ALBERT

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding biodiversity–ecosystem function (BEF) relationships in forest systems is crucial for effective forest management and restoration, yet testing these relationships is often limited by biased diversity patterns in forestry plantings (biased towards commercially valuable species) and uncontrollable diversity in mature natural forests. Multispecies reforestation plantings present a valuable opportunity to investigate BEF relationships in woody systems, especially across large environmental gradients. Location Reforestation plantings across the arable region of Australia. Time period 1951–2012. Major taxa studied Three hundred and sixty‐four woody plant species. Methods We examined relationships between productivity and diversity using inventory data from 977 plots in 386 multispecies reforestation plantings. Diversity was estimated using observed species richness and three functional diversity indices calculated from four functional traits: specific leaf area, wood density, seed mass and maximum attainable height. We modelled how plot‐level biomass accumulation (a productivity proxy) correlated with these diversity indices, as well as age since planting, plant density and three environmental variables: solar radiation, moisture availability and soil sand content. These models were fitted across Australia and, separately, within eight groups of plantings with similar environmental conditions. Results We found no correlation between diversity and productivity, regardless of the diversity metric or spatial scale used (continent‐wide or within environment groups). Instead, productivity was best explained by local environmental conditions and plant density. Main conclusions A positive relationship between diversity and productivity was not evident in planted forests across a wide range of Australian woodland and forest systems, at least in the first few decades of growth. Our findings suggest that the positive relationship between diversity and productivity commonly reported in experimental settings should not be assumed for all systems and conditions.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aims Phylogenetic endemism describes the extent to which unique phylogenetic lineages are constrained to restricted geographic areas. Previous studies indicate that species endemism is related to both past and modern climate, but studies of phylogenetic endemism are relatively rare and mainly focused on smaller regions. Here, we provide the first assessment of the patterns of species and phylogenetic endemism in angiosperm trees across the Northern Hemisphere as well as the relative importance of modern climate and glacial–interglacial climate change as drivers of these patterns. Location Northern Hemisphere. Major taxa Angiosperm trees. Methods Using tree assemblages at the scale of 100 km × 100 km grid cells and simultaneous autoregressive (SAR) models, we assessed the relationships between species endemism, phylogenetic endemism and modern climate variables, Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to present temperature velocity. Results Species and phylogenetic endemism were associated with both modern climate and glacial–interglacial climate change, with higher values in areas with stable historical climate and warmer and wetter modern conditions. Notably, the multivariate SAR analyses showed that the combinations of variables with highest Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) weight always included both LGM–present climate instability and modern climate, that is, modern precipitation and temperature. Main conclusions Our results show that high phylogenetic endemism is partially dependent on long‐term climate stability, highlighting the threat posed by future climate changes to the preservation of rare, phylogenetically distinct lineages of trees.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The geographic range and ecological niche of species are widely used concepts in ecology, evolution and conservation and many modelling approaches have been developed to quantify each. Niche and distribution modelling methods require a litany of design choices; differences among subdisciplines have created communication barriers that increase isolation of scientific advances. As a result, understanding and reproducing the work of others is difficult, if not impossible. It is often challenging to evaluate whether a model has been built appropriately for its intended application or subsequent reuse. Here, we propose a standardized model metadata framework that enables researchers to understand and evaluate modelling decisions while making models fully citable and reproducible. Such reproducibility is critical for both scientific and policy reports, while international standardization enables better comparison between different scenarios and research groups. Innovation Range modelling metadata (RMMS) address three challenges: they (a) are designed for convenience to encourage use, (b) accommodate a wide variety of applications, and (c) are extensible to allow the research community to steer them as needed. RMMS are based on a metadata dictionary that specifies a hierarchical structure to catalogue different aspects of the range modelling process. The dictionary balances a constrained, minimalist vocabulary to improve standardization with flexibility for users to modify and extend. To facilitate use, we have developed an R package, rangeModelMetaData, to build templates, automatically fill values from common modelling objects, check for inconsistencies with standards, and suggest values. Main conclusions Range Modelling Metadata tools foster cross‐disciplinary advances in biogeography, conservation and allied disciplines by improving evaluation, model sharing, model searching, comparisons and reproducibility among studies. Our initially proposed standards here are designed to be modified and extended to evolve with research trends and needs.

Beschreibung: Abstract Background Studies that attempt to measure shifts in species distributions often consider a single species in isolation. However, understanding changes in spatial overlap between predators and their prey might provide deeper insight into how species redistribution affects food web dynamics. Predator–prey overlap metrics Here, we review a suite of 10 metrics [range overlap, area overlap, the local index of collocation (Pianka's O), Hurlbert's index, biomass‐weighted overlap, asymmetrical alpha, Schoener's D, Bhattacharyya's coefficient, the global index of collocation and the AB ratio] that describe how two species overlap in space, using concepts such as binary co‐occurrence, encounter rates, spatial niche similarity, spatial independence, geographical similarity and trophic transfer. We describe the specific ecological insights that can be gained using each overlap metric, in order to determine which is most appropriate for describing spatial predator–prey interactions for different applications. Simulation and case study We use simulated predator and prey distributions to demonstrate how the 10 metrics respond to variation in three types of predator–prey interactions: changing spatial overlap between predator and prey, changing predator population size and changing patterns of predator aggregation in response to prey density. We also apply these overlap metrics to a case study of a predatory fish (arrowtooth flounder, Atheresthes stomias) and its prey (juvenile walleye pollock, Gadus chalcogrammus) in the Eastern Bering Sea, AK, USA. We show how the metrics can be applied to understand spatial and temporal variation in the overlap of species distributions in this rapidly changing Arctic ecosystem. Conclusions Using both simulated and empirical data, we provide a roadmap for ecologists and other practitioners to select overlap metrics to describe particular aspects of spatial predator–prey interactions. We outline a range of research and management applications for which each metric may be suited.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Establishments of non‐native forest pests (insects and pathogens) continue to increase worldwide with growing numbers of introductions and changes in invasion pathways. Quantifying spatio‐temporal patterns in establishment locations and subsequent invasion dynamics can provide insight into the underlying mechanisms driving invasions and assist biosecurity agencies with prioritizing areas for proactive surveillance and management. Location United States of America. Time period 1794–2018. Major taxa studied Insecta, plant pathogens. Methods Using locations of first discovery and county‐level occurrence data for 101 non‐native pests across the contiguous USA, we (a) quantified spatial patterns in discovery points and county‐level species richness with spatial point process models and spatial hotspot analyses, respectively, and (b) identified potential proxies for propagule pressure (e.g., human population density) associated with these observed patterns. Results Discovery points were highly aggregated in space and located in areas with high densities of ports and roads. Although concentrated in the north‐eastern USA, discovery points also occurred farther west and became less aggregated as time progressed. Invasion hotspots were more common in the north‐east. Geographic patterns of discovery points and hotspots varied substantially among pest origins (i.e., global region of pests’ native ranges) and pest feeding guilds. Significant variation in invasion richness was attributed to the patterns of first discovery locations. Data and shapefiles comprising analyses are provided. Main conclusions Use of spatial point pattern analyses provided a quantitative characterization of the central role of human activities in establishment of non‐native pests. Moreover, the decreased aggregation of discovery points through time suggests that invasion pathways to certain areas in the USA have either been created or intensified by human activities. Overall, our results suggest that spatio‐temporal variability in the intensity of invasion pathways has resulted in marked geographic patterns of establishment and contributed to current macroscale patterns of pest invasion in the USA.