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  • 1
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    High-Pressure Generator of Singlet Oxygen (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: The generation of gaseous singlet oxygen by gas-liquid reaction of chlorine with alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide in spray form was studied experimentally on the originally designed device with a fast separation of reacted liquid from gas. The singlet oxygen yield, residual chlorine, and water vapor content in gas were measured under different experimental conditions of the centrifugal spray singlet oxygen generator (CSSOG) using nitrogen as a dilution gas. A characteristic feature of the CSSOG is a high utilization of the chemicals and production of singlet oxygen at a very high total pressure even near the atmospheric pressure. This generator developed originally for driving a chemical oxygen-iodine laser (COIL) could be employed also as an efficient singlet oxygen source in material science, chemical synthesis, and others. A centrifugal spray generator of singlet oxygen was optimized for operation with nitrogen buffer gas and high total pressure. This generator is able to successfully operate at much higher pressure compared to other types. Due to the very high hydrogen peroxide utilization the consumption of input liquid chemicals is substantially reduced.
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  • 2
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    Continuous Transesterification with Acidic Ionic Liquids as Homogeneous Catalysts (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-11
    Description: Ionic liquids (ILs) are recyclable acid catalysts for transesterification reactions. In the present study, different acidic ILs were examined in this reaction, with special focus on their recyclability. Furthermore, the IL-catalyzed transesterification reaction was realized in continuous operation. A miniplant reactor with technically representative design and operating characteristics was used for this study. The applied rig has a volume of 5 L and an external thermosyphon reboiler. The miniplant reactor can be operated in batch and in continuous mode. ILs functionalized with a sulfonic acid group were found to be the most suitable IL catalysts for the transesterification reactions under investigation. Using these ILs, reaction rates as high as for H 2 SO 4 could be realized. Moreover, the IL catalyst was demonstrated to be active for at least 1000 h of operation time. Ionic liquids are suitable catalysts for acid-catalyzed transesterifications. Acidic ionic liquids were used as recyclable and durable catalysts for this reaction. The performances of the benchmark catalysts were obtained for at least 1000 h of operation in a miniplant reactor, which is representative of industrial processes.
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  • 3
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    Industrial Xylene/Ethylbenzene Isomerization Unit Using a Radial-Flow Reactor and EUO-Type Zeolite (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
    Description: A mathematical model based on 34 days continuous operation of an industrial isomerization unit was developed. The unit involves a radial-flow reactor with a catalyst capable of converting xylenes and ethylbenzene to mixed xylenes. The catalyst contains EU-1 zeolite, platinum, and alumina as binder. Two reactions are considered, i.e., ethylbenzene isomerization and xylene isomerization. The rates are based on the Hougen-Watson model according to the literature. An optimization procedure based on the trust-region-reflective algorithm was carried out in order to obtain new kinetic constants that minimize the difference between the actual and the calculated values. The standard error of the parameters estimated was calculated through the deleted-one Jackknife method. A simplified mathematical model for simulating the reactor operation of an industrial isomerization unit was developed. A relatively new type of catalyst allowed milder conditions to reduce side reactions. The kinetic constants were obtained through an optimization procedure. The model may be applied to simulate larger systems due to its simplicity.
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  • 4
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    Fixed-Bed Multi-Tubular Reactors for Oxidative Dehydrogenation in Ethylene Process (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
    Description: An industrial-scale reactor for ethylene production was modeled using the oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane (ODHE) in a multi-tubular reactor system, examining a variety of parameters affecting reactor performance. The model showed that a double-bed multi-tubular reactor with intermediate air injection scheme was superior to a single-bed design, due to the increased ethylene selectivity while operating under lower oxygen partial pressures. The optimized reactor length for 100 % oxygen conversion was theoretically determined for both reactor designs. The use of a distributed oxygen feed with a limited number of injection points indicated a significant improvement on the reactor performance in terms of ethane conversion and ethylene selectivity. This concept also overcame the reactor runaway temperature problem and enabled operations over a wider range of conditions to obtain enhanced ethylene production. High demands for ethylene call for more efficient reactor designs. This model for the oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane for a Ni-Nb-O mixed-oxide catalyst showed that a double-bed multi-tubular reactor with air injection is superior to a single-bed design, due to an increased ethylene selectivity while operating under lower oxygen partial pressures.
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  • 5
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    Highlights: Chem. Eng. Technol. 10/2013 (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
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  • 6
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    Overview Contents: Chemie Ingenieur Technik 10/2013 (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
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  • 7
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    Cover Chem. Eng. Technol. 10/2013 (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
    Description: Pilot Setup for Dynamically Enhanced Membrane Emulsification This setup allows the production of emulsions with narrow drop size distributions. A disperse liquid phase is pushed through a porous membrane into another immiscible fluid phase. A rotor above the membrane induces laminar shear flow, which detaches the drops from the membrane pores. A narrow shear gap and micro engineered membranes help to maintain good control over drop detachment. The sub pictures show drops detaching from membrane pores (top) at different shear flow conditions acquired in a separate visualization setup. The bottom picture shows a cut through a micro engineered silicon membrane, which was specifically designed and fabricated at ETH Zurich for the emulsification setup. The apparatus was designed and built by the Bühler AG, Uzwil, Switzerland in close collaboration with the ETH Zurich, Switzerland. DOI: 10.1002/ceat.201300256 Drop Detachment from a Micro-Engineered Membrane Surface in a Dynamic Membrane Emulsification Process S. Holzapfel*, E. Rondeau, P. Mühlich, E. J. Windhab* Chem. Eng. Technol. 2013 , 36 (10) , 1785–1794
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  • 8
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    Design of Dispersing Processes Using a Newly Developed Dispermeter (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: Typically, the product fineness in a dispersion process is determined by the strength of the agglomerates and aggregates, the properties of the homogeneous phase and its interaction with the surface of the disperse phase, the stress mechanism itself as well as its intensity and frequency acting on the particles. The objective of this study is to characterize the efficiency of a dispersion process in terms of stress frequency and intensity using a newly developed dispersing machine called dispermeter. This dispersing machine is capable of processing suspensions with a broad range of viscosities. Furthermore, due to highly defined geometries, the rheological behavior of suspensions as an important parameter for processability and suspension stability can be characterized during the dispersion process. By utilizing the rheological properties the dispermeter can be used for the selection of an applicable electrostatic or steric stabilizer for an optimal dispersion process. With the dispermeter two different types of pyrogenic metallic oxide particles, nanosized alumina and silica, are processed. The progress in deagglomeration is monitored by particle size analysis and compared with that in a dissolver. A theoretical process model is used to characterize both processes. Moreover, this model is used to predict the dispersion results obtained in the dissolver. To characterize the rheological properties and dispersion stability as well as the efficiency of a dispersion process in terms of stress frequency and intensity, a new dis-persing machine was developed. A theoretical process model was used to characterize the dispersion process in the dispermeter and in a dissolver. Moreover, this model was used to predict the dispersion results obtained in the dissolver.
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  • 9
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    CFD Study on the Local Mass Transfer Efficiency in the Gas Phase of Structured Packing (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: Visualization of local mass transfer coefficients over the dry surface of corrugated-sheet structured packing is essential for optimizing the existing geometry of structured packing and for improving mass transfer efficiency to develop new structured packing. The local flow patterns between packing sheets and the gas-phase mass transfer coefficient at each point over the surface are illustrated by employing a wall-surface reaction model. Different turbulence models are utilized, i.e., a standard κ-ϵ model and three different low-Re-κ-ϵ models. The numerical calculation results with the Lam-Bremhorst low-Re-κ-ϵ turbulence model is found to agree well with experimental data. There are three similar regions with enhanced mass transfer efficiency in each mass transfer unit cell of structured packing. Local mass transfer coefficients at each point over the dry surface in a symmetric mass transfer unit cell of corrugated-sheet structured packings were determined. Computational fluid dynamics simulation results with a Lam-Bremhorst low-Re-κ-ϵ turbulence model and a wall-surface reaction model corresponded well with previous experimental data.
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  • 10
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    Drying Kinetics Prediction of Solid Waste Using Semi-Empirical and Artificial Neural Network Models (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: The drying process of organic solid waste is investigated, based on an experimental study involving its drying kinetics. The experiments were conducted in a thin-layer fixed-bed dryer under various operational conditions. The problem of selecting the best fit for solid waste moisture content as a function of time is addressed as well, using artificial neural network (ANN) models and four well-known drying kinetics correlations commonly applied to biological materials. According to the statistical analysis employed, the simulations showed good results for the ANN, and the Overhults model provided optimum agreement with experimental data among all other models evaluated. Empirical correlations between the Overhults model parameters and the drying operational conditions using nonlinear regression techniques were determined. The kinetics of the drying process of solid citrus wastes in a thin-layer fixed-bed dryer under different operational conditions is investigated. By means of artificial neural networks and four well-known drying kinetics correlations, the problem of selecting the best fit for solid waste moisture content as a function of time is addressed as well.
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  • 11
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    Encapsulation of Lavandin Essential Oil in Poly-(ϵ-caprolactones) by PGSS Process (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: Lavandin essential oil has been encapsulated in poly-(ϵ-caprolactone) (MW: 4000 g mol –1 ) by means of the particles from gas saturated solutions (PGSS) process. The influence of process conditions, i.e., pre-expansion temperature and pressure, and oil/polymer mass ratio, on the morphology of particles and the efficiency of encapsulation has been analyzed. Spherical particles with particle sizes of 100–700 μm were obtained, with increasing particle sizes and more agglomeration as the oil/polymer ratio was increased. The efficiency of encapsulation was increased by conditions that favored a fast solidification of the polymer shell, including high pre-expansion pressures, reaching efficiencies up to 50 % with oil loads up to 120 mg oil/g particles. Essential oils can be used as natural cattle growth promoters or biocides, but a formulation is required in order to protect the essential oil from evaporation and degradation, and to provide a controlled delivery. The encapsulation of lavandin essential oil in polycaprolactones by a particles from gas saturated solutions (PGSS) process is presented, analyzing the influence of process parameters on the morphology of particles and the efficiency of encapsulation.
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  • 12
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    Nanocrystalline Zeolite Tetraethylammonium-Beta Membrane for Preferential Sorption and Transport of CO2 over N2 (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: CO 2 /N 2 gas separation was performed over a nanocrystalline zeolite tetraethylammonium (TEA)-beta membrane prepared on a stainless-steel porous disc by repeated hydrothermal crystallization. Two to three consecutive hydrothermal syntheses were required to form a membrane comprised of a continuous and compact layer of zeolite beta nanocrystals on the support. The membrane TEA-BEA3 obtained by three consecutive syntheses, in which the membrane from two consecutive syntheses was used as support, exhibited the highest structural order. When the separation experiment was performed over this membrane without applying any external applied pressure, 100 % selectivity of CO 2 over N 2 was observed. The separation was driven by differences in chemical potentials of the molecules generated only by the adsorption-desorption behavior of the gases into the membrane. The novel zeolite TEA-beta membrane provided promising results for the separation of small gas molecules due to the combined influence of diffusion and sorption selectivity. Nanocrystalline zeolite tetraethylammonium (TEA)-beta membranes were prepared by repeated coating of zeolite nanocrystals via hydrothermal crystallization from a colloidal solution over a porous stain-less-steel disc support. When the separation experiment was performed without applying any external pressure, a CO 2 selectivity over N 2 of 100 % could be achieved.
