases and their connection in the life cycle analysis of a product. This extension may help guide legislation and industrial management in the future. For further decision making, an in-depth sensitivity analysis may be needed to strengthen the results. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0341-3 Authors Nicholas J. Thomas, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Ni-Bin Chang, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Cheng Qi, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Building is one of the main factors of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission from building is urgent for environmental protection and sustainable development. The objective of this study is to develop a life cycle assessment (LCA) model for an office building in China to assess its energy consumption and CO 2 emission, determine the whole life cycle phases, and the significant environmental aspects that contribute most to the impact. Methods   A process-based LCA has been used to identify and quantify the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of the office building. The LCA is conducted in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency, The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, and the International Organization for Standardization standards for life cycle assessments. The entire life cycle including building materials production, construction, operation, and demolition of the building is studied. A service life of 50 years is assumed and the major construction materials such as concrete, cement, brick, steel, timber, glass, and plastic are selected for the building. Results and discussion   The results show that building operation uses the largest share of energy and contributes most to CO 2 emission. The cooling and heating system in building operation strongly influence the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of the building. In addition, the large quantity use of concrete and steel in materials production, and the treatment of end-of-life building materials are also the important aspects impacting the environmental performance of the building. Based on the results of the study, some environmental improvements aiming at reducing energy consumption and CO 2 emission throughout the life cycle of the building are provided. Conclusions   This study provides an LCA of the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of a typical office building in China. It determines the whole life cycle phases that contribute most to the impact and defines the significant environmental aspects of the building. This study also shows the importance of using a life cycle perspective when evaluating energy consumption and CO 2 emission of building and also lays the groundwork for LCA studying of other office buildings in China. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0342-2 Authors Huijun J. Wu, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Zengwei W. Yuan, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Ling Zhang, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Jun Bi, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There is a need to assess social impacts of products along the full life cycle, not only to be able to address the “social dimension” in sustainability, but also for potentially improving the circumstances of affected stakeholders. This paper presents a case study for a social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) based on the recently published “Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products” developed by the United Nations Environment Programme/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (UNEP/SETAC) working group. General aim is to “try out” the proposed method. The case study itself compares the impacts of rose production in Ecuador with the Netherlands. Furthermore, the objective is to identify differences and similarities in environmental and social life cycle modelling and both social and environmental hot spots in each of the life cycles. Methods   The study considers the production of rose blossoms and the cutting and packaging process in two fictitious companies in Ecuador and the Netherlands. Both rose bouquets are delivered to the European market and auctioned in Aalsmeer, the Netherlands. The social assessment is based on the UNEP/SETAC guidelines for S-LCA. Data are mainly obtained from governmental and non-governmental organisations. For the calculation of the environmental burden, a screening-type LCA is conducted, including midpoint impact assessment. Results and discussion   This paper asserts that rose production in Ecuador is associated with many negative social effects, e.g. child labour, unfair salary, or bad impairment to health. The rose production in the Netherlands has no obvious negative social impacts but rather ecological consequences. Responsible for this is the high-energy consumption of the greenhouses. Conclusions   Application of the UNEP/SETAC guidelines in case studies can be encouraged based on results of this case study. The consideration of different stakeholder groups with corresponding, very diverse themes allows a comprehensive analysis of the actual conditions. However, finding suitable indicators to measure the status of the subcategories may be challenging. Moreover, the case study shows that results can be completely different for the environmental and for the social dimension, so that it often will be needed to perform both assessments if a complete picture is required. Recommendations and perspectives   It will be interesting to apply the UNEP/SETAC approach of S-LCA to other products; products with a more complex life cycle will be a special challenge. As with any new method, getting experience on data collection and evaluation, building a data stock, integrating the method in software, and finding ways for effective communication of results are important steps until integrating S-LCA in routine, recognized decision support. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0266-x Authors Juliane Franze, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, 10437 Berlin, Germany Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Lignocellulosic ethanol has received special research interest, driven by concerns over high fuel prices, security of energy supplies, global climate change as well as the search of opportunities for rural economic development. A well-to-wheel analysis was conducted for ethanol obtained from black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) by means of the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. This study assesses the environmental profile of using ethanol in mixtures E10 and E85 as transport fuel in comparison with conventional gasoline (CG). In addition, the best model of black locust cultivation was analysed under an environmental point of view. Methods   The standard framework of LCA from International Standards Organisation was followed. To compare the environmental profiles, the study addressed the impact potentials taking into account the distance travelled by vehicles with the fuel tank full of CG. The product system includes all the processes involved from the black locust cultivation to the final use of fuels in a vehicle. The transport of all the chemicals and products is also included in the system boundaries. Results   According to the results, fuel ethanol derived from black locust biomass may help to reduce the contributions to global warming, acidification, eutrophication and fossil fuels use specifically due to the low input production regime of the agricultural stage. These reductions would be increased with the increasing ratio of ethanol in the blend. Moreover, the use of lignin, biogas and other solid waste as fuel to meet the energy requirements of the plant, positively contribute to the environmental profile of cellulosic ethanol. On the contrary, ethanol blends are less environment friendly that CG in terms of photochemical oxidants formation. The cultivation of black locust following a low-input production regime, without agrochemicals application and extra irrigation is an important reason for the environmental improvement. Conclusions   Efforts should be made to promote the production of black locust according to principles of sustainable cultivation. Moreover, technological development in ethanol production could help to improve the environmental profile in the life cycle of ethanol-based fuels. It could be interesting to develop a strategic planning which allows identifying the potential regions not only in Italy but also in other European countries in order to increase the black locust biomass yield. The cultivation of short rotation forestry and/or short rotation coppices under low-input regimes presents potential environmental benefits and advantages for the future of second-generation ethanol production in Europe. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0272-z Authors Sara González-García, Division of Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College of London, London, SW7 2AZ UK Carles Martinez Gasol, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Maria Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Xavier Gabarrell, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Joan Rieradevall i Pons, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper aims at spelling out the area of protection (AoP), namely the general concept of human well-being and the impact categories in social life cycle assessment (SLCA). The applicability of the so-called capabilities approach—a concept frequently used for evaluating human lives—is explored. It is shown how the principles of the capabilities approach can be transferred to the impact assessment within SLCA. Methods   The literature concerning the AoP and the impact assessment has been critically reviewed from an applied philosophy perspective. The capabilities approach has been adopted for defining both the AoP and the impact categories. Results   The main results are the following: (1) The AoP is defined as autonomy, well-being freedom and fairness; (2) using the dimensions which constitute well-being together with the concept of fairness eight impact categories are proposed: life, knowledge and aesthetic experience, work and play, friendship, self-integration, self-expression, transcendence and fairness itself and (3) by examining the ‘Guide to Social LCA: Methodological Sheets’, it is demonstrated that our proposed framework can be used for structuring the previous work on impact assessment. Conclusions   The capability approach is one possibility for addressing the question ‘what is of importance in a human life?’ When applied in a practical field, like SLCA, this framework is not only useful for structuring data but also for disclosing our own normative assumptions about what counts as valuable in a human life. Thus, the normative evaluation is more coherent. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0265-y Authors Claudia Reitinger, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Matthias Dumke, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Mario Barosevcic, Harvard University, Pforzheimer House 12, 56 Linnaen Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA Rafaela Hillerbrand, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   Lubricants are used in numerous applications in our society, for instance, as hydraulic fluids. When used in forestry, 60–80% of these hydraulic fluids are released into the environment. This is one of the reasons for the growing interest for developing and utilising hydraulic fluids with good environmental performance. Another driving force in the development of hydraulic fluids is to replace fossil products with renewable ones. The aim of this paper is to investigate the environmental impact of two types of hydraulic fluids, one based on mineral oil and one on vegetable oil. The difference in environmental impact of using chemical or biocatalytic production methods is also assessed. Materials and methods   This life cycle assessment is from cradle-to-gate, including waste treatment. A complementary, laboratory, biodegradability test was also performed. The functional unit is 1 l of base fluid for hydraulic fluids, and mass allocation is applied. A sensitivity analysis is performed to assess the impact of the energy used and of the allocation method. The impact categories studied are primary energy consumption, global warming potential (GWP), eutrophication potential (EP), acidification potential (AP), photooxidant creation potential (POCP) and biodegradability. Results and discussion   The contribution to GWP and primary energy consumption was higher for the mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid than the vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluids. The contributions to EP and AP were higher for the vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid than the mineral oil-based one. The vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid had better biodegradability than the one based on mineral oil. The impact of production method was minor, thus the biocatalytic method gives no significant advantage over chemical methods concerning energy and environmental performance. Conclusions   For the environmental impact categories GWP, POCP and primary energy consumption, hydraulic fluids based on rapeseed oil make a lower contribution than a mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. For EP and AP, the contributions of TMP oleate are higher than the contribution of mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. The difference between the chemically catalysed method and the ezymatically catalysed method is negligible because the major environmental impact is due to the production of the raw materials. The vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid, TMP oleate, was more biodegradable than the mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0263-0 Authors Anna Ekman, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden Pål Börjesson, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Introduction   “Food and drink” products are the basis of life. However, it is recognised that their supply also contributes to the environmental impacts associated with production and consumption. Recently, an increasing number of food chain partners and public authorities have introduced a widening range of initiatives to provide information about the environmental performance of food and drink products. These initiatives show a high degree of diversity in terms of their chosen scope, assessment methodologies and means of communication, which has the potential to confuse or even mislead consumers and other stakeholders. In this context, the European Food Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) Round Table was launched by food supply chain partners and the European Commission with the vision of promoting a science-based, coherent approach to sustainable consumption and production in the European food sector. Objectives   This article presents this European initiative by introducing its Guiding Principles and summarizing the proceedings of the scientific workshop held in Ispra on 14–15 June 2010. The aim of the workshop was to identify scientific inputs for developing the harmonised framework methodology for assessing the environmental issues of food and drink products. In this context, the main purpose was to provide a common understanding of what is involved in reliable and robust environmental assessments of the food chain, current limitations, and how to go from detailed assessments to more focused criteria, guidance and tools. Conclusion   The current experiences presented in the workshop demonstrate that much advancement has already been made towards the measurement and management of the environmental performance of food and drink products. Detailed methodologies and tools are already being used by various players. According to the workshop speakers, the definition of methodological choices concerning the functional unit, system boundaries, cut-off criteria, allocation rules and environmental impact categories are some of the key issues to be fixed in the harmonised framework methodology. The Round Table process has the potential to make a substantial contribution to the sustainable consumption and production of food and drink products. This model might be proposed and reiterated for other sectors as well. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0250-5 Authors Nina Peacock, Landmark Europe, Rue du Collège 27, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Camillo De Camillis, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy David Pennington, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy Herbert Aichinger, European Commission, DG Environment, Avenue de Beaulieu 5, 1049 Brussels, Belgium Alberto Parenti, European Commission, DG Environment, Avenue de Beaulieu 5, 1049 Brussels, Belgium Jean-Pierre Rennaud, Danone Institute, Route Départementale 128, 91767 Palaiseau, France Andrea Raggi, University “G. D’Annunzio”, viale Pindaro 42, 65127 Pescara, Italy Frank Brentrup, Yara International, Hanninghof 35, 48249 Dülmen, Germany Balázs Sára, FEBE Ecologic, Via Canalazzo 44, 48123 Ravenna, Italy Urs Schenker, Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland Nicole Unger, Unilever Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK40 1LQ UK Friederike Ziegler, SIK, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, PO Box 5401, 40229 Gothenburg, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   The interest in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling is quite recent, but it has been growing steadily over the past few years. In this context, the aim of this paper is to assess the eco-profile, the energy savings and the environmental benefits of the use of recycled raw materials to manufacture products for thermal insulation of buildings in Italy (i.e., PET bottles post-consumer). Materials and methods   The life cycle analysis is developed according to ISO 14040/44. In this paper, based on the LCA, the main types of environmental impact of a thermal insulation product have been outlined. This study is specifically focused on polyester nonwovens, produced by a company located in Italy. The cradle-to-gate life cycle inventory is performed for the mass of product needed to give a thermal resistance R of 1 (m 2 K/W). The calculation of the impacts is done with SimaPro software. With an environmental product declaration-oriented approach, a set of impact categories is used for the classification and characterisation of the life cycle impact assessment. Results   The results of the impact assessment for 1m 2  K/W of thermal insulation panels made with recycled PET are then compared with similar products made with virgin PET. The lower impact associated with the recycled PET for each category is underlined: the percentage reduction is around 46% in the GWP category. In the production process, the fiber-spinning phase results as the most relevant in terms of energy consumption. In addition, the energy saved when applying the thermal insulation in a building is estimated at 87 MJ/m 2 per unit area per year in Rome. All the energy used during the production of a thermal insulation panel is recovered in about 2 years. Conclusions   The product shows significantly low environmental impacts thanks to the use of non-virgin PET, thus maintaining high mechanical and physical properties. If the recovery of PET from separate waste collection in Italy increases, this would reduce the share of waste PET purchased from foreign countries and would therefore reduce further the impact of transports for the production of the thermal insulation panel under investigation. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0267-9 Authors Francesca Intini, Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics, University of Basilicata, Via Rocco Lazazzera, 75100 Matera, Italy Silvana Kühtz, Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics, University of Basilicata, Via Rocco Lazazzera, 75100 Matera, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   The aim of this study has been to estimate the carbon footprint of bread produced and consumed in the UK. Sliced white and wholemeal bread has been considered for these purposes and the functional unit is defined as “one loaf of sliced bread (800 g) consumed at home”. The influence on the carbon footprint of several parameters has been analysed, including country of origin of wheat (UK, Canada, France, Germany, Spain and USA), type of flour (white, brown and wholemeal) and type of packaging (plastic and paper bags). The effect on the results of the type of data (primary and secondary) has also been considered. Materials and methods   The carbon footprint has been estimated in accordance with the PAS 2050 methodology. The results have also been calculated following the ISO 14044 methodology to identify any differences in the two approaches and the results. Primary data for the PAS 2050-compliant study have been collected from a UK bread supply chain. Secondary data have been sourced from the UK statistics, life cycle inventory databases and other published sources. Results and discussion   The carbon footprint results range from 977 to 1,244 g CO 2 eq. per loaf of bread. Wholemeal thick-sliced bread packaged in plastic bags has the lowest carbon footprint and white medium-sliced bread in paper bag the highest. The main hot spots are wheat cultivation and consumption of bread (refrigerated storage and toasting), contributing 35% and 25% to the total, respectively. Conclusions   The carbon footprint could be reduced on average by 25% by avoiding toasting and refrigerated storage of bread. Further reductions (5–10%) could be achieved by reducing the amount of waste bread discarded by consumers. The contribution of transport and packaging to the overall results is small. Similar trends in the results are also found in the study based on the secondary data and following the ISO 14044 methodology. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0271-0 Authors Namy Espinoza-Orias, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room F30, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Heinz Stichnothe, Institute for Agricultural Technology and Biosystems Engineering, vTI Braunschweig, Bundesallee 50, Braunschweig, 38116 Germany Adisa Azapagic, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   This paper presents a study related to the application of the reliability-based life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess different alternatives for solid waste management in the Setúbal peninsula, Portugal. The current system includes waste collection, transport, sorting, recycling, and mechanical and biological treatment (MBT) by means of aerobic treatment and landfill. In addition, some future expansion plans are discussed. Materials and methods   The proposed 18 alternatives were examined with respect to six impact categories based on a customized life cycle inventory (LCI). All the alternatives are designed to comply with the targets prescribed in the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive and the Landfill Directive. These 18 alternatives were eventually assessed by using the reliability-based LCA methodology with respect to some uncertain parameters and scenarios. Results and discussion   The results show that solutions based on anaerobic digestion at the MBT followed by energy recovery are the most advantageous options. Overall, recycling may help to avoid most environmental impacts. Alternatives which treat massively biodegradable municipal waste are also competitive. In addition to the recycling options, electricity production is also an influential determinant which affects the results. The uncertainty analysis focused on testing different energy-from-waste options (like landfill and MBT biogas electricity production) and different recycling substitution ratios. Such a quantitative analysis is proved effective to confirm the reliability of the LCI in the study. Conclusions   In order to improve the sustainability of the solid waste management (SWM) system, final suggestions may concentrate on the closure of aerobic MBT, the enhancement of anaerobic digestion MBT treatment, and the maximization of energy recovery from high calorific fractions of the waste streams. However, the option of stabilized residue applications cannot be encouraged at this stage, especially due to the absence of Portuguese regulations to control the quality of organic products issuing from biological treatment units. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-22 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0269-7 Authors Ana Pires, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal Ni-Bin Chang, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816, USA Graça Martinho, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Calculating the carbon footprint (CF) of food is becoming increasingly important in climate change communication. To design effective CF labelling systems or reduction measures, it is necessary to understand the accuracy of the calculated CF values. This study quantified the uncertainty in the CF of wheat and of a common refined wheat-based product, pasta, for different resolutions of farm-level in-data to gain an increased understanding of the origins and magnitude of uncertainties in food CFs. Methods   A ‘cradle-to-retail’ CF study was performed on Swedish pasta and wheat cultivated in the region of Skåne on mineral soils. The uncertainty was quantified, using Monte Carlo simulation, for wheat from individual farms and for the mixture of wheat used for pasta production during a year, as well as for the pasta production process. Results and discussion   The mean pasta CF was 0.50 kg CO 2 e/kg pasta (0.31 kg CO 2 e/kg wheat before the milling process). The CF of wheat from one farm could not be determined more accurately than being in the range 0.22–0.56 kg CO 2 e/kg wheat, even though all farm-level primary data were collected. The wheat mixture CF varied much less, approximately ±10–20% from the mean (95% certainty) for different years. Reducing farm-level data collection to only the most influential parameters—yield, amount of N and regional soil conditions—increased the uncertainty range by between 6% and 19% for different years for the wheat mixture. The dominant uncertainty was in N 2 O emissions from soil, which was also the process that contributed most to the CF. Conclusions   The variation in the wheat mix CF uncertainty range was greater between years, due to different numbers of farms being included for the different years, than between collecting all farm-level primary data or only the most influential parameters. More precise methods for assessing soil N 2 O emissions are needed to decrease the uncertainty significantly. Recommendations   Due to the difficulties in calculating accurate values, finding other ways of differentiating between producers than calculating numerical CFs might be more fruitful and fair. When legislation requires numerical CF values, CF practitioners have little option but to continue using existing methods and data collection strategies. However, they can provide input on improvement, contribute to standardisation processes and help raise awareness and knowledge of the associated uncertainty in the data through studies like this one. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0270-1 Authors Elin Röös, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Cecilia Sundberg, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Per-Anders Hansson, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper presents the results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) study for integrated systems (IS) of mixed municipal waste (MMW) management in the Czech Republic. The seven IS categories assessed were: (a) incineration with slag recovery, (b) incineration without slag recovery, (c) landfills with incineration of the landfill gas by flaring, (d) landfills with recovery of the landfill gas, (e) mechanical–biological treatment (MBT) with aerobic treatment, (f) MBT biodrying with co-incineration of refuse-derived fuel, and (g) MBT biodrying with incineration of refuse-derived fuel from a monosource. Methods   The environmental impacts were evaluated using the CML 2001 methodological approach. The methodology from EDIP 2003 was used for performing the sensitivity analysis on the selection of the methodologies for characterization. The treatment of 1 t of MMW was the functional unit selected. Data was collected from both within the Czech Republic (for incineration plants and landfills), as well as from abroad (for the MBTs). The IS assessed were modelled on the basis of available data and using the best processes and data available from the LCA software. Results and discussion   We established that the integrated system of mixed municipal waste management (IS) of landfills without energy recovery of the landfill gas, as well as the aerobic MBT have the highest environmental impacts. On the other hand, the lowest environmental impacts were found for the MBT biodrying IS. An overall assessment of this IS, both with and without the toxicity and ecotoxicity impact category pollutants and emissions indicators, were compared. Conclusions   A comparison of the environmental impacts of IS landfills to the other IS categories should be made, using both a detailed and long-term inventory. Further, this should also include the closures of the landfill sites, as well as all of the future environmental impacts. It would also be appropriate to include several additional aspects (such as social, technical, and economic factors) for a fully objective assessment and in making the optimal choice of an IS. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0251-4 Authors Vladimir Koci, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Prague Institute of Chemical Technology, Technicka 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic Tatiana Trecakova, ETC Consulting Group s.r.o., Kunesova 18, 13000 Prague 3, Czech Republic Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In recent years, a new perspective for food packaging has emerged as a result of several issues like quality, safety, competitive prices or providing of useful information to consumers. This new perspective is called communicative packaging. Communicative packaging may influence consumers/companies on purchasing decisions. Since the environmental evaluation of such systems has not yet been performed, this paper is focused on the environmental evaluation of a flexible best-before-date (FBBD) communicative device on a packaging consumer unit and its implications on reducing environmental impacts related to fresh products. This consumer unit consists of a nanoclay-based polylactic acid tray filled with pork chops. Methods   The environmental assessment of the consumer unit was made through life cycle assessment (LCA) using a cradle-to-gate approach. Environmental impacts were assessed according to the Eco-Indicator 99 v 2.1 methodology in Individualist (I) perspective. Results and discussion   Several results were obtained from the LCA. With regard to environmental impacts of the FBBD, most of them were due to the paper substrate used for the manufacture of this communicative packaging concept as well as to the transports for delivering the components of the FBBD communicative device. On the other hand, when environmental impacts of packaging system with and without FBBD were compared, a large environmental load was detected for the system that has the communicative device affixed as a result of the higher weight of the package. However, the environmental load caused by the use of the FBBD was minimal in comparison with the total environmental load of the whole packaging system. On the contrary, the consumer unit that has the communicative device affixed showed less environmental burden than the consumer unit that has not affixed the device. This was due to the environmental benefits that the communicative device provides by reducing the amount of out-of-date packaged products at retailer outlets. Conclusions   The use of a FBBD contributes to minimize environmental burdens related to the production, packaging and delivery of pork chops since it facilitates a dynamic control of out-of-date products even though the consumer unit with FBBD weighs 1 g more than the consumer unit that does not use the communicative device. Recommendations   The results presented in this paper are estimated results of a specific case study for a prototype of communicative packaging device. Consequently, these results must be considered as a first approach according to future developments on communicative packaging. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0257-y Authors Antonio Dobon, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Pilar Cordero, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Fatima Kreft, Agrotechnology & Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research Centre, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen Postbus 17, Wageningen, 6700 AA The Netherlands Søren R. Østergaard, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, Taastrup, 2630 Denmark Mats Robertsson, Acreo AB, Norrköping, 602 21 Sweden Maria Smolander, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, Espoo, FI-02044 VTT Finland Mercedes Hortal, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study compares environmental impacts of two primary packaging alternatives used for injectable drugs: the traditional method based on glass vials and the method developed by Aseptic Technologies based on polymer vials. A critical review by an external LCA expert was made. Methods   The boundaries of the systems include the packaging production, the product assembly, the filling process, the distribution and the packaging end-of-life by incineration. The study was made in accordance with the international standards ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Some data were obtained in the scientific literature or by interview with packaging producers. Ecoinvent databases were also used. The LCA study was made using two methodologies: IMPACT 2002+ and ReCiPe. Some sensibility analyses were performed on different points of uncertainty both on method and on systems (polymer vial body and transport conditions). Results and discussion   Results show an environmental gain using a polymer vial over glass. The impact is reduced by 23% for global warming, 25% for primary energy and 32% for respiratory inorganics. For each production step, the environmental impact of both technologies is nearly the same except for the material production, the filling step and the transportation of the finished goods. The production of the polymer vials, made of fuel, leads to a more important environmental impact, especially concerning global warming and primary energy. On the contrary, the two others steps, i.e. filling and transport of the finished goods are more favourable for the polymer vials. This technology allows the elimination of preparation and sterilisation steps which are highly energy consuming and mandatory in the case of the glass vials filling which are supplied unclean and unsterile. The major source of energy consumption comes from water heating, in order to clean the glass vial components. In addition, the filling process, made with a needle through the cork followed by laser re-sealing, is strongly simplified with additional beneficial impact as reduction of energy consumption and pollutants emissions. The transportation step has shown a more positive impact especially when exported over long distance. The sensitivity analyses show that the hypotheses made in both scenarios are rather conservative. Conclusions   The life cycle assessment methodology has been successfully applied to both systems of production, filling, distribution and end-of-life of vials for injectable drugs. For identical disclosers, the polymer vials system has lower environmental impacts than the glass vials system. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0248-z Authors Sandra Belboom, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Robert Renzoni, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Benoît Verjans, Aseptic Technologies, 7-9 Rue Camille Hubert, 5032 Gembloux, Belgium Angélique Léonard, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Albert Germain, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: 7th International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector (LCA Food 2010), 22–24 September 2010, Bari (Italy) Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0256-z Authors Bruno Notarnicola, II Faculty of Economics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Lago Maggiore ang. via Ancona, 74121 Taranto, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Among other regional impact categories in LCA, land use still lacks a suitable assessment method regarding the least developed “soil ecological quality” impact pathway. The goals of this study are to scope the framework addressing soil ecological functions and to improve the development of regionalized characterization factors (CFs). A spatially explicit approach was developed and illustrated for the Canadian context using three different regional scales and for which the extent of spatial variability was assessed. Materials and methods   A model framework based on the multifunctional character of soil and the ecosystem services defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is suggested. This framework includes land use impacts on soil ecological quality evaluated regarding the change in soil capacity to fulfill a range of soil ecological functions. Four impact indicators, namely erosion resistance, groundwater recharge, mechanical, and physicochemical filtration, proposed by the functional method of Baitz ( 2002 ), were used to assess three major degraded regulating services: erosion regulation, freshwater regulation, and water purification. Spatially differentiated CFs were calculated based on the principles proposed by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative for two Canadian spatial models (15 ecozones, 193 ecoregions) along with a non-spatial one (one generic). Seven representative land use types were tested. Results and discussion   Using the ecozone-based scale, an overall result comparison between the non-spatial and spatial models indicates significant differences between ranges across land use types and results up to four times larger than what the generic scale can capture. This highlights the importance of introducing a regionalized assessment. When considering the impacts from a specific land use type, such as urban land use, generic CFs fail to adequately represent spatial CFs because they tend to be highly dependent on the biogeographical conditions of the location. When comparing all three resolution scales, CF results calculated using the ecoregions spatial scale generally show a larger spread across each land use type. Interesting variations and extreme scenarios are revealed which could not be observed using a coarser scale-based model such as the ecozone resolution scheme. Conclusions   This work demonstrates the accomplishment of developing spatially differentiated CFs addressing impacts of different land use types on soil ecological functions. For a large territorial area spreading over many biomes, such as Canada, accounting for ecological unit boundaries proves to be necessary since the generic scale is not sufficiently representative. An evaluation of the extent of spatial differentiation emphasized the influence on the variability of regionalized CFs. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0258-x Authors Rosie Saad, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas Koellner, Professorship of Ecological Services PES, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry and Geosciences, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Bastian Wittstock, Abteilung Ganzheitliche Bilanzierung, Lehrstuhl für Bauphysik, Universität Stuttgart, 70771 Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany Louise Deschênes, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    In a recent letter to the editor, Jørgensen et al. questioned that life cycle costing (LCC) is relevant in life cycle-based sustainability assessment (LCSA). They hold the opinion that environmental and social aspects are sufficient. We argue that sustainability has three dimensions: environment, economy, and social aspects in accordance with the well-accepted “three pillar interpretation” of sustainability, although this is not verbally stated in the Brundtland report (WCED 1987). An analysis of the historical development of the term “sustainability” shows that the economic and social component have been present from the beginning and conclude that LCSA of product systems can be approximated by LCSA = (environmental) LCA + (environmental) LCC + S-LCA where S-LCA stands for social LCA. The “environmental” LCC is fully compatible with life cycle assessment (LCA), the internationally standardized (ISO 14040 + 14044) method for environmental product assessment. For LCC, a SETAC “Code of Practice” is now available and guidelines for S-LCA have been published by UNEP/SETAC. First examples for the use of these guidelines have been published. An important practical argument for using LCC from the customers’ point of view is that environmentally preferable products often have higher purchasing costs, whereas the LCC may be much lower (examples: energy saving light bulbs, low energy houses, and cars). Also, since LCC allows an assessment for different actor perspectives, the producers may try to keep the total costs from their perspective below those of a conventional product: otherwise, it will not succeed at the market, unless highly subsidized. Those are practical aspects whichfinally decide about success or failure of “sustainable” products. Whether or not an analysis using all three aspects is necessary will depend on the exact question. However, if real money flows are important in sustainability analysis of product systems, inclusion of LCC is advisable. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0249-y Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstr. 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The paper presents a discussion on the possibilities of using life cycle assessment (LCA) in identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems based on the requirements of the international ISO14001 standard and the European Union EMAS regulation. Some modifications of LCA methodology are proposed in part 1, while the results of a review of environmental aspects for 36 organisations with implemented environmental management systems (EMS) are presented in part 2 of the article. Materials and methods   The scope of the systems analysed in EMS and in LCA is different. This comes as the result of the fact that both ISO 14001 and EMAS are focused on an organisation contrary to ISO14040x, which are focused on a product life cycle. For the present work, this resulted in a need of adjusting the LCA methodology to EMS specificity, and vice versa. Some suggestions of such modifications are presented and discussed in the paper. Results   A preliminary analysis was carried out on 36 organisations, which have EMS compliant with the ISO14001 or EMAS regulations. It has found a certain disproportion between input and output-related environmental aspects included in most of the analysed registers. The probable reasons for such disproportion could be the fact that the output-related environmental aspects are easier to manage by organisation and are often regulated by laws. Legal requirements are a significant criterion in the environmental aspects assessment. Discussion   Based on the assessments carried out and the observations made, some conclusions have been drawn with regard to weaknesses and strengths and usefulness of LCA, as a result of a comparison to the traditional approaches used in EMS in the discussed area. LCA has evident advantages like: standardised methodology; possibility of inclusion of the quantitative information; presence of some methodological steps enabling the verification of the collected data; ability to generate of reproducible results. At the same time, the following potential weak points can be observed: a complexity of the procedure; higher time and cost requirements (especially related to an inventory phase); difficulties with assessing of environmental aspects with the qualitative character and these related to emergency situations; limitation related to the lack of relevant characterisation factors in the currently used LCIA methods. Conclusions   LCA ought to be considered as a tool used for identification and assessment of environmental aspects in EMS. The listed limitations do not disqualify its suitability to be used. After certain simplifications, LCA seems to be a valuable alternative to the methodologies currently in use. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0253-2 Authors Anna Lewandowska, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The paper presents a discussion on the possibilities of using LCA in identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems based on the requirements of the international ISO14001 standard and the European Union EMAS regulation. Some modifications of LCA methodology are proposed in Part 1 while the results of a review of environmental aspects for 36 organisations with implemented EMS are presented in Part 2 of the article. Materials and methods   The scope of the systems analysed in EMS and in LCA is different. This comes as the result of the fact that both ISO 14001 and EMAS are focused on an organisation on contrary to ISO14040x which are focused on a product life cycle. For the present work, this resulted in a need of adjusting the LCA methodology to EMS specificity and vice versa. Some suggestions of such modifications are presented and discussed in the paper. Results   A preliminary analysis was carried out on 36 organisations which have environmental management systems compliant with the ISO14001 or EMAS regulations. A certain disproportion between input and output related environmental aspects included in most of the analysed registers was found. The probable reasons for such disproportion could be the fact that the output related environmental aspects are easier to manage by organisation and are often regulated by laws. Legal requirements are a significant criterion in the environmental aspects assessment. Discussion   Based on the assessments carried out and the observations made, some conclusions have been drawn with regard to weaknesses and strengths and usefulness of LCA, as a result of a comparison to the traditional approaches used in EMS in the discussed area. LCA has evident advantages like: standardised methodology, possibility of inclusion of the quantitative information, presence of some methodological steps enabling the verification of the collected data, and ability to generate of reproducible results. At the same time, the following potential weak points can be observed: a complexity of the procedure, higher time, and cost requirements (especially related to an inventory phase); difficulties with assessing of environmental aspects with the qualitative character and these related to emergency situations; and limitation related to the lack of relevant characterisation factors in the currently used life cycle impact assessment methods. Conclusions   LCA ought to be considered as a tool used for identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems. The listed limitations do not disqualify its suitability to be used. After certain simplifications, LCA seems to be a valuable alternative to the methodologies currently in use. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0252-3 Authors Anna Lewandowska, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Alina Matuszak-Flejszman, Department of Standardized Management Systems, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Katarzyna Joachimiak, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstrasse 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The sale and distribution of books are activities that have changed through increased use of the internet. The main aim of this paper was to determine the potential environmental impacts of paper books and identify key issues determining the magnitude of those impacts. A second aim was to study the environmental difference between a paper book bought in a traditional bookshop and through an internet bookshop. In addition, areas with a lack of data and major uncertainties were to be noted. Materials and methods   A screening life cycle assessment was performed on an average hardback novel produced and read in Sweden. The data used were general data from Ecoinvent 2.0 and site-specific data from companies participating in the study, whenever average data were not available. Results and discussion   The results showed the most important processes to be pulp and paper production. However, if a substantial distance was travelled by car, to buy a book or collect it, this had a major influence on the environmental performance. Comparing the two bookshop alternatives, the results showed a slight benefit for the internet bookshop due to fewer books being returned to the publisher and the avoidance of energy use at the traditional bookshop. The buyer of a book could significantly influence the total impact by choosing to walk to the bookshop or to combine the trip with several other activities to decrease the impact of the travel per activity performed. When books ordered via the internet were sent by postal services directly to the end consumer, the climate change impact was lowered. Conclusions   This study showed that, in addition to the paper used, the way books are bought and distributed, including possible personal transportation, can significantly affect the total environmental impact of paper books. The impact per book read can be significantly decreased by sharing books with others. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0254-1 Authors Clara Borggren, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Åsa Moberg, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Göran Finnveden, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Previous methods of estimating characterization factors (CFs) of metals in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) models were based on multimedia fate, exposure, and effect models originally developed to address the potential impacts of organic chemicals. When applied to metals, the models neglect the influence of ambient chemistry on metal speciation, bioavailability and toxicity. Gandhi et al. ( 2010 ) presented a new method of calculating CFs for freshwater ecotoxicity that addresses these metal-specific issues. In this paper, we compared and assessed the consequences of using the new method versus currently available LCIA models for calculating freshwater ecotoxicity, as applied to two case studies previously examined by Gloria et al. ( 2006 ): (1) the production of copper (Cu) pipe and (2) a zinc (Zn) gutter system. Methods   Using the same inventory data as presented by Gloria et al. ( 2006 ), we calculated and compared the LCIA outcomes for freshwater ecotoxicity of each case study using four models: USES-LCA 1.0, USES-LCA 2.0, USEtox™ using the previous approach, and USEtox™ using the new method. Since the new method requires specification of water chemistry for the freshwater compartment, we explored the effect of using seven freshwater archetypes. We analyzed the freshwater ecotoxicity outcomes of the two case studies with respect to the different models, infinite versus 100 years time scales for calculating impacts after metal emissions, and water chemistries representing environmental variability. Results and discussion   Significant differences in CFs, overall freshwater ecotoxicity score (Σ CF × emissions) and the contributions of individual metals to the overall score were traced back to differences in modeling methods (e.g., variations in compartments included in the fate model), the choice of metal partition coefficients versus those explicitly calculated based on water chemistry (USEtox™ (new)), and the calculation of effect factors. Metal CFs calculated using USES-LCA 1.0 ranked Co 〉 Ni 〉 Cd ≈ Cu 〉 Zn 〉 Pb, but changed using USEtox™ (new) to Cd 〉 Co 〉 Ni 〉 Zn 〉 Cu 〉 Pb for the archetype of hard alkaline water and Cd 〉 Ni 〉 Co 〉 Cu ≈ Zn 〉 Pb for the archetype of soft, acidic water. For the Cu pipe, total freshwater ecotoxicity scores for metal emissions into air and water ranged from 0.01 to 0.02 for USES-LCA1.0, ~1 for USEtox™ (previous) to 0.0002–0.01 1, 4-dichlorobenzene (DCB) eq. for USEtox™ (new) depending on the archetype. Whereas Cu followed by Ni emissions contributed most to total freshwater ecotoxicity estimated by USES-LCA1.0, Cu, Cd, Ni, and Zn, emissions were all important contributors towards freshwater ecotoxicity with USEtox™ (new), with differences in contributions dependent on the freshwater archetype. For the Zn gutter case study, the total scores varied from 10 for USEtox™ (previous) to 0.008 for USES-LCA 2.0 and 0.02–0.11 equal to 1, 4-DCB for USEtox™ (new). Zn contributed ~98% towards the freshwater ecotoxicity scores of metals in all models. For both case studies, differences in ecotoxicity scores were not significant for the infinite vs. 100 years time scale. Conclusions   Accounting for metal bioavailability and speciation by using USEtox™ (new) when calculating CFs decreased by 1–4 orders of magnitude the total metal freshwater ecotoxicity scores (Σ CF × emissions) attributable to metal emissions tallied for Cu pipe and Zn gutter system case studies (Gloria et al. 2006 ). This broad range came from the model used in comparison to USEtox™ (new) and the choice of freshwater archetype. Additionally, contributions of each metal to the total score of the Cu pipe case study changed significantly from the use of previous CFs (Huijbregts et al. 2000 ) versus the revised CFs (Gandhi et al. 2010 ). Practical implications   Metal CFs calculated using the method proposed by Gandhi et al. ( 2010 ) significantly lowers the total freshwater ecotoxicity impact of metal emissions. It is suggested that this lower estimate of potential impact from metal emissions is consistent with our understanding of metal chemistry. The magnitude of the potential freshwater ecotoxicity of metals depends on the chemistry of the modeled freshwater compartment, similarly to the dependence of acidification potential on regionally variant freshwater chemistry. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0317-3 Authors Nilima Gandhi, Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 45 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2E5, Canada Miriam L. Diamond, Department of Geography, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 1, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Jeroen B. Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Willie J. G. M. Peijnenburg, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 1, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In order to provide more sustainable fuels and address the depletion of oil as a feedstock, the automotive industry must adapt to a growing market share of alternative fuels. The environmental impacts of the automotive industry to date would suggest that these alternatives will be more environmentally friendly than petroleum-based fuels. This is nonetheless an assumption that cannot be confirmed without a systematic life cycle assessment (LCA). This article explores the feasibility of USEtox to provide information needed for automotive-fuel LCA. Materials and methods   USEtox is tested on three energy pathways: gasoline, diesel fuel and hard coal electricity. The studied emissions are mainly volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and heavy metals. USEtox being dependent on the physicochemical and toxic properties of the studied species, a speciation of all VOCs emitted was performed. Moreover, since USEtox allows a distinction between rural and urban emissions, a geographical information system was developed in order to distinguish these emissions. Finally, because crude oil comes from various countries, characterization factors have been calculated for new regional compartments. Results and discussion   Human health issues are caused by aldehydes and heavy metals while ecotoxicity is caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes and heavy metals. For organic compounds, a clear distinction is observed between urban and rural emissions while inorganic mechanisms are independent of this distinction. Among the three energy pathways, urban diesel is the more impacting. Conclusions   USEtox can be used for the assessment of automotive fuels, though it only addresses specific aspects of human health and ecotoxicity. The LCA practitioner must keep in mind that USEtox has to be used in conjunction with other indicators, such as ReCiPe or CML, to comprehensively cover the toxic and ecotoxic impacts of fuels. The level of analysis is dependent on the accuracy of the inventory, aldehydes and PAH playing a crucial role. Inorganic impacts are highly uncertain, contrary to organic compounds. The distinction between rural and urban emissions allows a better assessment of internal combustion engine-powered cars compared with electric and hybrid cars, which is especially useful for the automotive industry now that these technologies are clearly being developed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0319-1 Authors Florent Querini, Institut Pprime CNRS-Université de Poitiers (IRIAF)-ENSMA UPR 3346, Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA-Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Stéphane Morel, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Valérie Boch, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Patrick Rousseaux, Institut Pprime CNRS-Université de Poitiers (IRIAF)-ENSMA UPR 3346, Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA-Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this paper is to provide science-based consensus and guidance for health effects modelling in comparative assessments based on human exposure and toxicity. This aim is achieved by (a) describing the USEtox™ exposure and toxicity models representing consensus and recommended modelling practice, (b) identifying key mechanisms influencing human exposure and toxicity effects of chemical emissions, (c) extending substance coverage. Methods   The methods section of this paper contains a detailed documentation of both the human exposure and toxic effects models of USEtox™, to determine impacts on human health per kilogram substance emitted in different compartments. These are considered as scientific consensus and therefore recommended practice for comparative toxic impact assessment. The framework of the exposure model is described in details including the modelling of each exposure pathway considered (i.e. inhalation through air, ingestion through (a) drinking water, (b) agricultural produce, (c) meat and milk, and (d) fish). The calculation of human health effect factors for cancer and non-cancer effects via ingestion and inhalation exposure respectively is described. This section also includes discussions regarding parameterisation and estimation of input data needed, including route-to-route and acute-to-chronic extrapolations. Results and discussion   For most chemicals in USEtox™, inhalation, above-ground agricultural produce, and fish are the important exposure pathways with key driving factors being the compartment and place of emission, partitioning, degradation, bioaccumulation and bioconcentration, and dietary habits of the population. For inhalation, the population density is the key factor driving the intake, thus the importance to differentiate emissions in urban areas, except for very persistent and mobile chemicals that are taken in by the global population independently from their place of emission. The analysis of carcinogenic potency (TD 50 ) when volatile chemicals are administrated to rats and mice by both inhalation and an oral route suggests that results by one route can reasonably be used to represent another route. However, we first identify and mark as interim chemicals for which observed tumours are directly related to a given exposure route (e.g. for nasal or lung, or gastrointestinal cancers) or for which absorbed fraction by inhalation and by oral route differ greatly. Conclusions   A documentation of the human exposure and toxicity models of USEtox™ is provided, and key factors driving the human health characterisation factor are identified. Approaches are proposed to derive human toxic effect factors and expand the number of chemicals in USEtox™, primarily by extrapolating from an oral route to exposure in air (and optionally acute-to-chronic). Some exposure pathways (e.g. indoor inhalation, pesticide residues, dermal exposure) will be included in a later stage. USEtox™ is applicable in various comparative toxicity impact assessments and not limited to LCA. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0316-4 Authors Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Andrew D. Henderson, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Manuele Margni, Department of Chemical Engineering, CIRAIG, École Polytechnique de Montréal, 2900 Édouard-Montpetit, P.O. Box 6079, Stn. Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas E. McKone, University of California Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Michael Z. Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Shanna Shaked, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Ding Sheng Li, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Lois S. Gold, University of California Berkeley, and Children’s Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI), Oakland, CA, USA Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Spatial differentiation is a topic of increasing interest within life cycle assessment (LCA). For chemical-related impacts, in this paper, we evaluate the relative influence of substance properties and of environmental characteristics on the variability in the environmental fate of chemicals using an advanced, spatially resolved model. The goal of this study is to explore spatial distribution and spatial variability of organic chemicals, assessing the variability of the removal rate from air with a multimedia spatially explicit model Multimedia Assessment of Pollutant Pathways in the Environment (MAPPE) Global with a resolution of 1 × 1°. This provides basis to help identify chemicals for which spatial differentiation will be important in LCAs, including whether differentiation will have added benefits over the use of global generic default values, such as those provided by the USEtox model. Methodology   A methodology was developed to explore spatial distribution and spatial variability of the fate of organic chemicals. Firstly, guidelines were developed to assign a hypothetical spatial distribution to chemicals which were clustered on the basis of their physical–chemical properties and persistence. Secondly, a test set of 34 representative organic chemicals was used to run MAPPE Global and USEtox model. The results of MAPPE Global were used to highlight spatial variability of removal rate from air amongst different chemicals and their related patterns of variability. A comparison between USEtox and MAPPE Global removal rates from air was performed for each chemical in order to highlight whether spatial differentiation is relevant for the assessment or not. Results and discussion   Hypothetical spatial distribution of chemical fate was assigned to each combination of physical–chemical properties and persistence. Besides, spatial variability of removal rates from air was assessed running MAPPE model for the test set of 34 chemicals. The variability of results spans from less than one to over four orders of magnitude, showing differences in variability for each cluster of chemicals. Furthermore, different patterns of spatial variability are associated to each cluster of chemical as the spatial pattern is driven by a specific component of the overall removal rate. The comparison between MAPPE and USEtox removal rates from air shows that for 14 out of 34 chemicals within the test set, USEtox values are close to the median of the results of MAPPE. For 11 out of 34, USEtox underestimates the removal rate from air and the results are close to the fifth percentile of MAPPE ones. This is mainly related to how wet/dry deposition and gas exchange are accounted in the two models. Conclusions and outlook   This work has made further progress towards understanding and implementing how to develop a tailored-made guidance for assessing spatial differentiation in LCA. Results on spatial distribution and spatial variability of chemical are presented as a basis for defining patterns of variability and supporting further development of spatial scenarios and archetypes to be used for life cycle impact assessment. This provides insights into whether using generic global default factors is likely to result in high uncertainty depending on the type of chemical, as well as whether pattern-specific factors would reduce the uncertainty. Uncertainties related to spatial differentiation are presented and discussed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0312-8 Authors Serenella Sala, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy Dimitar Marinov, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy David Pennington, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted on winter wheat, based on real agricultural practices databases, on a sample divided into four production scenarios. The main objectives of this study are (1) to assess the environmental impact of winter wheat, using an LCA covering field practices, and the transport and storage of grain until it is sold to a miller; (2) to use the USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. in Int J Life Cycle Assess 13:532–546, 2008 ) to assess the part of the total freshwater ecotoxicity impact due to pesticide use, its variability among plots, and to identify the active ingredients with the strongest impact; (3) and with the help of fungicide, insecticide, herbicide experts, to identify active ingredients to replace these high-impact pesticides and estimate the effect of such a substitution on total freshwater ecotoxicity. Materials and methods   InVivo (the authors’ company) is a French union of agricultural cooperatives that produces and sells, amongst other products and services, decision-making tools to help farmers manage fertilization and pesticide applications. With the help of cooperatives and with the help of these tools, pedologic, climatologic and agronomic (in particular for fertilization and pesticide applications practices) data can be collected for each agricultural plot of a farm. Results and discussion   The main conclusions of this study are that : (1) when considering freshwater ecotoxicity impacts, pesticide use is predominant on the whole life cycle of winter wheat, (2) there is a huge scattering of the results observed between fields when compared to the low scattering of the results between the four production scenarios, (3) it is feasible, with the USEtox model, to identify the active ingredients with the strongest impact and to potentially decrease this average impact by 50% by substituting only three active ingredients. Conclusions   A further step to improve ecotoxicity assessment in LCA would be to develop a model to better estimate the pesticide emissions pattern on field, taking into account pedo-climatic conditions and farmers’ practices. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0321-7 Authors Amandine Berthoud, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Pauline Maupu, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Camille Huet, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Antoine Poupart, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   High-quality wood production is based on both natural forestry populations and dedicated tree plantations, also mentioned as industrial plantations. The establishment of dedicated plantations needs high-quality seedlings, often grown in a nursery, having specific genetic and morphological features. From seed gathering to final selling, the growth of the seedlings needs human interventions and specific inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, substrates, and capital goods (e.g., pots and greenhouses). All these inputs of course can cause not negligible environmental impacts, due to their production, maintenance, and final disposal. For these reasons, the environmental impact due to seedlings production in a nursery deserves deep analysis to assess the overall impact linked to wood supply chain: it is important that wood products are able to meet high environmental standards. This study is focused on 1- and 2-year-old walnut tree ( Juglans regia L.) seedlings, aimed to high-quality timber production. Materials and methods   Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was adopted according to ISO 14040 standards. As case study, a nursery located in the South of Italy was studied. Both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings were analyzed from the LCA point of view and then compared, adopting 100 seedlings as functional unit. Results and discussion   Three inputs, plastic production, forming, and disposal to landfill, can be identified as the greatest polluters for both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings; for all the impact categories taken into account, their emissions joined always exceeded the 50% of the total amount, reaching values up to 90% (e.g., abiotic depletion, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, and photochemical oxidation). Two-year-old production system needs more inputs than 1-year-old; therefore, its greatest environmental impact was expected, but it is interesting to stress the increasing registered over the second year of growing, which reaches values up to 747% (fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity), most of which is due to polypropylene (mulching cloth, trays, and first of all, the pots). Conclusions   For four out of ten impact categories, polypropylene caused the greatest impact; therefore, interventions in this phase of the production system could be useful to reduce the overall environmental impact. Further investigations regarding the mortality rate for 1- and 2-year-old seedlings (after the plantation) are needed to better compare practical, economic, and environmental aspects. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0323-5 Authors Daniele Cambria, Department of Crop Systems, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, via N. Sauro 85, 85100 Potenza, Italy Domenico Pierangeli, Department of Crop Systems, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, via N. Sauro 85, 85100 Potenza, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There is an increasing interest in the assessment and comparison of the environmental impacts of consumer products. Schemes such as Grenelle de l’Environnement, currently under development in France, aim to assess and communicate the life cycle impacts of consumer products. Freshwater ecotoxicity is one of the impact categories under consideration. This paper presents the results of a comparison of USEtox and critical dilution volume (CDV) approaches for assessing laundry products. Materials and methods   The study focused only on the end-of-life stage, i.e. when the products are discharged after use into a sewage treatment plant and the environment. Two independent case studies were performed, in parallel, on three laundry product formats: powder, dilute liquid and concentrated liquid. For the USEtox assessment, new characterization factors (ChF) were calculated for all ingredients. Results and discussion   The relative ranking of the laundry product formats was consistent across the two studies but not with the two methods. The dilute liquid format had the highest ecotoxicological impact potential with the CDV method, whereas the powder format was ranked highest with the USEtox method. A comparison was also made between published USEtox factors and those used in this work, suggesting that the published ones should be seen primarily as screening level values. Conclusions   While risk assessment is the recommended method for evaluating the safety of chemicals, the potential use of the CDV and USEtox methods for ranking products on their environmental ecotoxicity profile was evaluated. The two methods showed a lack of agreement, which can be attributed to their different conceptual approaches. The lack of concurrence between the methods raises the issue of whether either method is suitable for environmental product labelling. In addition, the current USEtox database does not cover many laundry ingredients, and furthermore, the USEtox method does not satisfactorily address inorganic chemicals, which are important ingredients in laundry products. The calculation of additional or revised ChFs for USEtox is a time-consuming task. In comparison, the CDV method covers most laundry ingredients, but its lack of comprehensive environmental fate modelling is an inherent weakness. A common limitation for both methods is the level of uncertainty in the impact scores, which can make it difficult to identify statistically significant differences between product scores. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0318-2 Authors Gert Van Hoof, Procter & Gamble, Environmental Stewardship Organisation, BIC, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Diederik Schowanek, Procter & Gamble, Environmental Stewardship Organisation, BIC, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Helen Franceschini, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ UK Ivan Muñoz, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: A bright future for addressing chemical emissions in life cycle assessment Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0320-8 Authors Michael Z. Hauschild, DTU Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Recently, the Thai government has been advancing the expanded use of biomass as an alternative source of energy substituting it for the fossil fuels that have been shown to be harmful to the environment. Rice husk, one of the main sources of biomass in Thailand, has already been used as an energy source in many different applications and has been successful in reducing the consumption of fossil fuels. At present (2011), the main use of rice husk in Thailand is as fuel to generate electricity. However, rice husk can potentially be used to produce other forms of energy such as cellulosic ethanol. This paper compares the environmental performance of the current main use of rice husk for energy purposes in the Thai context, i.e., for electricity generation with the prospective use, i.e., for cellulosic ethanol production. The results from this study will identify the more environmentally friendly option for use of rice husk for energy purposes. Materials and methods   To determine the more environmentally friendly rice husk use option, that being the option that showed the greatest reduction of environmental impacts, the environmental impacts of the two selected rice husk use options were compared with the environmental impacts of their conventional energy production processes using the life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA software package SimaPro 7.1.6 was used to assist in the analysis of the environmental impacts, with the impact assessment method ReCiPe 2008. The system boundary of the study was expanded to take into consideration the effects caused by the consumption of coproducts generated within the two rice husk options. To make the options comparable, the functional units defined for both options were based on processing 1,000 tonnes of rice husk in both rice husk use systems studied. Results   Based on the available data and assumptions made for this study, the results show that the use of rice husk in both electricity and cellulosic ethanol options had a significant effect in reducing the impacts on fossil fuel depletion and climate change, when compared with the conventional processes. However, the use of rice husk in both options caused a slightly higher impact on particulate matter formation than the conventional processes. The option of using rice husk to generate electricity was preferred over the option of using rice husk as a feedstock to produce cellulosic ethanol for all other impact categories analysed, except particulate matter formation, marine eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation and freshwater ecotoxicity. In addition, it was found that using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol caused a considerably greater impact on human toxicity than its conventional product. Discussion   The environmental benefits gained by using rice husk depend on the materials that rice husk is replacing. This means that the reduction of environmental impact depends upon the use of the rice husk. Conclusions   Overall, the option of using rice husk to generate electricity shows benefits over the option of using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol for most impact categories analysed. However, the cellulosic ethanol option is better than the electricity option in terms of particulate matter formation, marine eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation and freshwater ecotoxicity. Recommendations and perspectives   In the short run, the option of using rice husk to generate electricity is more environmentally friendly than the option of using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol. However, if rice husk is to be used for electricity generation, the ash generated in power plants should be sent out to be used in other industries. It should not be disposed of in landfills as it causes greater impacts than other ash use options. In the time of oil shortages, rice husk should be considered for use as a feedstock to produce cellulosic ethanol for use as a substitute for petrol to help reduce the dependency of oil importation for Thailand. However, the production process of cellulosic ethanol should be improved to help increase efficiency in reducing the environmental impacts in other impact categories. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0293-7 Authors Jittima Prasara-A, Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham, 44000 Thailand Tim Grant, Centre for Design, RMIT University, City Campus, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As impact assessment methods for water use in LCA evolve, so must inventory methods. Water categories that consider water quality must be defined within life cycle inventory. The method presented here aims to establish water categories by source, quality parameter and user. Materials and methods   Water users were first identified based on their water quality requirements. A list of parameters was then defined, and thresholds for these parameters were determined for each user. The thresholds were based on international standards, country regulations, recommendations and industry standards. Three different water sources were selected: surface water (including seawater), groundwater and rainwater. Based on the quality and water sources, categories were created by grouping user requirements according to the level of microbial or toxic contamination that the user can tolerate (high, medium or low). Results and discussion   Seventeen water categories were created: eight for surface water, eight for groundwater and one for rainwater. Each category was defined according to 136 quality parameters (11 conventional parameters, 38 specific inorganic contaminants and 87 specific organic contaminants) and the users for which it can be of use. Conclusions   A set of elementary flows is proposed in order to support a water inventory method oriented towards functionality. This can be used to assess potential water use impacts caused by a loss of functionality for human users. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0300-z Authors Anne-Marie Boulay, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Christian Bouchard, Department of Civil Engineering, Université Laval, 1065, av. de la Médecine Québec, (Québec), G1V 0A6 Canada Cecile Bulle, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Louise Deschênes, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   In the context of environmental life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is one of the central issues with respect to modelling and methodological data collection. The thesis described in this paper focusses on the assessment of toxicity-related impacts, and on the collection of normalisation data. A view on the complementary roles of LCA toxicity assessment on the one hand and human and environmental risk assessment (HERA) on the other is presented, and the global, spatially differentiated LCA toxicity assessment model GLOBOX for the assessment of organics and metals is described. Normalisation factors for the year 2000 are calculated on a global as well as on a European level. Goal   Adding to the reliability and accuracy of LCIA takes a central place. A global coverage, spatial differentiation, and a distinction between potential and actual impacts are considered as important aspects in this context. Structure   The thesis consists of seven chapters. The chapters 1 and 7 are a general introduction and discussion, respectively. The chapters 2 and 3 form a theoretical basis, focussing on the relationship between LCA toxicity assessment and HERA, and their respective roles in environmental protection. In chapters 4 and 5, the newly developed software model GLOBOX is described, along with conclusions, drawn from an analysis of the results of the model for the substance nitrobenzene. Chapter 6 describes a practical update of LCA normalisation for all LCA impact categories. Conclusion   LCA toxicity assessment and HERA are distinct tools with different goals and outputs, but with an overlap with respect to environmental fate and human intake calculation. Although they cannot be merged, it is proposed to combine them in a common software model, which would offer harmonised results with respect to both types of outputs. Existing multimedia fate and exposure models form a useful basis, but to be applicable in LCA, they should combine global coverage with spatial differentiation, and they should allow for the assessment of metal emissions. The GLOBOX model offers this combination of features. At the level of separate countries and seas, spatial differentiation of environmental and human exposure characteristics turns out to show large differences between regions with respect to the toxic impacts, calculated to result from a certain emission of the test substance nitrobenzene. Finally, the GLOBOX model demonstrates that it is possible not only in HERA, but also in LCIA, to assess actual environmental impacts, along with the potential impacts on which LCA traditionally focuses. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-010-0247-5 Authors Anneke Wegener Sleeswijk, Leiden University, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Information constitutes one of the main barriers for applying life cycle assessment (LCA) due to complexity and need for great amounts of it. However, most of the parameters that determine the data are defined early in the product development process. Knuckle boom cranes constitute a complex product which poses a particularly pressing need for simplification. This paper models the LCA inventory information out of design parameters. The paper also presents a tool implementing this. Materials and methods   To develop the parametric model, a three-step approach is followed. In the first step, knuckle boom crane designers of an international manufacturer are asked to point out key design parameters. An LCA is then conducted for a representative crane of the same manufacturer. Interdependencies between design parameters and inventories are analyzed. Design parameters influencing the LCA results are defined as primary parameters. Parameters through which it is possible to calculate the LCA inventory are defined as secondary parameters. The relation between primary and secondary parameters is analyzed. Indicators are developed for comparison, and the validity of this parametric model is checked by analyzing six more cranes, different in size and performance. Results and discussion   The parametric model presented in this paper contains 13 primary parameters. Their link to secondary parameters and inventory data is through formulas derived from existing documentation, physical interdependencies, or statistical data. To integrate this model in the design workflow, it is embedded into a software tool. Designers input the primary parameters, and the tool allows visualization and benchmarking of environmental impact results. Three indicators related to weight and environmental performance are defined, as well as the means to benchmark in relative terms. The model diverges in never more than 4% for six additional cranes analyzed. Conclusions   Through the parametric model, a rigorous estimation of the environmental profile of a crane can already be assessed in an early point of the product development process. Results can be used to define targets for design decisions based on the best-performing products. Recommendations and perspectives   The statistics-based estimations carried out by the tool can be further improved, getting a wider range of cranes involved. Differences between these products can increase the understanding of the effect of technology choices in the final environmental impact of the product. This may become particularly useful in early design decisions. The potentials of this parametric approach can also be extended to other types of products. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0280-z Authors Hesamedin Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi, Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Engineering Design, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria Daniel Collado-Ruiz, Integration of Design & Environmental Assessment, Universidad, Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The interest in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies has increased over the years, and one of the main ways of disseminating these studies is through the publication of articles in scientific journals. Coauthorship relations form a social network where it is possible to identify how research is organized and structured in a specific field of knowledge. This paper aims to show the spread of these studies and the configuration of a collaboration network based on coauthorship relations between researchers of LCA considering some properties of social networks. Methods   The research was based on a bibliometric approach of 1,386 articles related to LCA and published in journals indexed in the ISI/Web of Science until 2008. A free software, Pajek, which has been largely used for the representation and analysis of social networks, was employed in this work. The properties of social networks analyzed in this study were power law, degrees of separation, giant component, and clustering. Results and discussion   The research showed a social network formed by 2,598 authors from 60 countries, 88% of coauthored articles, a mean of 1.87 authors per article; the distribution of articles per author follows a power law ( f ( z ) = 2,134.3 ×  z −2.544 ) with a high regression coefficient ( R 2  = 0.9704), a degree of separation of 6.5, a giant component embracing 37% of the authors, and a clustering coefficient of 0.75. The LCA coauthorship network has properties following power law patterns similar to other nets such as WWW. The community forms a giant component which is still small, but which, nevertheless, might experience considerable growth in the near future. The average distance between authors follows the small-world hypothesis. The clustering degree was also coherent with other scientific communities. Conclusions   In spite of being an area with less than 20 years of publications registered in the ISI/Web of Science, LCA is now experiencing fast dissemination involving a large number of articles, authors, and institutions. The LCA’s coauthorship network can be characterized as a scientific community with properties verified in other networks of more consolidated academic collaboration. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0290-x Authors Cristina Gomes de Souza, CEFET-RJ, Production Engineering Department—DEPRO/PPTEC, Av. Maracanã, 229-Bl. E, Rio de Janeiro, 20271-110 Brazil Rafael Garcia Barbastefano, CEFET-RJ, Production Engineering Department—DEPRO/PPTEC, Av. Maracanã, 229-Bl. E, Rio de Janeiro, 20271-110 Brazil Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   When performing a life cycle assessment (LCA), the LCA practitioner faces the need to express the characterized results in a form suitable for the final interpretation. This can be done using normalization against some common reference impact—the normalization references—which require regular updates. The study presents updated sets of normalization inventories, normalization references for the EDIP97/EDIP2003 methodology and guidance on their consistent use in practice. Materials and methods   The base year of the inventory is 2004; the geographical scope for the non-global impacts is limited to Europe. The emission inventory was collected from different publicly available databases and monitoring bodies. Where necessary, gaps were filled using extrapolations. A new approach for inventorizing specific groups of substances—non-methane volatile organic compounds and pesticides—was also developed. The resulting inventory was combined with the most updated sets of characterization factors for each impact category in the EDIP methodologies. Results and discussion   Normalization references are provided for global and non-global impact categories for the year 2004, and causes of variations compared to previous versions are identified. For the non-toxic impact categories, they mainly reflect demographic evolution or change in emission intensities. For the toxic impact categories, they are strongly dependent on improvements in the characterization models as well as on the inventory analysis. Differentiation of substance groups into individual substance emissions is an important source, which leads to identification of inconsistencies in the current practice and guidance to ensure compatibility between LCI and LCIA. Uncertainties are not quantified but are mainly expected to lie in the toxic substance inventories, which are known not to encompass all potentially harmful chemicals released in Europe, e.g. omitting some toxic metals. Conclusions   The present study provides the most updated set of publicly available normalization references for the EDIP methodology and emission inventories for Europe that may also serve for the calculation of normalization references for other impact categories. It is believed to be the best estimate available for Europe and is thus recommended for use along with the guidance provided in this study. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0278-6 Authors Alexis Laurent, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Stig Irving Olsen, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Michael Zwicky Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The impact assessment of chemical compounds in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) and Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) requires a vast amount of data on the properties of the chemical compounds being assessed. The purpose of the present study is to explore statistical options for reduction of the data demand associated with characterisation of chemical emissions in LCIA and ERA. Materials and methods   Based on a USEtox™ characterisation factor set consisting of 3,073 data records, multi-dimensional bilinear models for emission compartment specific fate characterisation of chemical emissions were derived by application of Partial Least Squares Regression. Two sets of meta-models were derived having 63% and 75% of the minimum data demand of the full USEtox™ characterisation model. The meta-models were derived by grouping the dependent variables, the fate factors obtained from the USEtox™ data set and then selecting the independent chemical input parameters from the minimum data set, needed for characterisation in USEtox™, according to general availability, importance and relevance for fate factor prediction. Results and discussion   Each approach (63% and 75% of the minimum data set needed for characterisation in USEtox™) yielded 66 meta-models. In general, good correlation was obtained between the observed fate factors (those fate factors included in the USEtox™ data set) and the predicted fate factors (those fate factors obtained by the meta-models), and the validation regression coefficients were all in the range ( R 2  = 0.41–0.96). The lower end of the regression coefficient range represents those few emission scenarios were the selected independent variables did not contain appropriate information. Hence, most meta-models yielded fate factors in good correlation with the observed fate factors and yielded correlation coefficients in the higher end of the range during validation. In general, the more data-demanding approach yielded the largest regression coefficients. Conclusions   The applied statistical approach illustrates that it is possible to derive meta-models from full fate and exposure models and that it is also possible to tailor the data demand of these meta-models according to various data and emission preferences. The results obtained in the study reveal that not all emission scenarios included in USEtox™ are exploiting the minimum data set equally and the minimum data set may thus in many cases contain underused data. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0281-y Authors Morten Birkved, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 2800 Denmark Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RA The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Environmental life-cycle costing: a code of practice Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0287-5 Authors Thomas E. Swarr, Sustainability By Design, LLC, 8 Shultas Pl, Hartford, CT 06114, USA David Hunkeler, AQUA+TECH Specialties S.A, Chemin du Chalet-du-Bac 4, CH-1283 La Plaine, CP 28 Geneva, Switzerland Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Hanna-Leena Pesonen, University of Jyväskylä, School of Business and Economics, P.O. Box 35, 40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstrasse 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Alan C. Brent, School of Public Leadership, Sustainability Institute, Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch University, 7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa Robert Pagan, Geography, Planning and Environmental Management, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The cities merit special attention in global warming since they produce up to 80% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Even though this has been widely acknowledged, only few papers exist that have studied cities holistically from a demand, i.e., consumption, perspective. The study presents a detailed analysis of the carbon footprint of two metropolitan cities from a consumption perspective. With the analysis of consumer carbon footprints (carbon consumption), the distribution of emissions in the key source categories is presented and compared. Materials and methods   The study utilizes Finnish consumer survey data by cities, regional emission data for key processes, and general emission data to produce a hybrid LCA model for a holistic assessment of city-level greenhouse gas emissions from the consumption perspective. Results and discussion   The study results showed the carbon consumption to be 13.2 t CO2e per person in Helsinki with a 17,400 € annual consumption expenditure and 10.3 t CO2e per person in Porvoo with a 15,900 € annual consumption expenditure, respectively. The dominant carbon sources for metropolitan living are heat and electricity, building and property, private driving, and services. Within the cities, some significant differences were found. The carbon emissions from energy consumption are 4.5 t CO2e for an average consumer in Helsinki, whereas an average consumer in Porvoo only causes 2.0 t CO2e due to the cleaner energy production in Porvoo. On the other hand, private driving causes 2.0 t CO2e in Porvoo, but only 1.3 t in Helsinki. The overall trip generation in Helsinki is only half of that in Porvoo, and also, the usage of public transport is at a substantially higher level in Helsinki. The current results contradict interestingly some earlier studies in finding that the theoretical carbon-reducing influence of city density is overridden with other factors, such as the type of energy production, energy efficiency of the housing stock, and increased use of services. In our study, Helsinki represents a metropolitan area with a denser structure and a more efficient public transport system, but still consuming around 25% more carbon emissions than the other city in the metropolitan area, Porvoo. The sensitivity analysis showed that even with the normalization of the key parameters between the two cities, the main finding still holds. Conclusions   The evaluation of the carbon footprint of cities from the consumption perspective, instead of a more traditional production perspective, seems to offer an interesting new insight into the carbon footprints of the cities. It identifies similar key sources of carbon as production-oriented studies but further emphasizes the significance of the utilized services in the carbon footprint evaluations. In the future, the carbon footprint of services, especially in the service-intensive economies and cities that tend to outsource their manufacturing and carbon emissions, should be further examined since they cause an ever increasing proportion of the carbon consumption of consumers. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0289-3 Authors Jukka Heinonen, Real Estate Business, Aalto University School of Engineering, P.O. Box 11200, 00076 Aalto Espoo, Finland Seppo Junnila, Real Estate Business, Aalto University School of Engineering, P.O. Box 11200, 00076 Aalto Espoo, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper investigates different methodologies of handling co-products in life cycle assessment (LCA) or carbon footprint (CF) studies. Co-product handling can have a significant effect on final LCA/CF results, and although there are guidelines on the preferred order for different methods for handling co-products, no agreed understanding on applicable methods is available. In the present study, the greenhouse gases (GHG) associated with the production of 1 kg of energy-corrected milk (ECM) at farm gate is investigated considering co-product handling. Materials and methods   Two different milk production systems were used as case studies in the investigation of the effect of applying different methodologies in co-product handling: (1) outdoor grazing system in New Zealand and (2) mainly indoor housing system with a pronounced share of concentrate feed in Sweden. Since the cows produce milk, meat (when slaughtered), calves, manure, hides, etc., the environmental burden (here GHG emissions) must be distributed between these outputs (in the present study no emissions are attributed to hides specifically, or to manure which is recycled on-farm). Different methodologically approaches, (1) system expansion (two cases), (2) physical causality allocation, (3) economic allocation, (4) protein allocation and (5) mass allocation, are applied in the study. Results and discussion   The results show large differences in the final CF number depending on which methodology has been used for accounting co-products. Most evident is that system expansion gives a lower CF for milk than allocation methods. System expansion resulted in 63–76% of GHG emissions attributed directly to milk, while allocation resulted in 85–98%. It is stressed that meat is an important by-product from milk production and that milk and beef production is closely interlinked and therefore needs to be considered in an integrated approach. Conclusions   To obtain valid LCA/CF numbers for milk, it is crucial to account for by-products. Moreover, if CF numbers for milk need to be compared, the same allocation procedure should be applied. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0283-9 Authors Anna Flysjö, Arla Foods amba, Sønderhøj 14, 8260 Viby J, Denmark Christel Cederberg, SIK—The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 5401, 40229 Gothenburg, Sweden Maria Henriksson, Department of Rural Buildings and Animal Husbandry, SLU—Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 86, 23053 Alnarp, Sweden Stewart Ledgard, AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: A capability framework for managing social and environmental concerns Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0274-x Authors Thomas Swarr, Sustainability by Design, LLC, 8 Shultas Pl, Hartford, CT 06114, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In life cycle impact assessment, normalization can be a very effective tool for the life cycle assessment practitioner to interpret results and put them into perspective. The paper presents normalization references for the recently developed USEtox™ model, which aims at calculating globally applicable characterization factors. Normalization references for Europe and North America are determined, and guidance for expansions to other geographical regions is provided. Materials and methods   The base years of the European and North American inventories are 2004 and 2002/2008, respectively. Emission data were extracted from two literature sources referring to each of the considered regions. The inventory for North America was adapted to avoid extrapolation of data from other regions and thus bring consistency with the emission inventory for Europe. In spite of different inventory assumptions, a similar coverage of substances was obtained for both regions with relatively high representation of metals and a number of organic compounds, mainly consisting of non-methane volatile organic compounds and pesticides. The two inventory sets were eventually characterized with the characterization factors (CFs) calculated with the version 1.0 of the USEtox™ model and substance database; both interim and recommended CFs were used. Results and discussion   Normalization references are provided for Europe and North America for the three USEtox™ toxic impact categories; ratios between the normalization references for the two regions in all cases lie below a factor of 3. Causes for the observed discrepancies are found to be different inventory assumptions as well as variations in the type and intensity of actual emissions between the two regions. Additional causes are inventories that only cover a limited number of substances, and the characterization model, which can only provide interim factors for certain substances like metal compounds. Based on these causes and on a review of recent studies on normalization references, a list of substances to be prioritized when collecting emission data was built, demonstrating the importance of metals. Conclusions   In the perspective of further refining the presented normalization references and of calculating new references for other regions, guidance is provided including a list of priority substances that should be considered when building emission inventories for normalization references. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0285-7 Authors Alexis Laurent, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Anne Lautier, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, 2900 Édouard-Montpetit, Stn. Centre-ville, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Stig I. Olsen, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: 9th International Conference on EcoBalance (9th ICEB)—towards and beyond 2020, November 9–12, 2010, Tokyo, Japan Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0282-x Authors Keisuke Nansai, Research Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan Yuki Kudoh, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan Hiroki Hondo, Chair of the Executive Committee of the 9th ICEB, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan Kiyotada Hayashi, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan Kazuyo Matsubae, Tohoku University, Tohoku, Japan Kenichi Nakajima, Research Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan Shinsuke Murakami, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Masaharu Motoshita, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan Seiji Hashimoto, Research Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan Minako Hara, NTT Energy and Environment Systems Laboratories, Kanagawa, Japan Michiyasu Nakajima, Kansai University, Kansai, Japan Rokuta Inaba, Research Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan Yasunari Matsuno, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Yoshikazu Shinohara, National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), Tsukuba, Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    The Polish Centre for life cycle assessment (LCA) is a non-profit organization founded in 2009 following the initiative of people involved in Polish scientific and R&D centers dealing with LCA. The role, mission as well structure and organization of PCLCA have been presented. Moreover, the current state of LCA implementation in Poland has been mentioned. However, LCA has been mainly used for scientific research less by industry and business. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0276-8 Authors Joanna Kulczycka, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31–261 Cracow, Poland Przemysław Kurczewski, Faculty of Working Machines and Transportation, Poznan University of Technology, 60–965 Poznan, Poland Jędrzej Kasprzak, Faculty of Working Machines and Transportation, Poznan University of Technology, 60–965 Poznan, Poland Anna Lewandowska, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, 61–875 Poznan, Poland Robert Lewicki, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, 61–875 Poznan, Poland Agata Witczak, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, 61–875 Poznan, Poland Joanna Witczak, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, 61–875 Poznan, Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Freshwater use and consumption is of high environmental concern. While research has primarily focused on agricultural water use, industrial water use has recently become more prominent. Because most industries employ relatively low amounts of water, our study focuses on electricity production, which is involved in almost all economic activities and has a considerable share of the global water consumption. Materials and methods   Water consumption data for different power production technologies was calculated from literature. Due to the global importance of hydropower and the high variability of its specific water consumption, a climate-dependent estimation scheme for water consumption in hydroelectric generation was derived. Applying national power production mixes, we analyzed water consumption and related environmental damage of the average power production for all countries. For the European and North American countries, we further modeled electricity trade to assess the electricity market mix and the power-consumption related environmental damages. Using the Eco-indicator 99 single-score and compatible freshwater consumption damage assessments, the contribution of water consumption to the total environmental impact was quantified. Results and discussion   Water consumption dominates the environmental damage of hydropower, but is generally negligible for fossil thermal, nuclear, and alternative power production. However, as the impact of water consumption has high regional variation, it can be relevant for many power technologies in water-scarce areas. The variability among country production mixes is substantial, both from a water consumption and overall environmental impact perspective. The difference between electricity production and market mixes is negligible for most countries, especially for big countries such as the USA. In Europe, where intensive international electricity trade exists, the difference is more significant. When contrasted with the relatively high uncertainties in water consumption figures particularly for hydropower, the additional error from using production mixes instead of market mixes is rather small. Conclusions   Power production is one of the major global water consumers and involved in life cycles of almost any human activity. Covering the water-consumption-related environmental damage of power generation closes one important gap in life cycle assessment and also improves data availability for the emerging field of water footprints. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0284-8 Authors Stephan Pfister, ETH Zurich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland Dominik Saner, ETH Zurich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland Annette Koehler, ETH Zurich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this study has been to investigate the effect of different allocation methods on life cycle assessment (LCA) results of products derived from line-caught cod and the consequences of applying these methods considering the main aims of this case study. These aims were for internal improvement work and communication of results to the market. Methods   Standard LCA methodology was applied. Mass allocation, economic allocation, a novel hybrid allocation and gross energy content allocation have been tested on a case study, and the results are discussed. In the case study, allocation problems in the studied case arose in the fishing and processing stages. Avoidance of allocation by splitting of processes, biological causality and system expansion or the avoided product approach was deemed to be not feasible. Results and discussion   Economic allocation gave a much larger spread of impacts between the different products than mass allocation, especially for processing residue, due to large price differences. Hybrid allocation gave impacts in between mass and economic allocation because the set factors give a higher value for products that are for human consumption. Energy allocation gave results close to mass allocation because the energy content is quite similar in different species and products. Economic allocation is sensitive to price changes, the others are not. When used for evaluating environmental performance improvement measures that change the relative yields for human consumption and other purposes, the different methods used reflected very different results. When used in communication to the market, the different allocation methods yield results that could lead to different behaviours by market actors. Conclusions   The different allocation methods gave very different results for the studied products; hence in order to achieve comparability between products, the same method must be used in all the cases. Different allocation methods might be appropriate for different purposes. For external communication to the market, mass allocation might be the preferred method in most cases. For internal improvement work, both economic and mass allocation could be used, but economic allocation might be the best alternative. The comparability of LCA results of products from wild-caught fish is limited, due to the lack of an agreed standard method. It is recommended to consider the different applications of the results when developing such a method. Different purposes might require different methodological choices, e.g. allocation methodology. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0288-4 Authors Erik Svanes, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Mie Vold, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Ole Jørgen Hanssen, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   Tank-to-Wheels (TtW) makes the largest contribution to the total Well-to-Wheels (WtW) energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from fossil-derived transportation fuels. The most commonly adopted TtW methodologies to obtain vehicle energy consumption, energy efficiency, and GHG emissions used to date all have significant limitations. A new TtW methodology, which combines micro-scale virtual vehicle simulation with macro-scale fleet modeling, is proposed in this paper. The models capabilities are demonstrated using a case study based on data from the passenger car sector in Great Britain. Methods   A simplified internal combustion engine model was developed in-house to simulate engine behaviors across a wide range of engine capacities and technologies. Vehicle simulation was then carried out using the efficiency map output by the simplified engine model for any given gasoline or diesel engine; the simulation was validated for 37 vehicles available on the UK market in terms of their vehicle-certification fuel consumption, with a discrepancy generally within 3%. Real-world fleet and driving data from the Great Britain’s car fleet was extracted from the Transport Statistics Great Britain (TSGB) database between 2001 and 2007TSGB 2001–2007 . A virtual fleet was constructed with the validated virtual vehicles to represent the real-world passenger car fleet in terms of its composition and operating characteristics. This fleet model was shown to match the real-world fleet-averaged fuel consumption within 3% for the gasoline fleet and within 6% for the diesel fleet. Finally, several scenarios were analyzed using the validated fleet model, covering a projection for 2008, driving pattern, lubrication, and fuel. The vehicle-to-vehicle variation was found to be significant in some scenarios, indicating that a fleet-based methodology would be more rigorous and flexible. Discussion   Energy consumption and CO 2 emission figures from previous, well-recognized Europe-oriented studies (e.g., the 2008 JRC/EUCAR/CONCAWE study) were significantly lower than the TSGB real-world results based on the new TtW methodology. It is apparent that using a single vehicle to represent the whole fleet could be misleading; in particular, the relative energy efficiency and CO 2 emission of diesel over gasoline cars might follow a different trend with time for the real-world fleet from that shown in previous studies. Conclusions   Future WtW studies can benefit from the modeling toolset and methodology reported herein in a number of ways: •   TtW analysis can be carried out   thoroughly—on a fleet basis   independently—involving less proprietary information   impartially—not concentrating on a specific vehicle model   and flexibly—allowing detailed analysis of physics, chemistry, and vehicle component performance. •   When comparing different WtW energy pathways, e.g., gasoline vs. diesel passenger cars or natural gas vs. bio-diesel fuelled busses, the absolute aggregate fleet impact can be investigated—conclusions based on a single vehicle may overlook vehicle-to-vehicle variations and potentially mislead policy making. •   Using the virtual fleet database as a platform, a large number of scenarios can be analyzed and detailed impact of fuels properties, vehicle technologies and driving patterns on WtW results investigated. The models will evolve in time together with the researchers’ knowledge base and data base. Recommendations and perspectives   The virtual engine/vehicle/fleet model developed in this work can readily be expanded and upgraded in the future, in terms of model details, coverage, and data quality. The methodology itself is generically applicable to any defined fleet (passenger cars, commercial vehicles, etc.) with any operating characteristics at any given timeframe from any geographic region. Various subjects and their implications for fleet energy consumption and GHG emissions could be studied including, but not restricted to, the following: •   Fuels—injector/valve cleanliness, anti-knock properties, dieselization, bio-components, gaseous fuels etc. •   Engine/vehicle technology—friction and weight reduction, advanced combustion, hybridization etc. •   Driving pattern—vehicle loading, gear-shifting schedule, tire maintenance, cold start, etc. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0268-8 Authors Hongrui Ma, Shell Global Solutions (UK), Shell Technology Centre Thornton, P.O. Box 1, Chester, CH1 3SH UK Xavier Riera-Palou, Shell Global Solutions (UK), Shell Technology Centre Thornton, P.O. Box 1, Chester, CH1 3SH UK Andrew Harrison, Shell Global Solutions (UK), Shell Technology Centre Thornton, P.O. Box 1, Chester, CH1 3SH UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose The area of oil palm plantations in Malaysia is expanding by approximately 0.14 million hectare per year, and with the increasing demand for palm oil worldwide, there is no sign of the expansions slowing down. This study aims to identify the greenhouse gas emissions associated with land conversion to oil palm, in a life cycle perspective. Methods LCA methodology is applied to existing land use change data. The assessment includes the issue of temporary carbon storage in the plantations. Through quantification of emissions from state forest reserve and rubber plantation conversions, the average Malaysian palm oil-related land use changes are calculated. Results and discussion The results show that there are high emissions associated with the conversion of Malaysian state forest reserve to oil palm, whereas the conversion of rubber leaves a less significant carbon debt when indirect land use change is not included. Looking at the average Malaysian land use changes associated with oil palm shows that land use change emissions are responsible for approximately half of the total conventional biodiesel production emissions. The sensitivity analysis shows that the results could be significantly influenced by data variations in indirect land use changes, peat soils, and state forest reserve carbon stock. Conclusions The relatively extensive conversions of the state forest reserve must be reversed and preferably with a shift toward conversion of degraded land in order for the average Malaysian land use changes to have less impact on the production life cycle of palm oil and biodiesel.

Description: Purpose Numerous publications in the last years stressed the growing importance of nanotechnology in our society, highlighting both positive as well as in the negative topics. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is amongst the most established and best-developed tool in the area of product-related assessment. In order to use this tool in the area of nanotechnology, clear rules of how emissions of nanomaterials should be taken into account on the level of life cycle inventory (LCI) modelling are required—i.e. what elements and properties need to be reported for an emission of a nanomaterial. The objective of this paper is to describe such a framework for an adequate and comprehensive integration of releases of nanomaterials. Methods With a three-step method, additional properties are identified that are necessary for an adequate integration of releases of nanomaterials into LCA studies. Result and discussion In the first step, a comprehensive characterisation of the release of a nanomaterial is compiled—based on reviewing scientific publications, results from expert workshops and publications from public authorities and international organisations. In the second step, this comprehensive overview is refined to a list containing only those properties that are effectively relevant for LCA studies—i.e. properties that influence the impacts in the areas of human toxicity and ecotoxicity, respectively. For this, an academic approach is combined with a second, more practical, view point, resulting together in a prioritisation of this list of properties. Finally, in a third step, these findings are translated into the LCA language—by showing how such additional properties could be integrated into the current LCA data formats for a broader use by the LCA community. Conclusions As a compromise between scholarly knowledge and the (toxicological) reality, this paper presents a clear proposal of an LCI modelling framework for the integration of releases of nanomaterials in LCA studies. However, only the broad testing of this framework in various situations will show if the suggested simplifications and reductions keep the characterisation of releases of nanomaterials specific enough and/or if assessment is accurate enough. Therefore, a next step has to come from the impact assessment, by the development of characterisation factors as a function of size and shape of such releases.

Description: Purpose This study aims to compare the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of two cellulosic bioenergy pathways (i.e., bioethanol and bioelectricity) using different references and functional units. It also aims to address uncertainties associated with a comparative life cycle analysis (LCA) for the two bioenergy pathways. Methods We develop a stochastic, comparative life cycle GHG analysis model for a switchgrass-based bioenergy system. Life cycle GHG offsets of the biofuel and bioelectricity pathways for cellulosic bioenergy are compared. The reference system for bioethanol is the equivalent amount of gasoline to provide the same transportation utility (e.g., vehicle driving for certain distance) as bioethanol does. We use multiple reference systems for bioelectricity, including the average US grid, regional grid in the USA according to the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), and average coal-fired power generation, on the basis of providing the same transportation utility. The functional unit is one unit of energy content (MJ). GHG offsets of bioethanol and bioelectricity relative to reference systems are compared in both grams carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare of land per year (g CO 2 -eq/ha-yr) and grams carbon dioxide equivalents per vehicle kilometer traveled (g CO 2 -eq/km). For the latter, we include vehicle cycle to make the comparison meaningful. To address uncertainty and variability, we derive life cycle GHG emissions based on probability distributions of individual parameters representing various unit processes in the life cycle of bioenergy pathways. Results and discussion Our results show the choice of reference system and functional unit significantly changes the competition between switchgrass-based bioethanol and bioelectricity. In particular, our results show that the bioethanol pathway produces more life cycle GHG emissions than the bioelectricity pathway on a per unit energy content or a per unit area of crop land basis. However, the bioethanol pathway can offer more GHG offsets than the bioelectricity pathway on a per vehicle kilometer traveled basis when using bioethanol and bioelectricity for vehicle operation. Given the current energy mix of regional grids, bioethanol can potentially offset more GHG emissions than bioelectricity in all grid regions of the USA. Conclusions The reference and functional unit can change bioenergy pathway choices. The comparative LCA of bioenergy systems is most useful for decision support only when it is spatially explicit to address regional specifics and differences. The difference of GHG offsets from bioethanol and bioelectricity will change as the grid evolves. When the grids get cleaner over time, the favorability of bioethanol for GHG offsets increases.

Description: Purpose This article is the first of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of life cycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED) which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute—a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for Life Cycle Assessment (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for improvement and promotion of the products and services on offer. These publications are a voice in the discussion on the opportunities and pertinence of implementing life cycle thinking (LCT) in small- and medium-sized enterprises and an attempt to identify potential barriers arising from specific characteristics of SMEs which could hinder or even prevent the effective implementation of life cycle techniques. Part 1 presents the situation of SMEs in Poland, general objectives of the project and organisation of the survey process. Methods It was decided to carry out research on the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and life cycle costing (LCC) in organisations that had received financial support for the implementation of life cycle techniques. Financial constraints, which might potentially be a reason for limited interest in LC techniques among SMEs in Poland, were taken into account. Thus, financial support provided an opportunity for the project to obtain information from a wide range of companies, not only from those companies that were particularly aware of the benefits of LC techniques or had a very good financial situation. Research based on the method of individual in-depth interviews was preceded by an analysis of literature showing the status of SMEs in Poland. Given the results, the project objectives were formulated and the ways of conducting the research were defined. Results and discussion The comparison of Polish SMEs with the same category of companies in the EU shows some similarities, such as the percentage of companies engaged in various businesses. The differences are expressed primarily in the financial potential, which in the case of Polish SMEs, is significantly smaller than the average in the EU. In the SME sector, there are less than half as many small businesses in Poland than in the EU. There are, however, many more microbusinesses in Poland. An evaluation of the prevalence of LCA and LCC techniques indicates that they are used by just 3 % of Polish SMEs, which is a very small proportion compared to the more than 50 % of SMEs taking any environmental measures. Information collected on specific details of Polish SMEs was used to identify the target group and develop a survey questionnaire which aimed to audit, among other things, the approach to environmental and economic analyses in the past and the approach to the LCA and/or LCC analyses that were implemented from the point of view of difficulties in their implementation and potential use of the results. Conclusions Part 1 of the series of articles demonstrates a marginal-scale dissemination of life cycle management techniques among Polish SMEs. Companies definitely prefer to introduce relatively simple solutions that do not require specialised knowledge or unnecessary costs, e.g. they introduce energy-saving bulbs and waste segregation. Only a small percentage of companies implement more complex activities, and most commonly, these are medium-sized companies with greater financial and human capital. So what should be done to make SMEs use life cycle techniques more frequently? Is it appropriate to make changes in the methodology and life cycle techniques as such, or should, rather, the incentive for SMEs to use LCT come from outside as a requirement of public institutions or suppliers in a supply chain? Answers to these questions are provided in the research conclusions presented in parts 2 and 3 of the series of articles.