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The importance of framing investigations of organism–environment relationships to interpret patterns at relevant spatial scales is increasingly recognized. However, most research related to environmental relationships is single‐scaled, implicitly or explicitly assuming that a “species characteristic selection scale” exists. We tested the premise that a single characteristic scale exists to understand species–environment relationships within species by asking (a) what are the characteristic scales of species’ relationships with environmental predictors, and (b) is within‐species, cross‐predictor consistency in characteristic scales a general phenomenon. Location Nebraska, USA. Time period 2016. Major taxa studied Birds. Methods We used data from 86 species at 〉 500 locations to build hierarchical N‐mixture models relating species abundance to land cover variables. By incorporating Bayesian latent indicator scale selection, we identified the spatial scales that best explain species–environment relationships with each land cover predictor. We quantified the extent of cross‐predictor consistency in characteristic scales, and contrasted this to the expectation given a single species’ characteristic scale. Results We found no evidence for a characteristic spatial scale explaining all abundance–environment relationships within species, rather we found substantial variation in scale‐dependence across multiple environmental attributes. Furthermore, 33% of species displayed evidence of multiple important spatial scales within environmental attributes. Major conclusions Within species there is little evidence for a single characteristic scale of environmental relationships and considerable variation in species’ scale dependencies. Because species may respond to multiple environmental attributes at different spatial scales, or single environmental attributes at multiple scales, we caution against any unoptimized single‐scale studies. Our results demonstrate that until a framework is developed to predict the scales at which species respond to environmental characteristics, multi‐scale investigations must be performed to identify and account for multi‐scale dependencies. Natural selection acting on species’ response to distinct environmental attributes, rather than natural selection acting on species’ perception of spatial scales per se, may have shaped patterns of scale dependency and is an area ripe for investigation.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The rate and magnitude of climate‐induced tree range shifts may be influenced by range‐wide variation in recruitment, which acts as a bottleneck in tree range dynamics. Here, we compare range predictions made using standard species distribution models (SDMs) and an integrated metamodelling approach that assimilates data on adult occurrence, seedling recruitment dynamics, and seedling survival under both current and future climate, and evaluate the degree to which information provided by seedling data can improve predictions of range dynamics. Location The interior west region of the United States. Time period 1990–2015. Major taxa studied Five widespread conifer tree species. Methods We used a previously published metamodelling framework to combine information from SDMs of adult tree occurrence and sub‐models describing seedling recruitment dynamics and seedling survival into a single set of predictions for the probability of occurrence for each species. The integrated framework links sub‐models to a SDM to generate cohesive predictions that consider information and uncertainty contained in all datasets. We then compared predictions from the integrated model to SDM predictions. Results Integration of seedling information served primarily to improve characterization of model uncertainty, particularly in regions where recruitment may be limited by temperatures that exceed seedling tolerance. Integration constrained response curves very slightly across most climate gradients, particularly across temperature gradients. These differences were primarily attributable to the isolated effects of temperature on seedling survival and not to recruitment dynamics. Main conclusions Our results indicate that range‐wide variation in recruitment both now and in the future is most uncertain along the edges of occupied regions, which increases uncertainty in projections of future species occurrence along range margins. Overall, the broad‐scale climatic dependence of the regeneration niche appears weaker than that of the adult climatic niche, and this enhances uncertainty in predicting range‐wide responses of these species to climate change.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 4, Page 415-417, April 2019.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Tropical species are thought to experience and be adapted to narrow ranges of abiotic conditions. This idea has been invoked to explain a broad array of biological phenomena, including the latitudinal diversity gradient and differential rates of speciation and extinction. However, debate continues regarding the broad‐scale applicability of this pattern and potential processes responsible. Here, we use a simulation approach to test two propositions: (a) strong geographical patterns in realized niche breadth variation can arise in the absence of variance in fundamental niche breadth size, and (b) realized niche breadths can show latitudinal patterns as a consequence of spatio‐temporal climate change, even when fundamental niche breadths are unrelated to latitude and dispersal abilities are held constant. Location Global. Time period Simulations were conducted using climate models from over the last 120 ka, with trait dynamics captured at 95 ka and in the Modern. Major taxa studied We used virtual species with traits based loosely on plants. Methods We simulated latitudinal trends of niche breadth and range size for virtual species using a cellular automaton algorithm that linked a gridded geographical domain with a three‐dimensional environmental landscape. Results In all simulations, strong spatial patterns in realized niches were obtained in the absence of niche evolution, and realized niches showed geographical patterns deriving only from realistic, spatio‐temporal variation in climate. We noted contrasting patterns of niche breadth in different environmental dimensions, with temperature breadth increasing with latitude, but precipitation breadth decreasing with latitude. Overall, simulation outcomes mimicked the real‐world pattern of latitudinal range extent co‐varying with amount of land area. Main conclusions Tropical species can have narrower niche breadths for maximum and minimum temperature ranges compared with temperate species solely as the result of the spatial arrangement of environments. We therefore suggest that the complex spatio‐temporal distribution of global abiotic environments has strong potential for structuring observed latitudinal gradients of niche breadths.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) are unique communities that support a high proportion of depth‐endemic species distinct from shallow‐water coral reefs. However, there is currently little consensus on the boundaries between shallow and mesophotic coral reefs and between upper versus lower MCEs because studies of these communities are often site specific. Here, we examine the ecological evidence for community breaks, defined here as species loss, in fish and benthic taxa between shallow reefs and MCEs globally. Location Global MCEs. Time period 1973–2017. Major taxa studied Macrophytes, Porifera, Scleractinia, Hydrozoa, Octocorallia, Antipatharia and teleost fishes. Methods We used random‐effects models and breakpoint analyses on presence/absence data to identify regions of higher than expected species loss along a depth gradient of 1–69 m, based on a meta‐analysis of 26 studies spanning diverse photoautotrophic and heterotrophic taxa. We then investigated the extent to which points of high faunal turnover can be explained by environmental factors, including light, temperature and nutrient availability. Results We found evidence for a community break, indicated by a significant loss of shallow‐water taxa, at ~ 60 m across several taxonomically and functionally diverse benthic groups and geographical regions. The breakpoint in benthic composition is best explained by decreasing light, which is correlated with the optical depths between 10 and 1% of surface irradiance. A concurrent shift in the availability of nutrients, both dissolved and particulate organic matter, and a shift from photoautotroph to heterotroph‐dominated assemblages also occurs at ~ 60 m depth. Main conclusions We found evidence for global community breaks across multiple benthic taxa at ~ 60 m depth, indicative of distinct community transitions between shallow and mesophotic coral ecosystems. Changes in the underwater light environment and the availability of trophic resources along the depth gradient are the most parsimonious explanations for the observed patterns.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding fire effects on pollinators is critical in the context of fire regime changes and the global pollination crisis. Through a systematic and quantitative review of the literature, we provide the first global assessment of pollinator responses to fire. We hypothesize that pollinators increase after fire and during the early postfire succession stages; however, high fire frequency has the opposite effect, decreasing pollinators. Location Terrestrial ecosystems, excluding Antarctica. Time period Data collected from 1973 to 2017. Major taxa studied Insects (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) and a few bird species. Methods We first compiled available studies across the globe that assessed fire effects on pollinator communities. Then, by means of hierarchical meta‐analyses, we evaluated how different fire regime parameters (fire frequency, postfire time and fire type) and habitat characteristics affect the abundance and richness of animals that act as pollinators. We also explored to what extent the responses vary among taxa groups and life history traits of pollinators (sociality system, nest location and feeding specialization), and among biomes. Results The overall effect size of fire on pollinator abundance and richness across all studies was positive. Fire effect was especially clear and significant in early postfire communities, after wildfires, and for Hymenoptera. Taxonomic resolution influenced fire effects, where only studies at the species/genus and family levels showed significant effects. The main exceptions were recurrent fires that showed a negative effect, and especially wildfire effects on Lepidoptera abundance that showed a significant negative response. Main conclusions Pollinators tend to be promoted after a wildfire event. However, short fire intervals may threat pollinators, and especially lepidopterans. Given the current fire regime changes at the global scale, it is imperative to monitor postfire pollinators across many ecosystems, as our results suggest that fire regime is critical in determining the dynamics of pollinator communities.