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  • 13
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    A Fully Automated Ad- and Desorption Method for Resin and Solvent Screening (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-06
    Description: Ad- and desorption are common techniques for the purification of natural substances. The main drawback is the tedious experimental procedure for resin and solvent screening. An approach of fully automated batch experiments is presented. In order to fulfill all requirements like automation of flexible dosing of loose resins, handling organic solvents, and providing reproducible conditions, these experiments are performed on a custom-built modular robotic platform. The batch ad- and desorption experiments were fully automated for the determination of essential process parameters like kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamic parameters without the need of manual intervention. Thus, the hands-on time could be significantly reduced by more than 90 % which contributes to improved health and safety outcome by preventing the contact of operators to potentially hazardous materials. A fully automated and highly flexible ad- and desorption method for batch resin, solvent, and condition screening experiments was developed and implemented on a robotic platform, enabling the determination of essential process parameters without manual intervention. The hands-on time was significantly reduced, contributing to improved health and safety outcome for operators.
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  • 14
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    Demonstration of In Situ Radio-Frequency Heating at a Former Industrial Site (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: In situ radio-frequency heating (ISRFH) combined with soil vapor extraction was demonstrated at a contaminated field site of a former hydrotreatment plant in Zeitz near Leipzig. The project was carried out in several phases including cold soil vapor extraction for comparison. During the test, a soil volume of about 300 m 3 was heated to an average temperature of 54 °C. As expected, the extraction rate for hydrocarbons (especially the main contaminant benzene) was markedly enhanced by soil heating. Furthermore, microbial degradation of organic compounds was supported. Although a total amount of approximately 1.4 t of hydrocarbons was removed from the soil, the demonstration project was not aimed at complete remediation of the site. Conditions limiting the extent of cleanup are discussed in detail and conclusions for an efficient application of ISRFH in soil remediation are derived whereas experiences from other sites are also implied. Potential and limitations of the combination of in situ radio-frequency heating (ISRFH) and soil vapor extraction are exemplarily discussed for a demonstration project carried out at a former industrial site. Conditions restricting the extent of cleanup are discussed and conclusions for an efficient application of ISRFH in soil remediation are deduced.
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  • 15
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    Analysis of the Stability of Metal Working Fluid Emulsions by Turbidity Spectra (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-07
    Description: The physical stability of emulsions can be related to changes in the droplet size distribution over time. Stability control of emulsions used as metal working fluids is an important factor for the machining industry due to the decreased performance of aged and broken emulsions. Results of turbidimetric spectra measurements of metal working fluids for process control purposes and emulsion stability monitoring are discussed. Metal working emulsions were artificially destabilized by admixing salts which resulted in droplet coagulation. The destabilization process was investigated by measuring the droplet size distribution and the turbidity spectra over time. The results were evaluated based on quantitative criteria proposed in the literature. The applicability of these criteria to evaluate metal working fluids during machining operations is discussed. The destabilization process of a commercial metal working fluid (MWF) emulsion artificially aged with CaCl 2 was characterized by UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy. The wavelength exponent proved as a quantitative criterion in monitoring of the emulsion destabilization. This simple method can be applied to in situ characterization of MWF quality in machining processes.
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  • 16
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    High-Solid-Content Emulsions of PVC: Scale-Down of an Industrial Process for Enhanced Understanding of Particle Formation Part 2: Preliminary Analysis of Seed Production (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-08
    Description: A scale-down study of an industrial reactor for the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) via an emulsion polymerization process was performed in order to understand the source of batch-to-batch variations in product quality. In Part 2 of this series of three papers, it is demonstrated that a large excess of base is required to control the particle size distribution of the seed process. Although differences exist between the critical micelle concentration and the surface area occupied by a surfactant molecule for linear and branched isomers of the surfactant sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, the characteristics of the molecules from different suppliers were reasonably similar. A scale-down study of an industrial reactor for PVC production by means of emulsion polymerization is presented with the aim to identify the source of batch-to-batch variations in product quality. In Part 2 of this series of papers, the necessity of a large excess of base to control the particle size distribution of the seed process is demonstrated.
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  • 17
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    Removal of SO2 and NOX Using Microwave Swing Adsorption over Activated Carbon Carried Catalyst (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-08
    Description: SO 2 and NO are the main precursors for acid precipitation. Experimental studies on desulfurization and denitrification were carried out using microwave irradiation over activated carbon carried catalyst. The results show that adsorption capacities and removal efficiencies of activated carbon carried Cu-based catalyst were higher than Mn-based or Zn-based ones. The adsorption capacity of SO 2 improved with the increasing moisture in flue gas, but the adsorption capacity of NO had a peak at 6.23 mg g –1 and then began to drop. The desulfurization efficiency increased with O 2 content in flue gas, but no noticeable change of denitrification efficiency was observed from the experimental data. The desulfurization efficiency descended with the increase of moisture in flue gas, while the denitrification efficiency augmented earlier and reached a plateau later with the addition of the water steam. In addition, characterization of activated carbon confirmed that the main active component of Cu-based catalyst is CuO. The addition of a catalyst can improve the removal efficiencies for SO 2 and NO and lower the reaction temperatures. Optimum experimental parameters were determined. The characterization of activated carbon by X-ray diffraction confirmed that the main active component of the catalyst is CuO, which has different valences in the reductive atmosphere, resulting in high microwave absorption ability.
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  • 18
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    High-Solid-Content Emulsions of PVC: Scale-Down of an Industrial Process for Enhanced Understanding of Particle Formation Part 3: Production of Bimodal Latexes (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-08
    Description: A scale-down study of an industrial reactor for the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) via an emulsion polymerization process was carried out in order to understand the cause of batch-to-batch variations in product quality. The results in Part 2 of this series of papers indicated that a large excess of base is required to control the particle size distribution (PSD) of the seed process. Here, it is demonstrated that the flow rate of the initiator and the second-stage surfactant are the most important parameters for PSD control. Altering the time point at which the initiator and surfactant are injected allows controlling the relative volume fractions of large and small particles. In Part 3 of a scale-down study on an industrial reactor for PVC production, the flow rate of initiator and second-stage surfactant proved to be the most important parameters for particle size distribution control. Changing the time point of injection of initiator and surfactant enables controlling the volume fractions of large and small particles.
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  • 19
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    An Experimental Study on Binderless Briquetting of Low-Rank Coals (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-06
    Description: The potential of binderless briquetting as a means of transforming low-rank coals into low moisture high grade solid fuel products has been studied. Using two dried low-rank coals, binderless briquettes with high mechanical strength have been successfully produced through mechanical compression. An increase in heating value was achieved as a result of moisture reduction in the briquettes compared to as-received coals. The residue moisture content in the briquettes had a predominant effect on briquetting characteristics and there existed an optimum moisture content for the maximum briquettes strength. The chemical structure and wettability of binderless briquettes were analyzed using FTIR and contact angle measurement. The results showed that hydrophobicity and chemical structure significantly affected the briquette properties. High mechanical strength binderless briquettes using two dried low-rank coals were successfully produced. Drying of low-rank coals prior to briquetting resulted in 30–50 % increase in calorific value. The optimum moisture content for high compressive strength was 12–15 %. The aromaticity of the briquettes was higher than raw coals as a result of decomposition of oxygen functionalities and aliphatic hydrogen groups.
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  • 20
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    Steady-State Multiplicity in High-Pressure Bubble Column Reactors (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-06
    Description: The effect of pressure on the possible existence of multiple steady states in bubble column reactors is investigated. A mathematical model involving fast pseudo first-order kinetics is employed to describe the performance of non-isobaric, non-isothermal reactors. The numerical analysis reveals that the existence of multiplicity is sensitive to pressure variation, yet high-pressure operating conditions do not necessarily lead to a higher likelihood of multiplicity in these contactors. Bubble column reactors are widely used in industry for a variety of gas-liquid and biochemical reactions. The occurrence of steady-state multiplicity in non-isobaric bubble column reactors is examined using a mathematical model and the sensitivity of the reactor performance to pressure variation is investigated.
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  • 21
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    Methane Hydrate Formation and Dissociation in the presence of Bentonite Clay Suspension (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-06
    Description: The present work reports the effect of bentonite clay on methane hydrate formation and dissociation in synthetic seawater of salinity 3.55 % of total dissolved salts. Extensive observations of pressure-temperature equilibrium during formation and decomposition of methane hydrate under different conditions have been made. It is observed that phase equilibrium conditions of hydrate are affected on changing the concentration of bentonite clay in synthetic seawater. Induction time for hydrate nucleation has been measured under different concentrations of clay and subcooling conditions. The presence of bentonite clay in synthetic seawater reduces the induction time of hydrate formation. Enthalpy of hydrate dissociation is calculated by Clausius-Clapeyron equation using measured phase equilibrium data. The amount of gas consumed during hydrate formation has been calculated using real gas equation. It is found that a larger amount of gas is consumed upon addition of bentonite clay in synthetic seawater. Bentonite clay is used for methane hydrate formation in synthetic seawater. Reaction kinetics and hydrate formation pressure and temperature are studied under different conditions. Bentonite clay is further-more investigated in terms of surface morphology, chemical changes due to hydrate formation and particle size distribution in suspension.
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  • 22
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    Development of a Scalable Method for Manufacturing High-Temperature CO2 Capture Sorbents (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-05
    Description: An engineered process for scalable manufacture of a calcium aluminum carbonate CO 2 sorbent with production amounts of about 1000 g per hour has been developed. The process includes mixing and heating, solid-liquid separation, drying and extrusion, crushing and conveying, and calcined molding steps. The sorbent preparation involves the coprecipitation of Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , and CO 3 2– under alkaline conditions. By adjusting the Ca:Al molar ratio, a series of Ca-rich materials could be synthesized for use as CO 2 sorbents at 750 °C. A calcium acetate-derived sorbent exhibited better cyclic stability than sorbents originating from CaCl 2 and Ca(NO 3 ) 2 . The initial sorption capacity increased with CaO concentration. High stability of more than 90 % was maintained by the Ca:Al sorbents after 40 looping tests. The main advantages using CaO-based sorbents for high-temperature CO 2 capture are their high capacity and advanced CO 2 uptake characteristics. A novel process for scalable manufacture of a calcium aluminum carbonate CO 2 sorbent is introduced. Using this method, CO 2 sorbents with significantly improved performance can be produced in kg-batches.
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  • 23
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    Amine Solutions for Biogas Upgrading: Ideal versus Non-Ideal Absorption Isotherms (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-05
    Description: Amine solutions were applied in carbon dioxide removal from a model mixture of biogas, carried out in a loop reactor system. In addition, the effect of CO 2 absorption acceleration in the presence of piperazine was confirmed and quantified, relating the obtained CO 2 loading with the piperazine concentration. Further, the interactions of CO 2 and water in aqueous amine solutions were discussed. The obtained acid gas loadings were accurately described taking into account the effect of the dissolved CO 2 on the equilibrium constant. A logarithmic absorption isotherm that follows from such considerations and a saturation-type isotherm were compared. In describing the experimental data, advantages and disadvantages of both approaches are discussed. The absorption performance of piperazine-containing amine solutions to be used for biogas upgrading was investigated in terms of CO 2 capture. The suggested approach was utilized to describe the non-ideality of the absorption isotherms and proved to be suitable also for data reported by other research groups.