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Microorganisms carrying pmoA and nosZ genes are major drivers of methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from soils. However, most studies on these organisms have been conducted in mesic ecosystems; therefore, little is known about the factors driving their distribution in drylands, the largest biome on Earth. We conducted a global survey to evaluate the role of climate‐ and soil‐related variables as predictors of the richness, abundance and community structure of bacteria carrying pmoA and nosZ genes. Location Eighty dryland ecosystems distributed worldwide. Time period From February 2006 to December 2011. Major taxa studied Methanotrophic (carrying the pmoA gene) and denitrifiying (carrying the nosZ gene) bacteria. Methods We used data from a field survey and structural equation modelling to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of climatic (aridity, rainfall seasonality and mean annual temperature) and soil (organic carbon, pH and texture) variables on the total abundance, richness and community structure of microorganisms carrying pmoA and nosZ genes. Results Taxa related to Methylococcus capsulatus or Methylocapsa sp., often associated with mesic environments, were common in global drylands. The abundance and richness of methanotrophs were not associated with climate or soil properties. However, mean annual temperature, rainfall seasonality, organic C, pH and sand content were highly correlated with their community structure. Aridity and soil variables, such as sand content and pH, were correlated with the abundance, community structure and richness of the nosZ bacterial community. Main conclusions Our study provides new insights into the drivers of the abundance, richness and community structure of soil microorganisms carrying pmoA and nosZ genes in drylands worldwide. We highlight how ongoing climate change will alter the structure of soil microorganisms, which might affect the net CH4 exchange and will probably reduce the capacity of dryland soils to carry out the final step of denitrification, favouring net N2O emissions.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To test whether intraspecific trait responses to climate among populations across species distribution ranges can be untangled using field observations, under the rationale that, in natural forest tree populations, long‐term climate shapes population responses while recent climate change drives phenotypic plasticity. Location Europe. Time period 1901–2014. Taxa Silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and sessile oak [Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.]. Methods We estimated the variation of individual tree height as a function of long‐term and short‐term climates to tease apart provenance effects (variation among populations of different geographical origin), plasticity and their interaction, using mixed‐effect models calibrated with national forest inventory data (in‐situ models). To validate our approach, we tested the ability of in‐situ models to predict independently tree height observations in common gardens experiments where provenance and plastic effects can be measured and separated. In‐situ model predictions of tree height variation among provenances and among planting sites were compared to observations in common gardens and to predictions from a similar model calibrated using common garden data (ex‐situ model). Results In Q. petraea, we found high correlations between in‐situ and ex‐situ model predictions of provenance and plasticity effects and their interaction for tree height (r 〉 .80). We showed that the in‐situ models significantly predicted tree height variation among provenances and sites for A. alba and Q. petraea. Spatial predictions of phenotypic plasticity across species distribution ranges indicate decreasing tree height in populations of warmer climates in response to recent anthropogenic climate warming. Main conclusions Our modelling approach using national forest inventory observations provides a new perspective for understanding patterns of intraspecific trait variation across species ranges. Its application is particularly interesting for species for which common garden experiments do not exist or do not cover the entire climatic range of the species.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding the role of interspecific interactions in maintaining diversity, ecosystem function and evolutionary processes is a major challenge in ecology. Historically, antagonistic heterospecific interactions were the focus of many studies, but the importance of facilitative interactions has become increasingly apparent over recent decades. Ecological networks can provide insights into potential interactions among co‐occurring heterospecifics. We compared the structures of temperate and tropical marine fish co‐occurrence networks to estimate their resilience and/or robustness to perturbations. Location Western Australia. Time period Present. Major taxa studied Marine fishes. Methods We compared the structure of temperate and tropical marine fish communities through interspecific co‐occurrences using joint species distribution modelling. Network analyses identified modules of co‐occurring species and those which play a strong role in the organization of communities. Results In all study locations, most interspecific co‐occurrences did not differ significantly from random, with positive co‐occurrences being more prevalent than negative non‐random co‐occurrences. The modularity of networks created from interspecific co‐occurrences tended to decrease poleward, with the opposite for species centrality. An increase in functional diversity among co‐occurring species with latitude was detected. Species centrality was greatest among the temperate endemic species, with a positive association between species centrality and intrinsic vulnerability scores. Main conclusions The differences in community structure between tropical and temperate Western Australian marine fish communities might be attributable, in part, to differing evolutionary histories. The temperate endemic species have co‐evolved in a relatively homogeneous abiotic and biotic environment, whereas the Indo‐Pacific ichthyofauna have evolved in a diverse range of environments. The temperate communities are characterized by: (a) low functional redundancy among co‐occurring species, with endemic species playing keystone roles in community structure; (b) attributes associated with increased vulnerability to perturbations; with (c) many of the species identified as potential keystone species having high intrinsic vulnerability scores and being targeted by fishers.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To investigate the overall effect of spiders on pest suppression and crop performance, and to explore the extent to which the biocontrol efficacy of spiders depends on the characteristics of spiders, pests, agroecosystems, climate and geography. Location Global. Time period 1970–2017. Major taxa studied Spiders. Methods We performed a meta‐analysis of 58 published studies where we investigated (a) the overall effect of spiders on pest density and crop performance; (b) the extent to which the biocontrol efficacy of spiders depends on the taxonomy of pests (aphids, leafhoppers, beetles, and lepidopteran larvae), the hunting strategy of spiders (hunters, web‐weavers), crop type (vine, cabbage, wheat, rice), climate, and geography. Results Spiders suppressed agricultural pest insects in 79% of cases. The mean effect size of increased spider density on pest suppression was large (Hedge's d = 0.89; 95% confidence interval (CI95 )= 0.66–1.12). Spider pest suppression efficacy slightly increased also with taxonomic diversity (d = 0.33; CI95 = 0.05–0.61). The effects of spiders cascaded down and improved crop performance (d = 2.3, CI95 = 0.70–3.84). The effects of spiders seemed to escalate rather than attenuate down through the agricultural food‐chains (regression slopes 〉 1). The biocontrol efficacy of spiders was highest in rice followed by grape, cabbage and wheat. The pest suppression efficacy of spiders and the positive effect of spiders on crop yield slightly increased towards the tropics and with mean annual temperature. Spiders suppressed the four pest groups with similar efficacy. Main conclusions The meta‐analysis provides strong evidence that spiders are effective in natural pest control and improve crop performance. However, the efficacy of spiders differed among crops. Our study substantiates the few earlier findings that predation pressure and the intensity of trophic cascades in terrestrial ecosystems intensify towards the tropics.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Many hypotheses exist to explain the astonishing variation in geographical range size across species, but these have rarely been tested under a unifying framework that simultaneously considers direct and indirect effects of ecological niche processes and evolutionary dynamics. Here, we jointly evaluate ecological and evolutionary hypotheses that might account for global interspecific patterns of range size in the most species‐rich avian order: Passeriformes (perching birds). Location Global. Time period Current. Major taxa studied Order Passeriformes. Methods We used phylogenetic path analysis to test for the relationship between eight variables and range size. Our list of predictors included a set of niche‐related variables (both Grinellian and Eltonian), species‐specific morphological and life‐history traits (body size, dispersal ability and fertility), extrinsic (human footprint) and evolutionary factors (time since divergence from the closest extant relative). Results We found that Grinellian (climatic) and Eltonian (trophic) niche breadth are crucial to account for the observed patterns, followed by reproductive effort (as measured by clutch size). We also found a negative relationship between native range size and human footprint. The significant and positive relationship between niche breadth, either Grinnellian or Eltonian, and range size was consistent across all species, irrespective of their migratory/resident status or taxonomic grouping (Passeri versus Tyranni). Main conclusions Globally, the range sizes of passerine species are associated with the Grinellian niche, meaning that species with broader environmental tolerances exhibit larger geographical ranges. These findings give further empirical support to the positive niche breadth–range size relationship as a general pattern in ecology.