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    Optimization of Ultrasonic Enhanced Salt-Containing Hydrodistillation by Response Surface Methodology (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-06
    Description: An ultrasonic enhanced salt-containing hydrodistillation (UESHD) method for separating essential oil from lavender ( Lavandula angustifolia ) flowers was investigated using response surface methodology (RSM). The experimental data obtained from a 27-run experiment were fitted to a second-order polynomial equation. The optimal conditions were determined by the 3D response surface and the contour plots derived from the models. The efficiency of UESHD and conventional hydrodistillation (HD) was compared. The extraction yield of UESHD was two-fold higher than that of HD. In addition, GC-MS results indicated some differences in composition and content between the two essential oils from UESHD and HD. An ultrasonic enhanced salt-containing hydro-distillation (UESHD) method was developed to separate lavender essential oil. The extraction yield of the oil was optimized by statistical software, the separation conditions by the Box-Behnken design. UESHD enabled a more than two-fold yield of essential oil than conventional hydrodistillation.
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    Radial Profiles of Gas Bubble Behavior in a Gas-Liquid Bubble Column Reactor under Elevated Pressures (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: The effects of operating conditions on radial variation of gas holdups, bubble swarm rising velocity, and Sauter mean diameter were investigated in a bubble column reactor under elevated pressures using a conductivity probe method. Air served as gas phase and tap water as liquid phase with varying gas velocity and pressure. All three parameters increased constantly with higher superficial gas velocity. Maximum holdup, velocity, and Sauter mean diameter were found at the center of the cross section. Two different cases for Sauter mean diameter distribution were observed. The gas holdups increase continuously with higher system pressure, but decrease for bubble swarm rising velocity and Sauter mean diameter. According to experimental results, an empirical correlation of the gas holdup profiles is presented. Experimental data on the distribution of gas holdup, bubble swarm rising velocity, bubble size distribution, and Sauter mean bubble diameter in an air-water system are presented. The effects of operating conditions were evaluated in a bubble column reactor under elevated pressures and churn-turbulent flow regime applying a conductivity probe method.
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    Baker's Yeast Behavior during Vacuum Agitated Contact Drying (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: Drying is considered as an intensive operation that consumes large quantities of energy. Usually, baker's yeast is obtained using freeze drying or fluidized-bed drying, both of which are considered as expensive technologies. So, exploring other techniques such as contact drying could limit this disadvantage. In addition, no work dealing with contact drying of baker's yeast has been accomplished yet. Therefore, here, the behavior of baker's yeast during vacuum agitated contact drying is presented. The results show that the drying process can be divided into three phases: the pasty phase, the lumpy phase, and the granular phase. The influence of the drying parameters, such as the temperature, the impeller velocity, and the initial mass, was also studied. It was found that the wall temperature and the impeller velocity have a positive effect on the drying kinetics, as their increase allows a reduction in the drying time. Nevertheless, an increase in the pressure level or the initial mass of the product caused the drying time to increase. The behavior of baker's yeast during vacuum agitated contact drying is studied. The wall temperature and the impeller velocity have a positive effect on the drying kinetics, as their increase leads to a reduction in the drying time, whereas an increase in the pressure level or the initial mass of the product increases the drying time.
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    Nucleation Kinetics and Growth Model of Penicillin Sulfoxide in Butyl Acetate (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: Nucleation kinetics and a growth model of penicillin sulfoxide in butyl acetate were studied. Nucleation parameters such as energy per unit volume, radius of critical nucleus, critical free energy barrier, and nucleation rate were evaluated. A laser method was selected to detect the first crystal in induction period studies. By means of scanning electron microscopy and surface entropy factor, the growth model of penicillin sulfoxide developed from butyl acetate could be determined. According to the results of nucleation kinetics and the growth model of penicillin sulfoxide in butyl acetate, production process parameters can be optimized. The products of penicillin sulfoxide exihibit high purity and provide long-lasting forms of storage. The results are essential for crystallization process control of penicillin sulfoxide in industry.
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    Oxygen Mass Transfer Rate in a Pressurized Lab-Scale Stirred Bioreactor (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: Oxygen mass transfer from air to the liquid phase in bioreactors with aerobic cultures has long been a serious impairment to the productivity of various bioprocesses. An increase of the oxygen mass transfer rate (OTR) can be the key to overcome oxygen limitation. The influence of higher air pressure on OTR was measured and a significantly enhanced OTR could be obtained. The oxygen volumetric mass transfer coefficient ( k L a ) was described by a function of the air pressure in a stirred lab-scale pressurized bioreactor. The correlation obtained proved that k L a slightly decreased with higher air pressure, following a power function. The oxygen mass transfer rate (OTR) and oxygen volumetric mass transfer coefficient ( k L a ) must be known to achieve optimum design operation and avoid oxygen transfer limitations. An increased air pressure is an important approach to enhance OTR and k L a . The proposed correlation could be valuable for further process optimizations where oxygen transfer is a limiting factor.
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    MnCu/cordierite monolith used for catalytic combustion of Volatile Organic Compounds (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: A MnCu-mixed oxide catalyst supported on a cordierite monolith was synthesized. The catalyst showed very good stability and high homogeneity and presented an excellent catalytic activity in the combustion of ethyl acetate, n- hexane, and its mixture. The total conversion temperature of the mixture was determined by the temperature at which the most difficult molecule was oxidized. An excellent catalytic activity in the combustion of ethyl acetate, n- hexane and its mixture was obtained with a MnCu/cordierite monolith catalyst. The monolithic catalyst was synthesized using a simple and reproducible method. Catalysts with homogeneous and well-adhered coatings were obtained. The simplicity of the method used favors scaling for industrial applications.
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    Synthesis and Characterization of Amorphous Nano-Alumina Powders with High Surface Area for Biodiesel Production (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: Nano-alumina powders containing yttrium oxide were synthesized via the sol-gel method using aluminum chloride hexahydrate as catalyst precursor. Fourier transform infrared analysis showed the presence of Al-O and Al-O-Al bands in the powder structure and X-ray diffraction spectra proved that the alumina was in the amorphous phase. The amorphous nano-alumina powders were shown to be mesoporous with a high surface area, and both spherical and slit-shaped particles were found in the calcined powder. A high percentage of conversion of oil to biodiesel was obtained in the transesterification reaction and the synthesized nano-alumina powders could be easily regenerated for further use. The amorphous nano-alumina powder can thus be recommended for use as active catalyst in the transesterification reaction for biodiesel production on the industrial scale. A novel catalyst for use in the transesterification reaction for biodiesel production was synthesized and characterized. A simple, reliable and cost-efficient sol-gel technique is proposed, leading to amorphous alumina powders with high surface area and nano-sized particles, appropriate for industrial applications.
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    Structure and Catalytic Performance of Mg-SBA-15-Supported Nickel Catalysts for CO2 Reforming of Methane to Syngas (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-07
    Description: A series of Mg-modified SBA-15 mesoporous silicas with different MgO contents were successfully synthesized by a simple one-pot synthesis method and further impregnated with Ni. The Mg-modified SBA-15 materials and supported Ni catalysts were characterized by N 2 physisorption (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), temperature-programmed desorption of CO 2 (CO 2 -TPD), temperature-programmed H 2 reduction (H 2 -TPR), and temperature-programmed hydrogenation (TPH) techniques and used for methane dry reforming with CO 2 . CO 2 -TPD results proved that the addition of Mg increased the total amount of basic sites which was responsible for the enhanced catalytic activity over the Mg-modified Ni catalyst. The excellent catalytic stability of Ni/8Mg-SBA-15 was ascribed to less coking and higher stability of the Ni particle size due to the introduction of Mg. Mg-modified SBA-15 mesoporous materials with varying Mg contents were successfully synthesized by a one-pot approach and applied as support for Ni-based catalysts. The incorporation of Mg to Ni/SBA-15 catalyst remarkably decreased the active Ni particle size via metal-support interaction and yielded a high resistance ability to coke deposition.
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    Study of Unsteady-State Operation of Methanation by Modeling and Simulation (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-11
    Description: Methanation of CO under unsteady-state operation conditions was studied systematically based on a simplified mathematical model for an integral reactor using steady-state kinetics available in the literature. The inlet composition of CO and H 2 was changed stepwise and the step response of the system was monitored in order to study the dynamic behavior of the reactor. Furthermore, periodic changes were applied with different cycling times. It was observed that the time average reaction rate could not be improved by cycling the feed composition. Moreover, the reactor appears to be self-stabilizing, since the amplitude at the outlet is reduced, leading to a steady state for high cycling frequencies. The results allow conclusions on principles to design a methanation reactor for unsteady-state operation. However, it also becomes obvious that unsteady-state kinetics is mandatory in order to describe the experimental results obtained under dynamic conditions. Methane is one important backbone for the energy supply in today's western world. Methanation under unsteady-state operation conditions was studied based on a mathematical model. The inlet composition of CO and H 2 was varied stepwise to study the dynamic behavior of the reactor for different cycle periods. It was observed that the reactor behaves in a self-stabilizing manner.
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    Influence of Co-Solvent Concentration on the Properties of Dope Solution and Performance of Polyethersulfone Membranes (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-11
    Description: Polyethersulfone (PES) dope solutions were prepared from mixtures of two solvents containing N , N -dimethylformamide (DMF) as core solvent and acetone as co-solvent (CS) in a closed heating system. PES asymmetric membranes were cast by a dry/wet phase inversion process. Complete miscibility of PES with the fixed mixture of acetone and DMF under atmospheric pressure could be achieved. The kinetic and thermodynamic properties indicated that interaction of DMF and acetone is strongest when their mole ratio is unity, pointing to the phenomenon of true co-solvency for PES dissolution. These results were supported by determination of the water uptake, contact angle measurement, and SEM analyses. Membrane performance, pore volume, and total pore volume on the membrane surface were also investigated. From mixtures containing N , N -dimethylformamide (DMF) as core solvent and acetone as co-solvent, polyethersulfone (PES) dope solutions were prepared. Membranes produced from such dope solutions containing acetone turned out to be superior in terms of permeation flux rates, rejection rates, and quality compared to membranes prepared without acetone.
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    Size and Shape of Calcium Alginate Beads Produced by Extrusion Dripping (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-11
    Description: Alginate hydrogel beads are widely used as an encapsulation medium for biomedical, bioprocessing, and pharmaceutical applications. The size and shape of the beads are often critically controlled since in many usages the beads are monodisperse in size and spherical in shape. Extrusion dripping is a well-known method to produce alginate beads. Nevertheless, the production of beads of desired size and spherical shape is often achieved based on one's experience or trial and error. An overview is provided on alginate properties, formulation and preparation of alginate and gelling solutions, production conditions, and post-production treatment that may influence the bead size and shape. Various methods of bead size and shape measurement are also discussed. The influence of significant process variables like alginate properties, formulation and preparation of alginate and gelling solutions, production conditions, and post-production treatment on size and shape of Ca-alginate beads is reviewed. Various methods for bead size determination and shape analysis are described in detail and discussed.
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    Mechanical Stress on Lysozyme Crystals during Dynamic Cross-Flow Filtration (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-11
    Description: The influence of mechanical stress on the crystal size distribution of lysozyme crystal slurries in a dynamic cross-flow device is discussed. The reduction of crystal size may have an influence on mass and resistance of the fouling layer. A filter test device with a filter area of 130 cm 2 is used for thickening. After thickening, a model impurity, namely bovine serum albumin, is washed out of the suspension. A reduction of crystal size due to stirring and a reduced fouling layer with increasing stirrer speed is observed. Furthermore, a higher stirring speed increases the specific filtrate flux. In the presence of the impurity, more crystal aggregates than single isometric crystals are formed and, hence, the decrease of crystal size due to shear forces is more pronounced than without impurity. Protein crystals are in comparison to other organic and nonorganic crystals very soft and fragile. During separation in a dynamic cross-flow device a decrease of the crystal size is observed due to crystal breakage which could influence the separation and following product formulation steps. The impact of stirring speed and residence time is discussed for lysozyme crystals.
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    Kinetics of Bioethanol Production Employing Mono- and Co-Cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
    Description: The kinetics of bioethanol production using mono- and co-cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis with glucose, xylose, and glucose-xylose sugar mixtures were investigated. A MATLAB® program was formulated for simulation of experimental results in order to get predicted values of ethanol production and sugar consumption and for kinetic parameter estimation. Kinetic parameters implied less extent of substrate and/or product inhibition when the co-culture scheme of immobilized S. cerevisiae and free P. stipitis was employed for fermentation of mixed sugars. In addition, a high ethanol yield was achieved by applying this co-culture strategy to wheat straw hydrolysates. The kinetics of bioethanol production with single and mixed-sugar fermentation employing mono- and co-cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipites were determined. Bioconversion of concentrated wheat straw hydrolysates to ethanol was successfully performed using a co-culture of immobilized S. cerevisiae and free P. stipitis .
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    Evaluation of Adsorption Kinetics and Equilibrium for the Removal of Benzene by Modified Diatomite (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
    Description: In order to find alternative low-cost adsorbents for volatile organic liquids, the effectiveness of nickel oxide nanoparticles-modified diatomite (NONMD) in removing benzene was assessed. The impact of different operation parameters such as pH, contact time, initial benzene concentration, and adsorption dosage on the adsorption process was evaluated and optimum experimental conditions were identified. Surface area and morphology of the nanoparticles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) isotherms, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. The isotherm and kinetics effect of the adsorbent were evaluated. The efficiency of NiO nanoparticles-modified diatomite for benzene removal from an aqueous medium was evaluated in order to find alternative low-cost adsorbents for volatile organic liquids. The impact of different operation parameters on the adsorption process was assessed and optimum experimental conditions for nearly 100 % benzene removal were defined.
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    Overview Contents: Chem. Eng. Technol. 10/2013 (2013)
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    Publication Date: 2013-09-25
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    Intermittent Drying: Energy Expenditure and Product Quality (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-10
    Description: Several issues pertinent to intermittent drying of clay-like materials were analyzed with respect to energy consumption, quality of dried products, and drying time. Experimental tests were performed on the cylindrically-shaped kaolin samples for batch convective drying realized with both periodically alternated temperature and humidity of the drying air. To assess the benefits from intermittent drying, a series of tests were carried out at both parameters kept constant. The net energy necessary for material heating and moisture evaporation was numerically calculated based on the authors' model of drying kinetics, and related to the experimentally measured total electric energy consumption to evaluate the effectiveness of intermittent drying. The quality of dried samples was quantified in terms of crack intensity and magnitude. It was found that intermittent drying permits much better product quality with comparable drying time and energy consumption when drying occurs under constant conditions. Intermittent drying of clay-like materials was studied with respect to energy consumption, quality of dried products, and drying time. The kinetics of intermittent drying was determined experimentally for kaolin KOC samples of cylindrical form and a mathematical model of drying kinetics was used to numerically calculate the corresponding kinetic curves.
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    Stochastic Modeling of Fluidized Bed Granulation: Influence of Droplet Pre-Drying (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-16
    Description: A stochastic Monte Carlo method was used to solve the population dynamics of fluidized-bed granulation. Special emphasis was put on the addition of liquid to the process and on the microprocess of droplet pre-drying. Pre-drying can occur during the flight of droplets from the tip of the nozzle to the fluidized bed, especially in top-spray configuration. A single-droplet drying model that considers the change of droplet diameter and of the radial concentration profile of binder in the droplet was developed and validated by experiments in an acoustic levitator. Combined with spray flow field considerations, this model can be used to retrieve an initial droplet diameter from spray measurements. Integrated in the Monte Carlo simulation, it shows that pre-drying can significantly decrease the agglomeration rate due to overspray and premature solidification instead of successful droplet deposition. The Monte Carlo method is used to describe agglomeration in spray fluidized beds. Special focus is put on the pre-drying of droplets during their flight from the nozzle tip to the expanded particle bed. Pre-drying is modeled, validated by experiments on single droplets in an acoustic levitator and integrated in the MC simulation. The latter shows that excessive pre-drying may prevent droplet deposition and thus inhibit agglomeration.
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    Modeling the Moisture Content Distribution over a Rotating Porous Cylinder using Markov Chains (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: The objective of this study is to describe moisture distribution in a rotating porous cylinder. Variable orientation of the gravitational and centrifugal forces during rotation causes rather complex, unsteady distribution of the moisture content. The optimal speed of rotation which provides the minimum nonhomogeneity of the distribution can be found. A cell model for this purpose is proposed. The model is based on the theory of Markov chains. Transition probabilities in the chain of cells are conditioned by pure diffusion and convection caused by the forces. The basic features of the process are investigated and the optimal process parameters are found. A model that describes moisture distribution in a horizontal rotating porous cylinder is proposed. For the case of no rotation, moisture concentrates at the bottom of the cylinder; at rotations that are too fast, it concentrates at the periphery of the cylinder. In both cases, its distribution is very nonhomogeneous. At optimal speed, the most homogeneous distribution can be reached.
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    A New Control-Volume Finite-Element Scheme for Heterogeneous Porous Media: Application to the Drying of Softwood (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: An improved mesoscopic model is presented for simulating the drying of porous media. The aim of this model is to account for two scales simultaneously: the scale of the whole product and the scale of the heterogeneities of the porous medium. The innovation of this method is the utilization of a new mass-conservative scheme based on the Control-Volume Finite-Element (CV-FE) method that partitions the moisture content field over the individual sub-control volumes surrounding each node within the mesh. Although the new formulation has potential for application across a wide range of transport processes in heterogeneous porous media, the focus here is on applying the model to the drying of small sections of softwood consisting of several growth rings. The results conclude that, when compared to a previously published scheme, only the new mass-conservative formulation correctly captures the true moisture content evolution in the earlywood and latewood components of the growth rings during drying. A new mesoscopic model was proposed for simulating the drying of porous media. Applying the new model to cross-sections of a pinewood board, the distribution of water within each control volume is correctly captured, which provides a better representation of the true moisture content distribution during drying.
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    New Developments in Drying (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
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    Overview Contents: Chemie Ingenieur Technik 7/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
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    Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Pressure Swirl Atomizers (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: The prediction of droplet size distributions for atomization nozzles is important for process design and improvement of industrial spraying processes. However, especially for non-Newtonian liquids, the published research applicable for engineering purposes is rare. To derive fundamental correlations for droplet size distributions in the future, the multiphase flow inside the spray nozzle is investigated by computational fluid dynamics, and measurements of droplet size distributions are done under the same flow conditions. In the present paper, two different hollow-cone nozzles were investigated using the volume-of-fluid method with large-eddy turbulence modeling inside the open source software OpenFOAM®. An experimental test rig suitable for spraying organic solvents was built. To derive fundamental correlations for droplet size distributions for non-Newtonian liquids in atomization nozzles, the multiphase flow inside the spray nozzle is investigated by computational fluid dynamics; measurements of droplet size distributions are done under the same flow conditions. Two different hollow-cone nozzles were investigated using the volume-of-fluid method with large-eddy turbulence modeling. An experimental test rig suitable for spraying organic solvents was built.
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    CFD Simulation of Capillary Condensation during Freeze Drying of Porous Material (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-10
    Description: The formation and distribution of condensed vapor during the freeze drying of porous polymer hydrogels are numerically evaluated. The sublimation-condensation model is developed by CFD simulation to investigate phase change in the freeze drying process. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the structure of cross-linked gelatine and an idealized geometry model was applied to determine interconnected pore structure. The simulation explores the influence of various parameters on condensation and drying rate, including temperature, pressure, pore diameter, liquid volume fraction, and porosity. The optimum temperature is estimated to enhance drying rate and decrease condensation in the freeze drying process. The results show that condensation in porous materials depends on capillary forces and cause invasion percolation patterns. A CFD model was generated to simulate phase change in the freeze drying process with a two-phase mixture model. Slip flow, buoyancy, and capillary forces in micropores were analyzed with suitable boundary conditions. Numerical methods were extensively used to solve mass transport, continuity, and momentum and energy equations with the finite volume method.
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    Flow Channel Boundaries in Silos (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-22
    Description: The critical slip planes at the silo filling state are compared with the flow channel boundary during silo discharge for semi-mass flows. The static critical slip planes are determined by using the dynamic programming method based on the stress field of granular solids stored in silos at the filling state. The flow channel boundary is estimated through the finite element analysis of the silo discharge. The results indicate that the critical slip line lies above the flow channel boundary. This characteristic can be attributed to the changeover of major principal stress directions of granular solids from the silo filling to the silo discharge. The analysis demonstrates that the silo wall friction tends to lift up the critical slip plane and flow boundary. A simple correlation is developed between the positions of critical slip planes and flow boundaries and is experimentally verified. Identifications of flow channel boundaries in silos are studied by using a static slope stability analysis and the dynamic finite element method. A simple approach is developed and experimentally verified to identify positions of flow channel boundaries. The disagreements of diverse assumptions of flow channel boundaries in numerical computations concerning silo discharges are identified.
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    Scientific Highlights: Chem. Eng. Technol. 7/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
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    Pore Network Model and Simulation of Transport Process for Grain Drying (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: A nonequilibrium model was developed and simulated by adopting a dual-scale pore network approach. The distributions of temperature, moisture, and pressure in drying air, as well as the temperature and moisture content profiles in grain kernels were obtained from the pore scale model and the kernel scale model, respectively. A small test bin was built to conduct in-bin drying experiments and to validate the model. The results from the experiments and the simulations indicate that the dual-scale pore network approach could explain the drying process of the deep-bed grain drying process well. The influences of grain bulk porosity and cereal particle size distribution were also investigated by numerical simulations. A non-equilibrium model was developed and simulated by adopting the dual-scale pore network approach. The distributions of temperature, moisture, and pressure in drying air, as well as the temperature and moisture content profiles in grain kernel were obtained from the pore scale model and the kernel scale model, respectively. A small test bin was built to conduct in-bin drying experiments and to validate the model.
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    Drying Models, Myths, and Misconceptions (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: Several fallacies commonly appear in articles or papers on drying. They fall into two main categories: inadequate or discredited theory which continues to be repeated, and theoretical models which are too complex for practical use, generate results in the wrong form, or do not take account of measurement limitations. Cases are highlighted where published theory is inadequate (e.g., Page's equation) and where simplified models can have better fitness for purpose than complex ones (e.g., in fluidized bed drying). The universal drying curve (UDC) is a useful concept for rapid evaluation of drying in deep well-mixed beds. Simplified drying models can be superior to complex models requiring extensive data. Effective models include the universal drying curve (UDC) as a useful concept for rapid evaluation of drying in fluidized beds and for other convective dryers, scale-up relationships, and energy analysis methods. Conversely, the widely used Page's equation for drying kinetics is an inaccurate oversimplification.