Beschreibung: Aim The relationship between the proportion of sites occupied by a species and the area of a site [occupancy–area relationship (OAR)] offers key information for biodiversity management and has long fascinated ecologists. We quantified the variation in OAR for 3,157 woody species in 17 forest plots worldwide and tested the relative importance of environment and species traits for explaining this variation and evaluated overall model predictive ability. Location Global. Time period Early 21st century. Major taxa studied Woody plants. Methods We used mixed‐effect regression to examine the observed shape of the OAR (its “slope”) against species‐specific and plot‐wide predictors: coarse‐grain occupancy, tree size, plot species richness, energy availability and topographic complexity. Results We found large variation in OAR slopes, and the variation was strongest among species within plots. The OAR slopes showed a latitudinal trend and were steeper near the equator. As predicted, coarse‐grain occupancy and tree size negatively affected OAR slopes, whereas species richness had a positive effect and explained most of the variance between plots. Although hypothesized directionalities were broadly confirmed, traits and environment had relatively limited overall predictive power. Main conclusions These results document the variation of the OAR for 3,157 species at near‐global extent. We found a latitudinal gradient in OAR slopes and confirmed key hypothesized predictors. But at this global extent and over the large set of species analysed, the remaining unexplained variation in OAR slopes was substantial. Nevertheless, this large‐scale empirical analysis of the OAR offers an initial step towards a more general use of OARs for the fine‐scale prediction of species distributions and abundance.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The landscape of the Neotropical region has undergone dynamic evolution throughout the Miocene, with the extensive Pebas wetland occupying western Amazonia between 23 and c. 10 Ma and the continuous uplift of the Andes mountains. The complex interaction between the Andes and Amazonia probably influenced the trajectory of Neotropical biodiversity, but evidence from time‐calibrated phylogenies of groups that diversified during this period is lacking. We investigate the role of these landscape transformations in the dynamics of diversification in the Neotropical region using a 26‐Myr‐old endemic butterfly radiation. Location Neotropics. Time period Oligocene to present. Major taxa studied Ithomiini butterflies. Methods We generated one of the most comprehensive time‐calibrated molecular phylogenies of a large clade of Neotropical insects, the butterfly tribe Ithomiini, comprising 340 species (87% of extant species) and spanning 26 Myr of diversification. We applied a large array of birth–death models and historical biogeography estimations to assess the dynamics of diversification and biotic interchanges, especially at the Amazonia–Andes interface. Results Our results suggest that the Amazonian Pebas wetland system played a major role in the timing and geography of diversification of Ithomiini, by constraining dispersal and diversification in the Amazon basin until c. 10 Ma. During the Pebas wetland period, Ithomiini diversification mostly took place in the Andes, where terrestrial habitats were not affected. An explosion of interchanges with Amazonia and with the Northern Andes accompanied the demise of the Pebas system (11–8 Ma) and was followed by local diversification in those areas, which led to a substantial renewal of diversification. Main conclusions Many studies on Neotropical diversity have focused only on the Andes, whereas we show that it is the waxing and waning of the Pebas mega‐wetland, interacting with Andean uplift, that determined the timing and patterns of regional interchanges and diversification in Ithomiini.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Existing global models to predict standing biomass are based on trees characterized by a single principal stem, well developed in height. However, their use in open woodlands and shrublands, characterized by multistemmed species with substantial crown development, generates a high level of uncertainty in biomass estimates. This limitation led us to (a) develop global models of shrub individual aboveground biomass based on simple allometric variables, (b) to compare the fit of these models with existing global biomass models, and (c) to assess whether models fit change when bioclimatic variables are considered. Location Global. Time period Present. Major taxa studied 118 species of shrubs. Methods We compile a database of 3,243 individuals across 49 sites distributed worldwide. Including  stem basal diameter, height and crown diameter as predictor variables, we built potential models and compared their fit using generalized least squares. We used mixed effects models to determine if bioclimatic variables improved the accuracy of biomass models. Results Although the most important variable in terms of predictive capacity was stem basal diameter, crown diameter significantly improved the models’ fit, followed by height. Four models were finally chosen, with the best model combining all these variables in the same equation [R2 = 0.930, root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.476]. Selected models performed as well as established global biomass models. Including the individual bioform significantly improved the models’ fit. Main conclusions Stem basal diameter, crown diameter and height measures could be combined to provide robust aboveground biomass (AGB) estimates of individual shrub species. Our study supplements well‐established models developed for trees, allowing more accurate biomass estimation of multistemmed woody individuals. We further provide tools for a methodological standardization of individual biomass quantification in these species. We expect these results contribute to improve the quality of biomass estimates across ecosystems, but also to generate methodological consensus on field biomass assessments in shrubs.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim It is unknown whether fungi show similar trends to other organisms in their macroecological patterns of abundance and spatial distribution. Here, we investigated fungal abundance–occupancy relationships to determine whether fungi that are common at a local scale tend to be more widely distributed. Location UK and Switzerland. Time period 1950–2014. Major taxa studied Fungi. Methods We used a local data set of fruiting records of 2,319 species in the UK, accumulated over 65 years, and one from Switzerland of 319 species, spanning 32 years. Using the number of records and occurrence as proxies for abundance, in each case we examined the form of species and rank abundance distributions and compared these with distributions of records in the national databases over the same time. We plotted relationships of the local number of records and regional occupancy and calculated multiscale indices of rarity for all fungal species. Results There was a remarkable congruence in the patterns found in the UK and Switzerland. Regional assemblages are characterized by many rare species, whereas few are common (fitting the lognormal distribution). However, at local scales, distributions best fitted a power law, suggesting that habitat availability or dispersal processes might play important roles. Fungi with a high number of local records are densely distributed nationally, but unlike other organisms, locally rare fungi may also be densely distributed at a wider scale. Main conclusions Fungal fruiting records can be used to infer patterns in fungal distributions. Abundances in local assemblages may be determined by the position of the assemblage in the overall geographical range of each species, dispersal ability and environmental filtering. We advocate the use of multiscale approaches to rarity in future fungal sampling programmes, to provide more reliable information for future conservation policy decisions and fungal biogeography.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim How do factors such as space, time, climate and other ecological drivers influence food web structure and dynamics? Collections of well‐studied food webs and replicate food webs from the same system that span biogeographical and ecological gradients now enable detailed, quantitative investigation of such questions and help integrate food web ecology and macroecology. Here, we integrate macroecology and food web ecology by focusing on how ecogeographical rules [the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), Bergmann's rule, the island rule and Rapoport's rule] are associated with the architecture of food webs. Location Global. Time period Current. Major taxa studied All taxa. Methods We discuss the implications of each ecogeographical rule for food webs, present predictions for how food web structure will vary with each rule, assess empirical support where available, and discuss how food webs may influence ecogeographical rules. Finally, we recommend systems and approaches for further advancing this research agenda. Results We derived testable predictions for some ecogeographical rules (e.g. LDG, Rapoport's rule), while for others (e.g., Bergmann's and island rules) it is less clear how we would expect food webs to change over macroecological scales. Based on the LDG, we found weak support for both positive and negative relationships between food chain length and latitude and for increased generality and linkage density at higher latitudes. Based on Rapoport's rule, we found support for the prediction that species turnover in food webs is inversely related to latitude. Main conclusions The macroecology of food webs goes beyond traditional approaches to biodiversity at macroecological scales by focusing on trophic interactions among species. The collection of food web data for different types of ecosystems across biogeographical gradients is key to advance this research agenda. Further, considering food web interactions as a selection pressure that drives or disrupts ecogeographical rules has the potential to address both mechanisms of and deviations from these macroecological relationships. For these reasons, further integration of macroecology and food webs will help ecologists better understand the assembly, maintenance and change of ecosystems across space and time.