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    Effects of Drying and Agglomeration on the Dissolution of Multi-Component Food Powders (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: This work proposes routes to produce dairy-based multi-component powders that meet nutritional and dissolution performance requirements. The effects of processing and composition on the physical properties of dairy powders were investigated and the relationship between such powder properties and dissolution performance was established. A spray-dried milk-based formulation was used as base powder, into which a carbohydrate, either starch or maltodextrin, was incorporated in varying proportions by dry mixing or fluid-bed agglomeration. Physical properties such as particle size, density and flowability of the resulting powders were analyzed and particular attention was given to their dissolution behavior. Incorporation of either maltodextrin or starch in the final powder composition, without compromising the dissolution performance, was achieved by fluid-bed agglomeration, provided that the amount of maltodextrin was less than 25 % or the amount of starch did not exceed 15 % and that the final agglomerate size was in the range of 250–300 μm. The effects of drying and agglomeration conditions on the physical properties of dairy-based multi-component powders were investigated, as well as the relationship between powder properties and dissolution performance. This work proposes routes to produce dairy powders containing starch or maltodextrin with good reconstitution properties.
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    Numerical Study of Convective Water Desorption from the Polystyrene Cation Resin CG-8 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-08
    Description: A mathematical model was developed to evaluate the influence of structural and operational factors on convective desorption processes (desorption of a liquid from capillary-porous material). The possibility to utilize this model for the case of water desorption from the polystyrene cation resin CG-8 is presented. The model accounts for unsteady one-dimensional simultaneous heat and mass transfer between the gas (humid air) and the solid phase (CG-8 resin). The identification of effective transport properties for the considered packed bed of material (CG-8 resin) is discussed. To this purpose, data from the literature are used. A mathematical model was developed to evaluate the influence of structural and operational factors on convective desorption processes. The possibility to utilize this model for the case of water desorption from the polystyrene cation resin CG-8 is presented. The model accounts for unsteady one-dimensional simultaneous heat and mass transfer between gas and solid phase. The identification of effective transport properties for the considered packed bed of material is discussed.
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    Effect of Temperature on Fine Particle Drying in a Draft-Tube Conical Spouted Bed (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-10
    Description: The performance of a draft-tube conical spouted bed for drying fine particles under batch operating conditions has been assessed at several temperatures using nonporous and open-sided draft tubes, and the results have been compared with those obtained when operating without a draft tube. In order to ascertain the influence of temperature on drying, experimental runs have been carried out in the 25–300 °C temperature range. The open-sided draft tube provides the best performance due to the excellent gas-solid contact attained with this device, which enables shorter drying times. A maximum air temperature of 200 °C is recommended for energy optimization. An open-sided tube protruding above the stagnant bed by at least 2/3 of the latter's height produces much lower and denser fountains than a tube flush with the upper surface of the bed. The drying process of building sand in a bench-scale plant at different temperatures was analyzed. The performance of a draft-tube conical spouted bed for drying fine particles under batch operating conditions was assessed using nonporous and open-sided draft tubes and compared to results obtained without a draft tube. The open-sided draft tube provided the best performance due to the excellent gas-solid contact.
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    Innovative Energy-Efficient Biomass Drying Based on Self-Heat Recuperation Technology (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-10
    Description: A novel drying system based on self-heat recuperation (SHR) technology, which recuperates both sensible and latent heat, was developed to reduce effectively the energy consumption for biomass drying. A fluidized bed dryer with internal heat exchangers was selected as the main dryer. Square wood chips of Pinus radiata with average dimensions of 10 mm were selected as biomass sample. The relation between the required energy input and fluidization velocity and a comparison with the available mechanical vapor recompression (MVR)-based drying technology were evaluated. The results prove that the proposed SHR technology could reduce the required energy consumption for biomass drying significantly at all evaluated fluidization velocities to about 2/3 of that required for MVR-based drying technology. A novel drying system based on self-heat recuperation (SHR) technology, able to effectively recover both the sensible and latent heat, was developed. The proposed SHR-based fluidized bed dryer could significantly reduce the required energy consumption for biomass drying at all evaluated fluidization velocities to about 2/3 of that required for mechanical vapor recompression-based drying technology.
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    Overview Contents: Chem. Eng. Technol. 7/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
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    Cover Chem. Eng. Technol. 7/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: Dried Particles. Courtesy: E. Tsotsas
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    Forum: Chem. Eng. Technol. 7/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
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    Impact of Storage Duration on the Gaseous Emissions during Convective Drying of Urban Residual Sludges (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-29
    Description: Drying has become an important step within the context of sludge management. Sometimes, sludges from several wastewater treatment plants are centralized in order to dry them at an acceptable cost. Depending on sludge supply, there can be a delay between delivery and feeding into the dryer. The impact of sludge storage duration on the drying kinetics and on the exhaust emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and ammonia is investigated. Results show that, after 20 days of storage, the drying time is multiplied by 1.5, and the emissions of VOCs and NH 3 are multiplied by 5 and 40, respectively. The impact of sludge storage duration on the drying kinetics and associated gaseous emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ammonia at 4 °C and 12 °C is investigated. The results indicate that after 20 days of storage the drying time is multiplied by 1.5 and the emissions of VOCs and NH 3 by 5 and 40, respectively. The drying rate decreases with storage time, whereas economic and energy costs increase.
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    Thermodynamic Simulation of CO2 Capture for an IGCC Power Plant using the Calcium Looping Cycle (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-12
    Description: A CO 2 capture process for an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant using the calcium looping cycle was proposed. The CO 2 capture process using natural and modified limestone was simulated and investigated with the software package Aspen Plus. It incorporated a fresh feed of sorbent to compensate for the decay in CO 2 capture activity during long-term cycles. The sorbent flow ratios have significant effect on the CO 2 capture efficiency and net efficiency of the CO 2 capture system. The IGCC power plant, using the modified limestone, exhibits higher CO 2 capture efficiency than that using the natural limetone at the same sorbent flow ratios. The system net efficiency using the natural and modified limestones achieves 41.7 % and 43.1 %, respectively, at the CO 2 capture efficiency of 90 % without the effect of sulfation. A CO 2 capture process for an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant using the calcium looping cycle was proposed. The CO 2 capture efficiency and system net efficiency for the IGCC power plant using natural and modified limestone were simulated and investigated with the software package Aspen Plus.
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    Concentration of Natural Vitamin E Using a Continuous Countercurrent Supercritical CO2 Extraction-Distillation Dual Column (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-06
    Description: A continuous countercurrent supercritical CO 2 extraction-distillation dual-column process was developed to extract and concentrate natural vitamin E (VE) from soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SODD). The experimental results demonstrated that process parameters such as extraction pressure, temperature, and solvent-to-feed ratio significantly impacted on the extraction efficiency of natural VE. A new five-parameter mass transfer model for the continuous countercurrent supercritical CO 2 extraction-distillation dual-column process was presented based on the Penetration and Double-Film theories. The calculated values of the mathematical model agreed well with the experimental data, with absolute average relative deviation values of less than 25 %. A continuous countercurrent supercritical CO 2 extraction-distillation dual-column process was developed to extract and concentrate natural vitamin E from soybean oil deodorizer distillate. A new five-parameter mass transfer model for this process was presented based on the Penetration and Double-Film theories.
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    Synthesis of Nanocrystalline Hydroxyapatite Nanorods via Hydrothermal Conditions (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-06
    Description: The effect of Ca(NO 3 ) 2 ·4H 2 O and (NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 primary solutions as the starting materials in the synthesis of a calcium phosphate phase was examined. Therefore, wet chemical reactions were investigated in solution at different temperatures by hydrothermal conditions aimed at hydroxyapatite (Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 , HAp) synthesis. The powders were investigated by XRD, SEM, FE-TEM, HRTEM, EDAX, SAED, and FTIR. It is found that the HAp have diameters of 25–50 nm and lengths of 120�30 nm with different morphologies. As a matter of fact, the hydrothermal method guarantees the production of HAp for different applications. Hydroxyapatite (HAp) is the major component of natural bone minerals. Nanorod HAp with a good crystallinity was developed by a hydrothermal method. The nanorods have a high degree of crystallinity and are uniformly structured. These high-quality HAp nanorods represent a well-defined nanoscale structure needed for both fundamental studies and clinical applications.
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    Residence Time Distribution of Steady and Pulsed Flow in a Parallel-Plate Channel with Staggered Fins (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-06
    Description: The residence time distribution (RTD) in a parallel-plate channel with staggered fins for both steady and pulsed flow conditions was experimentally determined. Dispersion and tank-in-series models were also adopted to characterize the system. The process fluid was water and the experiments were performed at room temperature. A steady Reynolds number Re ranging from 100 to 1000 was studied. The pulsating flow was generated using a frequency f of 6–20 Hz and an amplitude A of 0–2.3 mm. A pulse injection of sodium chloride solution was used as a tracer and the response in the form of electrical conductivity was measured at the outlet stream. The flow in the staggered finned channel approaches nearly plug-flow behavior with either higher steady-flow velocity or superposition of oscillation at low Re. Residence time distribution (RTD) in a parallel-plate channel with staggered fins for both steady and pulsed flow conditions has been studied. The flow in the staggered finned channel approaches nearly plug-flow behavior with either higher steady flow velocity or superposition of oscillation at moderately low Reynolds number.
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    Experimental Investigation of Gas Holdup and Slug Lengths in an Upflow Monolith Reactor (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-06
    Description: A new non-invasive visualization technology was successfully developed to determine the hydrodynamics parameters of Taylor flow in monolith channels. With the developed method, the gas and liquid slug lengths as well as the gas holdup in channels of different radial positions were measured. Accordingly, the average gas holdup in different radial zones and the mean slug lengths over the monolith cross-section were calculated with varying superficial gas and liquid velocities. By defining the maldistribution factor, the degree of non-uniform distributions of these parameters over the monolith cross-section was investigated quantitatively. The results showed that a moderate gas-to-liquid velocity ratio can result in uniform distribution for both gas holdup and slug lengths. In addition, the obtained mean slug lengths were well correlated with simplified Qian and Lawal correlations. A new non-invasive visualization technology was successfully developed. The gas and liquid slug lengths and the gas holdup in channels at different radial positions of a monolith were obtained by analyzing bubble images captured at the monolith outlet region. The maldistributions of the gas holdup and slug lengths were investigated. The mean gas and liquid slug lengths were well correlated with simplified correlations from literature.
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    Preparation of Rutile Titanium Dioxide White Pigment by a Novel NaOH Molten-Salt Process: Influence of Doping and Calcination (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-06
    Description: Rutile titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) white pigment is prepared by a novel NaOH molten-salt process. Titanium slag is decomposited by NaOH molten salt to obtain sodium titanate which is then converted into hydrate titanium dioxide (H 2 TiO 3 ) through acid dissolution and hydrolysis. Finally, TiO 2 white pigment is prepared by H 2 TiO 3 doping and calcinations. H 2 TiO 3 prepared by this innovative method is characterized and the influencing factors of doping and calcination of H 2 TiO 3 on pigmentary properties of TiO 2 are investigated. H 2 TiO 3 with certain characteristics could be prepared through the controlled hydrolysis step in the NaOH molten-salt process. Good pigmentary properties of rutile TiO 2 white pigment are achieved by doping with suitable amounts of K 2 O, P 2 O 5 , Al 2 O 3 , and rutile nuclei, thereby approaching the quality of the commercial TiO 2 pigment standards. The preparation of rutile TiO 2 white pigment by means of a novel NaOH molten-salt process is demonstrated. Color performance was improved by the addition of K 2 O, P 2 O 5 , Al 2 O 3 , and rutile nuclei. The improved color performance of rutile TiO 2 white pigment approaches the quality of commercial TiO 2 pigment standards.