Beschreibung: Aim The climate tolerances of many species are broader than those estimated from current native ranges. Indeed, the niches of some Afromontane trees are up to 50% larger after incorporation of fossil data. This expansion could reduce estimates of species' future range loss owing to climate change but also implies strong non‐climatic limitations on species' current ranges. One such limitation is land use, which fossil data suggest influences Afromontane tree distribution, preventing these trees from occupying warmer conditions than they do currently. We aimed to assess the degree to which the broader climatic tolerances revealed by fossil data buffer projected range loss from climate and land use for Afromontane trees. Location Africa. Time period Last 21,000 years. Major taxa studied Afromontane trees. Methods We used species distribution models informed by both current and fossil distributions to project future ranges under climate and land‐use projections. Results We found that projected range reductions are only slightly ameliorated by incorporation of fossil distributions, and these improvements diminish further under severe land‐use or climate change scenarios. Taxa that are less impacted by climate are more impacted by intense land use. Depending on the severity of climate and land use, the geographical extent of Afromontane tree species' ranges will contract by 40–85%, and the trees will be completely lost from large portions of Africa. We projected that the surviving species' ranges will become increasingly fragmented. Main conclusions Maintaining Afromontane ecosystems will require mitigation of both climate and land‐use change and protection of areas to optimize connectivity. Our findings caution that species with climate tolerances broader than their current range might not necessarily fare better under strong changes in climate or land use.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To test hypothesized biogeographic partitions of the tropical Indo‐Pacific Ocean with phylogeographic data from 56 taxa, and to evaluate the strength and nature of barriers emerging from this test. Location The Indo‐Pacific Ocean. Time period Pliocene through the Holocene. Major taxa studied Fifty‐six marine species. Methods We tested eight biogeographic hypotheses for partitioning of the Indo‐Pacific using a novel modification to analysis of molecular variance. Putative barriers to gene flow emerging from this analysis were evaluated for pairwise ΦST, and these ΦST distributions were compared to distributions from randomized datasets and simple coalescent simulations of vicariance arising from the Last Glacial Maximum. We then weighed the relative contribution of distance versus environmental or geographic barriers to pairwise ΦST with a distance‐based redundancy analysis (dbRDA). Results We observed a diversity of outcomes, although the majority of species fit a few broad biogeographic regions. Repeated coalescent simulation of a simple vicariance model yielded a wide distribution of pairwise ΦST that was very similar to empirical distributions observed across five putative barriers to gene flow. Three of these barriers had median ΦST that were significantly larger than random expectation. Only 21 of 52 species analysed with dbRDA rejected the null model. Among these, 15 had overwater distance as a significant predictor of pairwise ΦST, while 11 were significant for geographic or environmental barriers other than distance. Main conclusions Although there is support for three previously described barriers, phylogeographic discordance in the Indo‐Pacific Ocean indicates incongruity between processes shaping the distributions of diversity at the species and population levels. Among the many possible causes of this incongruity, genetic drift provides the most compelling explanation: given massive effective population sizes of Indo‐Pacific species, even hard vicariance for tens of thousands of years can yield ΦST values that range from 0 to nearly 0.5.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The aim was to test whether large‐scale patterns of variation in the bodily proportions of small mammals relate to latitude and climate. Location The New World. Time period Current. Major taxa studied Marsupials, lipotyphlans and rodents. Methods Distributional, morphological and phylogenetic data were compiled for 149 faunal samples including 360 species of New World small mammals. Phylogenetic autocorrelation was addressed using phylogenetic generalized least squares regression. Results The faunal data show that tails are systematically larger in the tropics relative to head and body lengths. Furthermore, the data for individual species demonstrate a negative relationship between tail length and the distance of the midpoint of a geographical range from the equator. Hind foot and ear length also decline at high latitudes, but the relationships are much weaker. Allen's rule states that all extremities, including ears, feet and tails, should be larger at low latitudes because heat loss is not a limiting factor. However, no correlation between any measurement and mean annual temperature is found in two major groups (cricetid rodents and didelphid marsupials) or in all mammals combined. Main conclusions Allen's rule does not apply at the macroevolutionary scale, and a new one does. Given that long tails stabilize movement between tree branches and are better suited for being prehensile, this rule might relate to increasing arboreality in the tropics.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Information on the amount of carbon stored in the living tissue of tree stems (sapwood) is crucial for carbon and water cycle applications. Here, we aim to investigate sapwood‐to‐stem proportions and differences therein between tree genera and derive a sapwood biomass map. Location Northern Hemisphere boreal and temperate forests. Time period 2010. Major taxa studied Twenty‐five common tree genera. Methods First, we develop a theoretical framework to estimate sapwood biomass for a given stem biomass by applying relationships between sapwood cross‐sectional area (CSA) and stem CSA and between stem CSA and stem biomass. These measurements are extracted from a biomass and allometry database (BAAD), an extensive literature review and our own studies. The established allometric relationships are applied to a remote sensing‐based stem biomass product in order to derive a spatially continuous sapwood biomass map. The application of new products on the distribution of stand density and tree genera facilitates the synergy of satellite and forest inventory data. Results Sapwood‐to‐stem CSA relationships can be modelled with moderate to very high modelling efficiency for different genera. The total estimated sapwood biomass equals 12.87 ± 6.56 petagrams of carbon (PgC) in boreal (mean carbon density: 1.13 ± 0.58 kgC m−2) and 15.80 ± 9.10 PgC in temperate (2.03 ± 1.17 kgC m−2) forests. Spatial patterns of sapwood‐to‐stem biomass proportions are crucially driven by the distribution of genera (spanning from 20–30% in Larix to 〉 70% in Pinus and Betula forests). Main conclusions The presented sapwood biomass map will be the basis for large‐scale estimates of plant respiration and transpiration. The enormous spatial differences in sapwood biomass proportions reveal the need to consider the functionally more important sapwood instead of the entire stem biomass in global carbon and water cycle studies. Alterations in tree species distribution, induced by forest management or climate change, can strongly affect the available sapwood biomass even if stem biomass remains unchanged.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Global carbon cycle models do not incorporate the stabilizing effect of biodiversity on productivity despite this phenomenon has been widely described in several local scale manipulative experiments. The reason is a lack of evidence supporting the importance of biodiversity on spatial scales at which climate models are built. Here, we test the hypothesis that diversity enhances productivity stability at a large scale. Location South American dryland known as Caatinga (~830,000 km2). Time period 2001–2010. Major taxa studied Woody plants. Methods We used the enhanced vegetation index of Caatinga vegetation remnants, from 2001 to 2010, to calculate vegetation productivity stability across years. We used occurrence records of 606 woody species from floristic surveys to derive species richness and phylogenetic diversity at ~5 km and ~55 km (0.5°) resolution. Climate data were obtained from global databases. Results Plant phylogenetic diversity has a strong positive correlation with productivity stability even after controlling for several climatic variables, such as rainfall, temperature and cloudiness, at both resolutions. Species richness was not significant when climatic variables were included. Main conclusions This result expands by several orders of magnitude the spatial scale of the evidence that biodiversity strengths the resilience of key ecosystem functions. We highlight that, by incorporating plant phylogenetic diversity, regional and global climate models can generate more accurate predictions about future ecosystem functioning and services that are critical to humankind.

Beschreibung: Abstract Both conservation biology and macroecology are synthetic, and macroecological research consistently has informed the theory and practice of biological conservation. Explicit integration of the macroecology of human systems and natural systems has been rare, but can advance the incorporation of social justice, environmental justice and environmental equity into conservation biology and participatory conservation (inclusion in decision‐making of those who are affected by, or can affect, that decision). The basis of this strong link is the focus of macroecology on the relations of a given biota to environmental patterns and processes, and these patterns and processes can affect humans differentially. Macroecological integration of social justice and conservation generally requires spatial and temporal representation of all variables at resolutions and extents that allow meaningful analyses. This requirement may facilitate clarity about social metrics and norms. To illustrate, we examine applications of macroecology to analysis of the effects of climate change on social justice and biological conservation; relations among climate, violence among humans and conservation; and the response of the spread of disease to social and ecological factors. We believe that macroecology is a means of providing transparent inferences that can inform conservation, health and social policies.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To verify which vegetation and environmental factors are the most important in determining the spatial and temporal variability of average and maximum values of radiation use efficiency (RUEann and RUEmax, respectively) of cold and temperate forests. Location Forty‐eight cold and temperate forests distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. Major taxa studied Evergreen and deciduous trees. Time period 2000–2011. Methods We analysed the impact of 17 factors as potential determinants of mean RUE (at 8 days interval, annual and interannual level) and RUEmax (at annual and interannual level) in cold and temperate forests by using linear regression and random forests models. Results Mean annual RUE (RUEann, c. 1.1 gC/MJ) and RUEmax (c. 0.8 gC/MJ) did not differ between cold and temperate forests. However, for cold forests, RUEann was affected by temperature‐related variables, while for temperate forests RUEann was affected by drought‐related variables. Leaf area index (LAI) was important for both forest types, while N deposition only for cold forests and cloud cover only for temperate forest. RUEmax of cold forests was mainly driven by N deposition and LAI, whereas for temperate forests only a weak relationship between RUEmax and CO2 concentration was found. Short‐term variability of RUE was strongly related to the meteorological variables and varied during the season and was stronger in summer than spring or autumn. Interannual variability of RUEann and RUEmax was only weakly related to the interannual variability of the environmental drivers. Main conclusions Cold and temperate forests show different relationships with the environment and vegetation properties. Among the RUE drivers observed, the least anticipated was N deposition. RUE is strongly related to short‐term and seasonal changes in meteorological variables among seasons and among sites. Our results should be considered in the formulation of climate zone‐specific tools for remote sensing and global models.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Although much has been said on the spatial distribution of taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of vertebrates, how this diversity interacts in food webs and how these interactions change across space are largely unknown. Here, we analysed the spatial distribution of tetrapod food webs and asked whether the variation in local food web structure is driven by random processes or by natural and anthropogenic factors. Location Europe. Time period Present. Major taxa studied Tetrapods. Methods We combined an expert‐based food web (1,140 species and 70,601 links) of all European tetrapods with their respective spatial distributions. We mapped 17 different food web metrics representing complexity, chain length, vertical diversity and diet strategy across Europe and tested whether their distribution reflects the spatial structure of species richness using a null model of food web structure. To avoid multicollinearity issues, we defined composite descriptors of food web structure that we related to a set of environmental layers summarizing both natural and anthropogenic influences and tested their relative importance in explaining the spatial distribution of European terrestrial vertebrate food webs. Results Of the 17 metrics, 10 showed a non‐random spatial distribution across Europe and could be summarized along two major axes of variation in food web structure. The first was related to species richness, mean trophic level and the proportion of intermediate species, whereas the second was related to the connectance and proximity of species within the web. Both descriptors varied with latitudinal gradient. The best descriptors of food web structure were mean annual temperature and seasonality (negatively correlated with the first axis), and human footprint (positively correlated with the second axis). Main conclusions We demonstrate the importance of climate and anthropogenic pressure in shaping the spatial structure of European tetrapod food webs.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 9, Page 1379-1379, September 2019.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Soils and their biological communities face increasing pressure from multiple global drivers, including land management and climate change. In soils, earthworms play key roles in ecosystem functioning, but the environmental controls on their global communities are not fully understood. Here, an earthworm dataset was compiled to investigate the effects of environmental variables and land management on global earthworm communities. Location 40° S–65° N. Time period 1962 to 2016. Major taxa studied Earthworms. Methods A dataset of 899 earthworm community observations, together with environmental variables, was compiled across 169 globally distributed sites. Sites included natural forest and grassland or managed arable, pasture and plantation ecosystems. Total, anecic, endogeic and epigeic abundances and total species richness were compared in natural and managed ecosystems to quantify the effects of land management across climates. A hierarchical model was used to test the importance of environmental controls in predicting the relationship between total earthworm species richness and abundance at a global scale. Results Land management prompted little change in total earthworm abundance at the global scale, but reduced species richness and shifted community composition. Endogeic earthworms were more abundant in managed ecosystems, while anecic and epigeic earthworms showed variable responses across ecosystem types. Global relationships between total earthworm species richness and abundance were explained by climate, soil pH and land management. Main conclusions Land management modulates the effects of environmental controls on global earthworm communities, through direct disturbance and indirect changes in edaphic conditions.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Sediment disturbances are important threats affecting marine biodiversity, but the variety of biological responses has not yet been synthesized. Here, we collate all available information to compare the extent of impacts across different taxonomic groups, habitat types and pathways of impact (light attenuation, suspended sediment and sedimentation). Location Global. Time period Data collected from 1979 to 2017. Major taxa studied Corals, fishes, seagrasses, sponges, macroalgae, ascidians, bryozoans, crustaceans, echinoderms, molluscs and polychaetes. Methods We used meta‐analyses to evaluate the effects of sediments across 842 observations found in 110 publications. We also evaluated some of the biological and methodological factors that could explain the variable effects observed in different studies. Results We found a significant negative effect of sediments on behavioural responses of species, reproduction and recruitment processes, the morphology of organisms, physiology, community abundance and diversity, and species interactions. In contrast, the overall effect on the abundance of individual species was statistically non‐significant and there was a strong positive effect on abundance for sponge and polychaete species. Many individual studies described physiological effects on coral reefs, but the effects on the diversity of soft‐bottom and coral reef communities were particularly detrimental. Phototrophic species were generally more negatively impacted by sediments than heterotrophs, driven by strong physiological responses in crustose coralline algae and seagrasses. Additionally, species with limited mobility were more vulnerable to sediment disturbances than highly mobile species. Sedimentation alone triggered more consistently negative effects on most biological responses than light depletion and suspended sediments. We found evidence for increased impacts on community diversity when more than one pathway of impact was present, indicating that these disturbances can disrupt whole ecosystems. Main conclusions Our meta‐analysis provided, for the first time, strong quantitative support of negative effects of sediments on marine biodiversity. Taxonomic groups, habitat types and life‐history characteristics were most influential in determining the biological responses to sediment disturbances, highlighting the importance of an ecosystem‐based approach when fully accounting for the impacts of sediments.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 9, Page 1201-1203, September 2019.