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    Hydrodynamic Behaviors in Gas-Solid Two-Phase Magnetic Fluidized Beds 1. Experimental Results Represented by a Dimensionless Number (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-04-03
    Description: The influence of magnetic field intensity and process parameters on the transient fluidization behaviors of magnetically stable fluidized beds (MSFBs) was studied. The local solid holdup distribution and magnetically stabilized regimes were carried out by experimental measurements in MSFBs. The scaling approach for MSFB hydrodynamics based on magnetic field and dynamic similitude with a limited number of dimensionless groups was tested. A dimensionless number for magnetic field has been developed. An experimental criterion for the magnetically stabilized fluidization is established based on random analysis of the void fluctuation signal. It includes two characteristic parameters of the main frequency of voidage fluctuation signals, i.e., the self-correlation function and variance. A dimensionless correlation to calculate the stable zone with three dimensionless groups of Er, Ar, and Re was proposed using dimensionless analysis. The influence of magnetic field intensity and process parameters on the transient fluidization behaviors of magnetically stable fluidized beds was investigated. A dimensionless correlation to calculate the stable zone with the three dimensionless groups, i.e., Archimedes number, Reynolds number, and ratio of magnetic potential and gravity potential energy, is proposed.
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    Hydrodesulfurization-Supported Catalysts: Effect of the Preparation Method (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-04-05
    Description: Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of dibenzothiophene in a batch reactor was performed at 5.5 MPa and 320 °C on CoMoS/Al 2 O 3 -TiO 2 using trans -1,2-cyclohexanediamine- N,N,N′,N′ -tetraacetic acid (CYDTA) as a complexing agent for the preparation method. The effects of titania, concentration of CYDTA, and preparation procedure were investigated by using X-ray diffraction, BET, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia experiments. The catalyst prepared by impregnation with γ -alumina and titanium isopropoxide as raw materials and a CYDTA/Co mole ratio of 1.2 provided an HDS activity (on a pseudo-first-order kinetic constant basis) value ∼3.8 times higher compared to that of a CoMo/Al 2 O 3 catalyst. Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of dibenzothiophene in a batch reactor was performed on CoMoS/Al 2 O 3 -TiO 2 using trans -1,2-cyclohexanediamine- N,N,N′,N′ -tetraacetic acid (CYDTA). Combining alumina-titania mixed supports, an appropriate catalyst preparation, and the optimum proportion of CYDTA in the catalyst network led to a new catalyst for the HDS reaction.
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    Corrosion Resistance of Steels Used in Alcohol and Sugar Industry (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-04
    Description: Evaporators used in power plants for sugar production are vessels with two boxes of heat exchangers. These heat exchangers made of a low-corrosion resistance material are frequently replaced during the alcohol production process. In view of the growing production of cane, sugar, and alcohol, and the corrosion of materials used in power plants, it was necessary to find alternative materials for carbon steel applied in the evaporators. A comparative study of the corrosion resistance of stainless steel as well as unalloyed and alloyed carbon-manganese steels in neutral and acid sugar cane juice electrolytes is presented. The alloyed carbon steels showed the best corrosion behavior in an acid environment compared to a neutral medium. Among the alloyed carbon steels, ASTM T11 and ASTM T22 steels provided the highest corrosion resistance in sugar cane juice. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel as well as unalloyed and alloyed carbon-manganese steels in neutral and acid sugar cane juice electrolytes was determined. The alloyed carbon steels presented the best corrosion behavior in an acid environment compared to a neutral medium. Among the alloyed carbon steels, ASTM T11 and ASTM T22 steels provided the highest corrosion resistance in sugar cane juice.
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    Intensification of Cyclopentadiene Dimerization by Ultrasound Irradiation (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-04
    Description: Cyclopentadiene and isoprene are produced in large quantities by the steam cracking of naphtha and gas oils to produce ethylene. At room temperature, cyclopentadiene slowly dimerizes in a Diels-Alder reaction to give dicyclopentadiene. This work presents a new method for accelerating the Diels-Alder reaction in the presence of ultrasonic irradiation under ambient conditions. The effects of various reaction conditions such as ultrasonic reaction time and reaction temperature on cyclopentadiene dimerization and oligomerization of cyclopentadiene and isoprene were investigated. The results showed that the two reactions could be significantly enhanced by ultrasonic irradiation. The kinetic results revealed that the introduction of ultrasonic irradiation lowered the activation energy of both reactions, but not to the same degree. The increased difference in activation energy between the two reactions is the driving force to produce more dicyclopentadiene in the presence of ultrasonic irradiation. Cyclopentadiene and isoprene are produced in large quantities by the steam cracking of naphtha and gas oils to produce ethylene. At room temperature, cyclopentadiene slowly dimerizes in a reversible Diels-Alder reaction to form dicyclopentadiene. A new method is presented for accelerating the Diels-Alder reaction in the presence of ultrasonic irradiation under ambient conditions.
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    Micellar Extraction of Zinc with Di(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric Acid and the Addition of the Cationic Surfactant Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-09
    Description: The addition of surfactants can influence extraction processes. In cases where the surfactant concentration is above the critical micelle concentration, the mass transfer rate increases due to the formation of inverse micelles and, thus, through the mechanism of micellar extraction of zinc. The influence of the added surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide on zinc extraction with the cation exchanger di(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid was analyzed based on extraction equilibrium and mass transfer experiments. The observed experimental results are explained phenomenologically. Improvements of metal extraction with regard to selectivity and output can be achieved by using surfactants. Addition of the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide can influence the mass transfer of zinc by the formation of micelles and inverse micelles. The advantages of the proposed micellar extraction are faster extraction of zinc and higher potential loadings of the organic extract phase.
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    Novel Thermomorphic Biphasic Amine Solvents for CO2 Absorption and Low-Temperature Extractive Regeneration (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-09
    Description: The key challenge in amine-based CO 2 capture from flue gases is to reduce the energy consumption required for solvent regeneration. Lipophilic amines exhibit a thermomorphic phase transition upon heating, giving rise to autoextractive behavior, which intensifies desorption at temperatures well below the boiling point of aqueous solutions. The low regeneration temperature of less than 80 °C together with the high cyclic CO 2 loading capacity of ∼0.9 mol  mol absorbent –1 of such thermomorphic biphasic solvent (TBS) systems permit the use of low-value and even waste heat at temperatures below 100 °C for desorption. In order to reduce the exergy demands still further, techniques for enhancing CO 2 release using extractive regeneration with inert solvent addition were investigated at temperatures of 40–50 °C to permit the use of waste heat at temperatures of ∼70 °C or less. The regeneration of 3 M absorbed lipophilic amine solutions with 0.93 mol mol –1 CO 2 loading by using various additional solvents and the evaluation of the extractive performance in multiple-stage crosscurrent and countercurrent configurations indicated the promise of adding certain hydrophobic solvents to enhance the low-temperature regeneration of TBS absorbents. Thermomorphic biphasic amine absorbents perform high loading capacity, good reactivity, excellent regenerability, and low regeneration temperature for CO 2 capture. Extractive regeneration using inert hydrophobic solvents can reduce the desorption temperature to 40–50 °C, thus enabling the use of waste heat for regeneration and facilitating thermal integration of CO 2 capture into the remaining process.
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    Selective Adsorption of Phenol and Nitrobenzene by β-Cyclodextrin-Intercalated Layered Double Hydroxide: Equilibrium and Kinetic Study (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-09
    Description: The composite of carboxymethyl-modified β-cyclodextrin-intercalated ZnAl-layered double hydroxide (CMCD-LDH) was investigated for selective adsorption of phenol (Ph) and nitrobenzene (NB). The Freundlich model can be used to describe satisfactorily the adsorption isotherms of Ph and NB. The adsorption capacity of CMCD-LDH for Ph and NB increases with the increase of temperature, indicating the endothermic nature of this sorption process. CMCD-LDH exhibits preferential adsorption for Ph over NB at pH 6.5 due to the selective recognition of the interlayer CMCD cavity. Pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models were applied to simulate the kinetics of the adsorption process. The calculated q e values based on the pseudo-second-order model are much closer to the experimental data q e,exp . As a result, the pseudo-second-order kinetic model is more reasonable to describe the adsorption process of Ph and NB onto the CMCD-LDH composite. CMCD-LDH can be potentially applied in selective adsorption and separation of wastewater pollutants. The composite of carboxymethyl-modified β-cyclodextrin-intercalated ZnAl-layered double hydroxide (CMCD-LDH) was investigated for selective adsorption of phenol (Ph) and nitrobenzene (NB). It displays preferable adsorption for Ph when Ph and NB are in a competitive environment and can be regarded as a potential adsorbent for selective separation of neutral aromatic pollutants in wastewater.
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    Investigation on Thermal Runaway in Batch Reactors by Parametric Sensitivity Analysis (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-09
    Description: A batch system is an inherently parametric sensitivity system where small changes of input parameters can induce large changes of output variables. In the present work, temperature and temperature sensitivity with respect to the initial temperature were investigated by parametric sensitivity analysis using a dimensionless batch reactor model. The influence of the Semenov number, the heat of reaction parameter and the Arrhenius-type number on reactor temperature and temperature sensitivity were studied. It is demonstrated that batch reactors can exhibit high sensitivity when small changes in input parameters lead to large changes in temperature and temperature sensitivity trajectories. A criterion is established for thermal runaway by analyzing temperature sensitivity trajectories and applied to some experimental examples. This criterion allows runaway and safe conditions to be identified, the results being in agreement with the experimental data. The proposed criterion can satisfactorily predict the safety limits of the operating conditions. Increasing attention has been paid to thermally safe operation of chemical reactors to avoid runaway accidents. A new and simple sensitivity-based criterion was developed for thermal runaway in batch reactors by analyzing temperature sensitivity trajectories and applied to experimental examples. The proposed criterion has proved to be very effective in predicting the critical conditions of thermal runaway.
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    Influence of Solvent Polarity on the Mechanism and Efficiency of Formic Acid Reactive Extraction with Tri-n-Octylamine from Aqueous Solutions (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-31
    Description: The reactive extractions of formic acid with tri- n -octylamine (TOA) dissolved in three solvents with different dielectric constants (dichloromethane, butyl acetate, n -heptane) without and with 1-octanol as phase modifier were comparatively analyzed. The results indicated that the mechanism of the interfacial reaction between acid and extractant (Q) is controlled by the organic phase polarity. In the absence of 1-octanol, the structures of the extracted complexes are (HA) 2 Q 2 for dichloromethane and butyl acetate, and (HA) 2 Q 4 for n -heptane. These structures are modified by adding 1-octanol and become (HA) 2 Q for extraction in dichloromethane or butyl acetate, and (HA) 2 Q 2 for extraction in n -heptane. Although the presence of 1-octanol improves the extraction efficiency, it leads to a reduction of the extraction constants for all considered solvents, an influence that is more significant for n -heptane. The study is an original approach of the reactive extraction of formic acid with tri- n -octylamine from the viewpoint of the extraction efficiency and mechanism, using solvents with different polarity (dichloromethane, butyl acetate, n -heptane). The effect of 1-octanol addition on the extraction efficiency and the mechanism was analyzed. The structures of the extracted compounds formed by the interfacial reaction between formic acid and amine were established.