Beschreibung: Abstract The idea that the number of species within an area is limited by a specific capacity of that area to host species is old yet controversial. Here, we show that the concept of carrying capacity for species richness can be as useful as the analogous concept in population biology. Many lines of empirical evidence indicate the existence of limits of species richness, at least at large spatial and phylogenetic scales. However, available evidence does not support the idea of diversity limits based on limited niche space; instead, carrying capacity should be understood as a stable equilibrium of biodiversity dynamics driven by diversity‐dependent processes of extinction, speciation and/or colonization. We argue that such stable equilibria exist even if not all resources are used and if increasing species richness increases the ability of a community to use resources. Evaluating the various theoretical approaches to modelling diversity dynamics, we conclude that a fruitful approach for macroecology and biodiversity science is to develop theory that assumes that the key mechanism leading to stable diversity equilibria is the negative diversity dependence of per‐species extinction rates, driven by the fact that population sizes of species must decrease with an increasing number of species owing to limited energy availability. The recently proposed equilibrium theory of biodiversity dynamics is an example of such a theory, which predicts that equilibrium species richness (i.e., carrying capacity) is determined by the interplay of the total amount of available resources, the ability of communities to use those resources, environmental stability that affects extinction rates, and the factors that affect speciation and colonization rates. We argue that the diversity equilibria resulting from these biodiversity dynamics are first‐order drivers of large‐scale biodiversity patterns, such as the latitudinal diversity gradient.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Theory suggests that increasing productivity and climate stability towards the tropics favours specialization, thus contributing to the latitudinal richness gradient. A positive relationship between species richness and specialization should therefore emerge as a fundamental biogeographical pattern. However, land‐use and climate changes disproportionally increase the local extirpation risk for specialists, potentially weakening the relationship between richness and specialization. Here, we quantify empirically the richness–specialization prediction and test how 50 years of climate and land‐use change has affected the richness–specialization relationship. Location USA. Time period 1966–2015. Major taxa studied Birds. Methods We used the North American Breeding Bird Survey to quantify bird community richness and specialization to habitat and climate. We (a) quantify temporal change in the slope of the richness–specialization relationship, using a generalized mixed model; (b) assess how this change translates spatially, using generalized additive models; and (c) attribute spatio‐temporal change in the richness–specialization relationship to land use, climate and topographic drivers. Results We found evidence for a positive but weak richness–specialization relationship in bird communities that greatly weakened over time. Given that specialization was not the main driver of richness, this relationship did not translate spatially into a linear spatial covariation between richness and specialization. Instead, the spatial covariation in richness and specialization followed a unimodal pattern, the peak of which shifted towards less specialized communities over time. These temporal changes were associated with precipitation change, decreasing temperature stability and land use. Main conclusions Recent climate and land‐use changes have induced two contrasting types of community responses. In human‐dominated areas, the decoupling of richness and specialization drove a general trend for biotic homogenization. In areas of low human impact experiencing increasing climate harshness, specialization increased, whereas richness decreased. Our results offer new support for specialization as a key driver of macroecological diversity patterns and show that global changes are weakening this fundamental macroecological pattern.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 8, Page 1039-1041, August 2019.

Beschreibung: The cover image is based on the Research Paper A consistent species richness–climate relationship for oaks across the Northern Hemisphere by Xiaoting Xu et al., DOI: 10.1111/geb.12913. Image Credit: © Lie Zhang.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We test whether urbanization drives biotic homogenization. We hypothesize that declines in abundance and species diversity of aerial insects are exacerbated by the urbanization‐driven loss of species with low habitat generalism, mobility and warm‐adaptedness. We predict this homogenization to be more pronounced for nocturnal taxa, and at wider scales for mobile taxa. Location Belgium. Time period Summers 2014–2015. Major taxa studied Lepidoptera. Methods We compare communities along urbanization gradients using a shared, replicated and nested sampling design, in which butterflies were counted within 81 grassland and macro‐moths light‐trapped in 12 woodland sites. We quantify taxonomic and functional community composition, the latter via community‐weighted means and variation of species‐specific traits related to specialization, mobility and thermophily. Using linear regression models, variables are analysed in relation to site‐specific urbanization values quantified at seven scales (50–3,200 m radii). At best‐fitting scales, we test for taxonomic homogenization. Results With increasing urbanization, abundance, species richness and Shannon diversity severely declined, with butterfly and macro‐moth declines due to local‐ versus landscape‐scale urbanization (200 vs. 800–3,200 m radii, respectively). While taxonomic homogenization was absent for butterflies, urban macro‐moth communities displayed higher nestedness than non‐urban communities. Overall, communities showed mean shifts towards generalist, mobile and thermophilous species, displaying trait convergence too. These functional trait models consistently fit best with urbanization quantified at local scales (100–200 m radii) for butterfly communities, and at local to wider landscape scales (200–800 m radii) for macro‐moth communities. Main conclusions Urban communities display functional homogenization that follows urbanization at scales linked to taxon‐specific mobility. Light pollution may explain why homogenization was more pronounced for the nocturnal taxon. We discuss that urbanization is likely to impact flying insect communities across the globe, but also that impacts on their ecosystem functions and services could be mitigated via multi‐scale implementation of urban green infrastructure.

Beschreibung: Abstract Issue Approaches to predicting species assemblages through stacking individual niche‐based species distribution models (S‐SDMs) need to account for community processes other than abiotic filtering. Such constraints have been introduced by implementing ecological assembly rules (EARs) into S‐SDMs, and can be based on patterns of functional traits in communities. Despite being logically valid, this approach has led to a limited improvement in prediction, possibly because of mismatches between the scales of measurement of niche and trait data. Evidence S‐SDM studies have often related single values of a species’ traits to environmental niches that are captured by abiotic conditions measured at a much finer spatial scale, without accounting for intraspecific trait variation along environmental gradients. Many pieces of evidence show that omitting intraspecific trait variation can hinder the proper inference of EARs from trait patterns, and we further argue that it can therefore also affect our capacity to spatially predict functional properties of communities. In addition, estimates of environmental niches and trait envelopes may vary depending on the scale at which environmental and trait measurements are made. Conclusion We suggest that to overcome these limitations, surveys sampling both niche and trait measurements should be conducted at fine scales along wide environmental gradients, and integrated at the same scale to test and improve a new generation of spatial community models and their functional properties.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Leaf litter decomposition in freshwater ecosystems is a vital process linking ecosystem nutrient cycling, energy transfer and trophic interactions. In comparison to terrestrial ecosystems, in which researchers find that litter traits predominantly regulate litter decomposition worldwide, the dominant factors controlling its decomposition in aquatic ecosystems are still debated, with global patterns not well documented. Here, we aimed to explore general patterns and key drivers (e.g., litter traits, climate and water characteristics) of leaf litter decomposition in streams worldwide. Location Global. Time period 1977–2018. Major taxa studied Leaf litter. Methods We synthesized 1,707 records of litter decomposition in streams from 275 studies. We explored variations in decomposition rates among climate zones and tree functional types and between mesh size groups. Regressions were performed to identify the factors that played dominant roles in litter decomposition globally. Results Litter decomposition rates did not differ among tropical, temperate and cold climate zones. Decomposition rates of litter from evergreen conifer trees were much lower than those of deciduous and evergreen broadleaf trees, attributed to the low quality of litter from evergreen conifers. No significant differences were found between decomposition rates of litter from deciduous and evergreen broadleaf trees. Additionally, litter decomposition rates were much higher in coarse‐ than in fine‐mesh bags, which controled the entrance of decomposers of different body sizes. Multiple regressions showed that litter traits (including lignin, C:N ratio) and elevation were the most important factors in regulating leaf litter decomposition. Main conclusions Litter traits predominantly control leaf litter decomposition in streams worldwide. Although further analyses are necessary to explore whether commonalities of the predominant role of litter traits in decomposition exist in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, our findings could contribute to the use of trait‐based approaches in modelling the decomposition of litter in streams globally and exploring mechanisms of land–water–atmosphere carbon fluxes.