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    Influence of the Spray Method on Product Quality and Morphology in Spray Drying (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-31
    Description: The spraying system is responsible for the particle formation and spray pattern. The most important features of sprays emerging from different atomizers are discussed. In the case of pneumatic atomizers the entrainment is low and a well-mixed jet with little segregation of fine and large particles occurs. A much stronger interaction of gas and spray takes place in the case of large spray angles as, e.g., produced by rotary atomizers. To some extent the particle morphology is known to depend on the drying speed and thus on the entrainment. The dependency of the quality and morphology of spray-dried products on the spray method is discussed. The generated liquid drops possess varying sizes and, therefore, are subject to different drying histories, finally resulting in products distributed in quality. The most important features of sprays emerging from different atomizers are reviewed.
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    Modeling the Growth Kinetics of Fluidized-Bed Spray Granulation (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-31
    Description: Fluidized-bed spray granulation is used to produce porous granular particles from suspensions, solutions, and melts. In this work, the adapted two-fluid model approach is used to simulate the fluid dynamics in the fluidized bed, and a simplified direct quadrature method of moments is adopted to mimic the full particle size distribution. The size-dependent growth kinetics is obtained by computational fluid dynamics simulation for short process times from the modeling of drop deposition on the particles. This kinetics is used in the population balance equation to predict the evolution of the full particle size distribution for long process times. Such a multiscale approach allows for a description of continuous granulation processes. In this investigation, a coupled computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and population balance equation (PBE) approach is used to simulate the growth of polydisperse particles in a fluidized-bed spray granulation process. The growth kinetics is used in the PBE to solve the development of the particle size distribution for a long process time without considering the fluid dynamics.
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    Particle Residence Times in Fluidized Bed Granulation Equipments (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-05-31
    Description: Various types of fluidized bed equipments used in granulation were experimentally investigated in order to gain a more detailed insight in particle recirculation behavior and particle residence times in the two considered compartments, namely the spray compartment and the drying compartment. The investigated fluidized bed technologies comprise a top-spray process, a spout fluidized bed without and with internal riser, and a spouted bed. The measurements were conducted by using image analysis techniques on an almost 2D particle flow. From the results, conclusions about particle wetting and drying can be extracted, subject to fluidization velocity, nozzle mass flow rate, and facility/riser construction. An innovative approach for investigating various fluidized bed granulation equipments by applying two coupled image analyzing techniques is presented. State-of-the-art measurement techniques of particle image velocimetry in combination with a new algorithm of particle volume fraction determination are employed to experimentally identify local particle residence times in an unprecedented manner.
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    Cover Chem. Eng. Technol. 6/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: Turnkey plant for the production of high-quality vacuum gas oils. Copyright: ThyssenKrupp AG
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    Overview Contents: Chem. Eng. Technol. 6/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
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    Forum: Chem. Eng. Technol. 6/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
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    Scientific Highlights: Chem. Eng. Technol. 6/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
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    Estimation of Thermodynamic Properties of Polysaccharides (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: Polysaccharides are the most important components of herbal biomass with a high application potential. Their thermochemical characteristics, however, have been little studied. In the present paper, an effective thermodynamic analysis was carried out with the aim of setting a method for reasonably estimating the thermochemical properties of polysaccharides such as cellulose. The properties of formation and heat capacities were estimated by general thermodynamic methods like group contribution methods as well as methods followed from synthetic polymer studies. The results were compared with those obtained by empirical correlations derived from the data for short chain carbohydrates, the only literature data available for validation. The properties were determined depending on the degree of polymerization and temperature. Convenient thermodynamic methods for the estimation of thermochemical properties were analyzed with the objective of specifying those that could provide reasonable values for the homologous series of carbohydrates. The properties were determined as a function of temperature and carbo-hydrate chain length. These allow the prediction of formation properties of polysaccharides such as cellulose.
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    Safety-Considered Proactive Flare Minimization Strategy under Ethylene Plant Upsets (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: Ethylene plant upsets usually lead to flaring of off-spec products, resulting in significant losses of raw material and energy as well as to air emission problems. Under the premise of plant safe operation, establishing process recycles connecting off-spec streams to their upper-stream process can help to reduce flaring during plant upsets. Operational strategies for recycling the potential flaring sources, i.e., effluents from the acetylene reactor and ethylene tower overhead, under various process upsets are developed and analyzed based on rigorous plant-wide dynamic simulations. Safety considerations on the compressor system performance have been addressed by quantitative comparison of the effectiveness of various recycling strategies. Case studies demonstrate that the safety-considered flare minimization strategies can proactively reduce the flaring emission amount and upset time and thus have great potentials of economical and environmental benefits to ethylene plants. Recycling strategies for flaring minimization during ethylene plants upsets have been studied. The safety-considered flare minimization strategies can proactively reduce the flaring emission amount and upset time, thus indicating great potentials for economical and environmental benefits to ethylene plants.
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    Process Analysis and Multi-Objective Optimization of Ionic Liquid-Containing Acetonitrile Process to Produce 1,3-Butadiene (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: Using ionic liquid (IL) [C 2 MIM][PF 6 ] as an additive could remarkably improve the performance of the acetonitrile (CAN) process, which is the most widely used distillation process to produce 1,3-butadiene (1,3-BT). In this work, a rigorous simulation of a new IL process to produce 1,3-BT was carried out to evaluate the performance of IL additive on an industrial scale, using UNIFAC as the global thermodynamic model. Based on the simulation models, some key operation parameters, such as solvent ratio and reflux ratio, were determined by sensitivity analysis. Furthermore, a multi-objective optimization was proposed and performed considering both the energy consumption and environmental impact (green degree) of the new process. A nonlinear mathematical model was established to express this multi-objective optimization problem, which includes six decision variables and involves maximizing the green degree of the process, the purity and the recovery of 1,3-BT, and minimizing the energy consumption of the process. The optimization results showed that the energy consumption of the IL-containing process could be reduced by 22 % and that its green degree could be improved by 9.2 %. A multi-objective optimization model for an IL-containing process which involves six decision variables and four objectives, including environmental impact (green degree), was proposed and solved by a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm (non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm).
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    An Image Analysis Method for the Measurement of Mixing Times in Stirred Vessels (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: An image analysis method has been developed for measuring mixing times in stirred vessels. The method consists of capturing images of the flow patterns observed in the agitated vessel by use of a fast acid-base indicator reaction technique. These images are analyzed to quantify the color evolution by means of a hue, light, and saturation color model (HLS), which corresponds to mixing evolution. In comparison with other non-intrusive techniques based on the red, green, and blue channels (RGB), the proposed methodology allows accurate analysis of the mixing evolution irrespective of the tracer color used, while reducing the subjectivity of the estimation of mixing times by the human eye. An alternative method based on the HLS (hue, light, and saturation) model was developed for measuring mixing times in stirred vessels. The method consists of capturing images of the flow patterns observed in the agitated vessel. Comparisons with other sophisticated and novel non-intrusive techniques are also presented.
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    Data Preprocessing of In Situ Laser-Backscattering Measurements (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: In situ measurement techniques are promising tools to aid process development. However, they also pose new challenges in evaluating large amounts of recorded data. A new procedure for in situ laser-backscattering devices has been developed that allows transformation of the raw recorded data, a chord length distribution, into a format suitable for population balance modeling. Emphasis is thereby laid on the influence of the suspension density on the measured data. Experimental data are recorded using a batch laboratory crystallizer equipped with an in situ 3D-ORM laser backscattering device and an ultrasound probe. The new proposed five-step procedure for data preprocessing is based on several independently developed tools from literature and is exemplarily illustrated with results on the crystallization of ascorbic acid. The proposed method is a step forward to use in situ laser-backscattering devices also for quantitative purposes. Based on a detailed literature review of laser-backscattering instruments, a new five-step procedure for preprocessing of a threfold dynamical optical reflectance measurement or focused beam reflectance measurement data was developed. In order to validate the method, three typical crystallization model systems were identified.
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    Experimental Study on Time Features of Particle Motion in Rotating Drums (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: Rotating drums are widely used in pharmaceutical industry to coat tablets. The motion of the tablet particle is one of the most important factors affecting coating uniformity. The purpose of the research is to experimentally investigate two important time variables for the coating process, residence time and turnover time, and their dependence on operating parameters (rotation speed and filling degree of the drum). The average residence time was found to decrease with increasing rotation speed and filling degree. The average turnover time was observed to increase approximately linearly with the inverse of the drum speed, but was found to be independent of the filling degree. A dimensionless time variable, the fractional residence time, i.e., the residence time divided by the turnover time, was introduced. Analysis showed that the fractional residence time could be a good indicator of coating uniformity. Results of the present work provide useful information for theoretical modeling which may ultimately serve as a tool for coating optimization. Rotating drums are widely used in pharmaceutical industry to coat tablets. The time features of the particle motion in the drum exert great influence on the coating performance. In the present work, effects of drum operating parameters on particle residence time and turnover time were investigated in a quasi-2D rotating drum using the image-processing technique.
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    Overview Contents: Chemie Ingenieur Technik 6/2011 (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
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    Synthesis of Nano-γ-Ferric Oxide by Thermolysis of the 2-Mercapto-5-Methylpyridine-N-Oxide-Iron(III) Complex via Factorial Design (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-06-01
    Description: 2-Mercapto-5-methylpyridine-N-oxide (MMPNO) and its sodium salt (NaMMPNO) were synthesized. The reaction of the latter with Fe 3+ generates Fe(MMPNO) 3 chelate. The thermolysis of this chelate at 350 °C yielded highly pure reddish-brown γ -Fe 2 O 3 nanocrystallites with an average particle size of 6.2 nm, a particle size range of 4.2 to 14.8 nm, and a specific surface area of 51.5 m 2 g –1 . The thermolysis process was optimized using the 2 2 fractional design. Quantitative tests and characterization of products were carried out by UV-vis spectroscopy, XRD, LLS, SEM, TGA, BET, TEM, FT-IR, elemental microanalysis, and classical analytical measurements. γ-Fe 2 O 3 nano-crystallites with an average particle size of 6.2 nm and a specific surface area of 51.5 m 2 g –1 were obtained at 350 °C by thermolysis of Fe(MMPNO) 3 chelate, the reaction product of the sodium salt of 2-mercapto-5-methylpyridine- N -oxide (NaMMPNO) with Fe 3+ . The thermolysis process was optimized using the 2 2 fractional design. Quantification and characterization of the products are described.
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    Effect of Tween 80 on Bubble Size and Mass Transfer in a Bubble Contactor (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: Gas absorption in aqueous solutions with Tween 80 and absorption processes based on hydrodynamics and mass transfer is determined. The impact of surfactant concentration on gas holdup and gas-liquid interfacial area is analyzed, observing an increase of these parameters with surfactant concentration. The influence of liquid-phase contamination on the absorption process is investigated on the basis of the liquid-film mass transfer coefficient, removing the effect caused by the presence of a surfactant and the gas flow rate on the interfacial area and, thereby, on the volumetric mass transfer coefficient. The opposite effect on the mass transfer coefficient can be observed which decreases in the presence of the surfactant. The influence of Tween 80 on parameters like gas holdup, bubble size distribution, interfacial area, and mass transfer coefficient related with the mass transfer rate in a bubble column contactor was investigated. Tween 80 generated a substantial increase of the gas-liquid interfacial area, caused by a significant decrease of the bubble diameter, but did not affect the gas holdup.
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    Heat Transfer Augmentation and Entropy Generation Analysis of a Helically Coiled Tube with Internal Longitudinal Fins (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: Heat transfer augmentation and entropy generation were investigated for a helically coiled tube with internal longitudinal fins. The Nusselt number, friction factor, thermal-hydraulic performance ratio, and augmentation entropy generation number were calculated and analyzed. The results indicated that the internal longitudinal fins enhance the secondary flows and increase the temperature gradient near the tube wall, which in turn increase the heat transfer. It was found that the helically coiled tube with internal longitudinal fins provides the best integrated performance over the range of computed Dean numbers. The Nusselt number rised by 20–35 % with a corresponding 27–56 % increase of the friction factor. The computed results indicated that augmentation entropy generation numbers are approximately changed between 0.012 to 0.132 levels, i.e., the novel helically coiled tube with internal longitudinal fins is more efficient than that without internal fins. Heat transfer augmentation, entropy generation, and fluid flow performances of a novel helically coiled tube with internal longitudinal fins were studied and compared to the helically coiled tube without internal fins. The heat transfer of the novel tube could be enhanced by 20–35 %, attributed to the augmentation of secondary flows and an increase of the temperature gradient near the tube wall.
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    Stabilization of Heavy Oil-Water Emulsions using a Bio/Chemical Emulsifier Mixture (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: In this study, the viscosity reduction of heavy oil has been investigated through the formation of oil-water emulsion using a bio/chemical emulsifier mixture. Four bioemulsifiers from indigenous Rhodococcus ergthropolis and Bacillus licheniformis strains were used to stabilize a highly-viscous oil-in-water emulsion. The Taguchi method with an L 9 orthogonal array design was used to investigate the effect of various control factors on the formation of the oil/water emulsions. An emulsion with lowest viscosity was formed using ACO4 strain. The substantial stability of the oil-in-water emulsion allows the heavy oil to be transported practically over long distances or remain stationary for a considerable period of time prior to utilization. As the result of Taguchi analysis, the temperature and concentration of the emulsifier had a significant influence on viscosity reduction of the emulsion. Four bioemulsifiers from indigenous Rhodococcus ergthropolis and Bacillus licheniformis strains were used to stabilize highly-viscous oil-in-water emulsions. Results showed that these new strains are valuable sources of new compounds with surface-active properties, with potential applications in the oil industries.
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    E3 Analysis for Crude and Vacuum Distillation System (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: Crude oil blending is a very common practice in petroleum refineries, where the main focus is to minimize the total purchase cost of crude oils under specified blending oil properties. Crude oil blending actually has significant impacts on energy consumption from heating furnaces during crude oil processing. Conceivably, furnace energy consumption from burning fuels such as natural gas, fuel oil, or propane causes huge amounts of CO 2 emissions. In this paper, a methodology framework for crude oil blending and processing with simultaneous consideration of energy, emission, and economic profit (E3) is developed. It includes four stages of work: steady-state modeling, heating energy consumption calculation, emission model development, and economic evaluation. With Aspen HYSYS simulation, the developed methodology provides a quantitative support for refinery to identify an optimal E3 operating strategy. A case study is implemented to demonstrate the efficacy of this methodology. A methodology framework for crude oil blending and processing with simultaneous consideration of energy, emission, and economic profit (E3) is developed, including steady-state process modeling, heating energy consumption calculation, emission model development, and economic evaluation. A case study is implemented to demonstrate the efficacy of this methodology.
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    Preparation and Performance of a Novel Water-Soluble Cationic Polymer Containing β-Cyclodextrin (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: Allyl-β-cyclodextrin is utilized to react with dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride and acrylamide to synthesize a novel water-soluble cationic polymer by redox free-radical polymerization. The optimum polymerization conditions are determined by the single-variable method, while the structure is characterized by Fourier transform infrared and scanning electron microscopy. In rheological experiments the polymer demonstrates superior properties compared to polyacrylamide. Interfacial tension and adsorption experiments prove the excellent performance of the polymer which can effectively decrease the interfacial tension and reduce the surfactant loss caused by stratum absorption in the process of polymer/surfactant flooding, thus indicating the potential application of the polymer for enhancing oil recovery. A novel water-soluble cationic polymer containing β-cyclodextrin was synthesized by redox free-radical polymerization. The new polymer exhibited better rheological properties than polyacrylamide and was able to decrease interfacial tension and effectively reduce the surfactant loss caused by stratum adsorption. These advantages indicate great potential applications in enhancing oil recovery.
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    Determination of Mechanism for Soot Oxidation with NO on Potassium Supported Mg-Al Hydrotalcite Mixed Oxides (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-10-07
    Description: Soot oxidation with NO (in the absence of gas phase O 2 ) on potassium-supported Mg-Al hydrotalcite mixed oxides (K/MgAlO) was studied using a temperature-programmed reaction and in situ FTIR techniques. Nitrite and the ketene group were identified as the reaction intermediates and thus a nitrite-ketene mechanism was proposed in which surface active oxygen on K sites of K/MgAlO is transferred to soot by NO through nitrites. In the absence of gas phase O 2 , soot oxidation with NO at lower temperatures (below 450 °C) is limited by the amount of active oxygen on the K sites. This kind of active oxygen is not reusable but can be replenished in the presence of gas phase O 2 . Soot oxidation with NO on K/MgAIO was studied by temperature-programmed reaction and in situ FTIR. The nitrite and the ketene group were identified as the reaction intermediates and thus a nitrite–ketene mechanism was proposed, in which surface active oxygen on K sites is transferred to soot by NO through nitrites, forming the ketene group.
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    Process Development for Antibody Purification from Tobacco by Protein A Affinity Chromatography (2011)
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    Publication Date: 2011-11-09
    Description: Tobacco is possibly the most promising plant for plant-made pharmaceuticals, e.g., antibodies, due to its high biomass yields and robust transformation technology. Protein A affinity chromatography is commonly used for antibody purification, however, direct application of tobacco extract to protein A chromatography columns may be problematic due to the nonspecific binding of native tobacco proteins (NTPs). Three different protein A resins, ProSep-vA High Capacity, Ultra, and Ultra Plus, from Millipore were studied for antibody purification from tobacco. Experiments were run with extracts from nontransgenic tobacco and the model antibody, human immunoglobulin G (IgG). The efficiency of the wash buffers to reduce nonspecific binding of NTPs to the resins was evaluated by altering the ionic strength and pH. Considering all factors, Ultra Plus Protein A resin may be the best in antibody purification from tobacco. Protein A chromatography was performed with three different protein A resins from Millipore for antibody purification from tobacco. Experiments were run with extracts from nontransgenic tobacco and the model antibody human IgG. The efficiency of different wash buffers to reduce nonspecific binding of native tobacco proteins to the resins was evaluated by altering the ionic strength and pH.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1521-4125
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    A Method for Deriving Explicit Binary Isotherms Obeying the Ideal Adsorbed Solution Theory (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-11-09
    Description: A method to derive explicit binary isotherms following the ideal adsorbed solution (IAS) theory is proposed. The method is applicable to any pair of single-component isotherms, as long as they fulfill a set of conditions, as described in this report. Examples of some isotherms fulfilling such conditions are: Langmuir, anti-Langmuir, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and quadratic. Following the method proposed in this report, three previously unreported explicit binary isotherms, quadratic-BET, quadratic-Langmuir, and quadratic-anti-Langmuir, while following the IAS framework, could be derived. This work presents the method and the binary isotherms derived through this method. Chromatography practitioners are often confronted with the need of using complex isotherms, possibly with inflection points, to model the retention behavior. In the case of mixtures, combining such isotherms is a challenge. The effectiveness of a method based on the ideal adsorption solution theory is demonstrated to obtain explicit binary isotherms in these difficult and important cases.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1521-4125
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    Calculation of Critical Efficiency Factors of Microwave Energy Conversion into Heat (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-11-09
    Description: A modeling approach aimed at calculating critical efficiency factors of microwave energy conversion into heat for different operating conditions is presented. In the experimental part, an efficiency factor was determined for microwave heating of 13X zeolites in a multimode microwave cavity. A comparison of the obtained results with the results reported in the literature indicated that microwave heating (MH) can be more energy-efficient than convective heating (CH). Moreover, it follows from the performed simulations that maintaining the same adsorbent bed temperatures in MH and CH for increasing gas flow rates rises energy consumptions in CH and decreases the critical efficiency factors, thereby improving the economic efficiency of MH. Microwave heating (MH) and convective heating (CH) are compared in order to calculate critical efficiency factors of microwave energy conversion into thermal energy for different operating conditions. The calculated critical efficiency factors indicate when MH is more energy efficient than CV. A simple approach for evaluation of an efficiency factor is presented.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1521-4125
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    A Priori Property Estimation of Physical and Reactive CO2 Absorbents (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-11-15
    Description: The physical as well as the chemical solubility of carbon dioxide in several ionic liquids were predicted with quantum chemical a priori methods. The physical solubility was described with the model COSMO-RS. The results were compared to experimental data. Both a qualitative and – based on the concept of relative solubility – quantitative benchmark for the solvents were possible. For the part of chemical absorption, the free reaction enthalpy, Δ R g , and reaction enthalpy, Δ R h , were determined with DFT calculations on the B3LYP/def2-TZVPP level. By combining reaction and phase equilibrium, the CO 2 loading of the reactive solvents were predicted. The results were validated with literature data. An approach was developed for a quantitative a priori description of both physical and chemical solvation of CO 2 . A new approach is presented for the a priori screening of physical and reacting absorbents for CO 2 . Predictions of physical solubility are made using COSMO-RS. For the description of the chemical reaction, the chemical and phase equilibrium are simultaneously solved by combining quantum chemical calculations on the DFT level with a model for the phase equilibrium.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1521-4125
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    Simulated Moving Bed Chromatography: From Concept to Proof-of-Concept (2011)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2011-12-03
    Description: This work presents a comprehensive insight about simulated moving bed (SMB) technology, from concept to unit operation and process demonstration. A particular relevance is given to SMB nonconventional modes of operation, modeling, and design of SMB-based separations as well as to the construction and operation of SMB units. A conventional separation of a racemic mixture of ( S , R )-α-tetralol by means of the FlexSMB-LSRE® unit is addressed to better exemplify a state-of-the-art SMB lab-scale process development and demonstration. The development of a chromatographic separation by means of one of its most successful continuous countercurrent moving bed processes, the simulated moving bed (SMB), is detailed up to the demonstration stage. The concept of SMB, its applications, and the more relevant nonconventional operation modes are revised and the design, modeling, construction, and operation of a flexible SMB unit are addressed.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1521-4125
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    Scientific Highlights: Chem. Eng. Technol. 3/2013 (2013)
    Wiley
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-26
    Print ISSN: 0930-7516
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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