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Many studies use differences among plant populations to infer future plant responses, but these predictions will provide meaningful insights only if patterns of plasticity among populations are similar (i.e., in the absence of population‐by‐environment interaction, P × E). In this study, we tested whether P × E is considered in climate change studies. Specifically, we evaluated whether population differentiation varies across environments and whether P × E is determined by aspects of the study system and experimental design. Location Global. Methods We conducted a literature search in the Thomson Reuters Web of Science database to identify studies assessing population differentiation in a climate change context. We quantified the occurrence of P × E and performed a meta‐analysis to calculate the percentage of traits showing P × E in the study cases. Results We identified 309 study cases (from 237 published articles) assessing population differentiation in 172 plant species, of which 64% included more than one test environment and tested P × E. In 77% of these studies, P × E was significant for at least one functional trait. The overall proportion of traits showing P × E was 33.4% (95% confidence interval 27.7–39.3). These results were generally consistent across life‐forms, ecoregions and type of experiment. Furthermore, population differentiation varied across test environments in 76% of cases. The overall proportion of traits showing environment‐dependent population differentiation was 53.7% (95% confidence interval 37.9–69.3). Conclusions Our findings revealed that differences in phenotypic plasticity among populations are common but are usually neglected in order to forecast population responses to climate change. Future studies should assess population differentiation in many test environments (accounting for P × E) that realistically reflect future environmental conditions, assessing climate change drivers that are rarely considered (e.g., multifactor experiments incorporating higher CO2 levels). Our review also revealed the predominant focus of population studies on trees from temperate climates, identifying underexplored life‐forms (shrubs, annuals), phylogenetic groups (ferns, ancient gymnosperms) and ecoregions (tropical, arctic) that should receive more attention in future.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Climate change causes major shifts in species distributions, reshuffling community composition and favouring warm‐adapted species (“thermophilization”). The tree community response is likely to be affected by major disturbances, such as fire and harvest. Here, we quantify the relative contributions of climate change and disturbances to temporal shifts in tree composition over the last decades and evaluate whether disturbances accelerate community thermophilization. Location Québec, Canada. Time period 1970–2016. Taxa studied Trees. Methods Using 6,281 forest inventory plots, we quantified temporal changes in species composition between a historical (1970–1980) and a contemporary period (2000–2016) by measuring temporal β‐diversity, gains and losses. The effects of climate and disturbances on temporal β‐diversity were quantified using multiple regressions and variation partitioning. We compared how community indices of species temperature preference (CTI) and shade tolerance (CSI) changed for forests that experienced different levels of disturbance. We quantified the contribution of species gains and losses to change in CTI. Results Temporal β‐diversity was mainly driven by disturbances, with historical harvesting as the most important predictor. Despite the prevailing influence of disturbances, we revealed a significant thermophilization (ΔCTI = +.03 °C/decade) throughout forests in Québec. However, this shift in community composition was weakly explained by climate change and considerably slower than the rate of warming (+.14 °C/decade). Importantly, thermophilization was amplified by moderate disturbances (+.044 °C/decade), almost a threefold increase compared with minor disturbances (+.015 °C/decade). The gains and losses of a few tree species contributed to this community‐level shift. Conclusions Our study provides evidence that disturbances can strongly modify tree community responses to climate change. Moderate disturbances, such as harvesting, might reduce competition and facilitate gains of warm‐adapted species, which then accelerate thermophilization of tree communities under climate change. Although accelerated by disturbances, community thermophilization was driven by the gains and losses of a small number of species, notably gains of maples.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Community phylogenetic studies use information about the evolutionary relationships of species to understand the ecological processes of community assembly. A central premise of the field is that the evolution of species maps onto ecological patterns, and phylogeny reveals something more than species traits alone about the ecological mechanisms structuring communities, such as environmental filtering, competition, and facilitation. We argue, therefore, that there is a need for better understanding and modelling of the interaction of phylogeny with species traits and community composition. Innovation We outline a new approach that identifies clades that are ecophylogenetically clustered or overdispersed and assesses whether those clades have different rates of trait evolution. Ecophylogenetic theory would predict that the traits of clustered or overdispersed clades might have evolved differently, in terms of either tempo (fast or slow) or mode (e.g., under constraint or neutrally). We suggest that modelling the evolution of independent trait data in these clades represents a strong test of whether there is an association between the ecological co‐occurrence patterns of a species and its evolutionary history. Main conclusions Using an empirical dataset of mammals from around the world, we identify two clades of rodents whose species tend not to co‐occur in the same local assemblages (are phylogenetically overdispersed) and find independent evidence of slower rates of body mass evolution in these clades. Our approach, which assumes nothing about the mode of species trait evolution but instead seeks to explain it using ecological information, presents a new way to examine ecophylogenetic structure.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We examine how environmental variability at seasonal and interannual time‐scales influences evolutionary trajectories and the role of plasticity in response to recent and future climate change at biogeographic scales. We investigate the interplay of selection pressures at chronic (performance) and acute (thermal stress) time‐scales. Location Colorado, USA. Time period 1950–2099. Major taxa studied A montane butterfly, clouded sulphur (Colias eriphyle W.H. Edwards, 1876). Methods We leverage field and laboratory data to construct phenotype‐based models that predict fitness and evolutionary responses to recent and future climate change. Our focal phenotype, wing solar absorptivity, responds plastically to developmental (pupal) temperatures and determines adult fitness via its influence on body temperature. Results We project that phenology accelerates with decreasing elevation and climate change, but gradients in pupal and adult temperature with climate change are modest. Fitness of the first generation is predicted to decrease at low elevations and increase at high elevations with warming. Elevational clines in optimal wing absorptivity shift towards lower absorptivities with warming. We project that temporal shifts from selection for wing darkening (to extend flight time) to selection for wing lightening (to avoid overheating) in some cool, montane locations will ultimately impose fitness costs. Main conclusions Our analysis suggests that shifts in the balance of selection between acute and chronic responses to environmental variation will alter biogeographic responses to climate change. Evolutionary lags may ultimately confer greater sensitivity to climate change, but plasticity can reduce evolutionary lags by facilitating trait evolution.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 7, Page 863-865, July 2019.

Beschreibung: The cover image is based on the Research Paper Why is fruit colour so variable? Phylogenetic analyses reveal relationships between fruit‐colour evolution, biogeography and diversification by Lu Lu et al., DOI: 10.1111/geb.12900.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The interactive effects of increased temperature and ultraviolet‐B (UV‐B) radiation on terrestrial and aquatic biota remain poorly understood. Our goal is to increase knowledge by providing a comprehensive assessment of the combined effects of warming and increased UV‐B on organisms across these domains. Location Global. Time period 1995–2016. Major taxa studied Terrestrial plants and animals, and marine and freshwater microalgae, macroalgae and animals. Methods We examined, using a meta‐analysis based on 1,139 published experimental assessments, the combined effects of temperature and UV‐B across terrestrial, freshwater and marine biota. We characterized the prevailing mode of combined effects (additive, synergistic or antagonistic), and assessed whether these were dose‐dependent or differed between terrestrial, freshwater and marine species, or between organisms growing in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Results Our results show that the two stressors generally acted opposingly, with a significant positive effect of increased temperature and a significant adverse effect of elevated UV‐B radiation. Regarding their interactive impact, additive interactions (84%) appeared to be much more common compared with multiplicative (16%) effects. The frequencies of interaction types differed significantly among the three habitats and different plant functional groups. The proportion of both synergistic and antagonistic effects increased with increasing magnitude of temperature and UV‐B changes, suggesting that additivity is constrained by an organism’s thermal and physiological limits. Main conclusions Our analysis demonstrates that due to their mostly opposing nature, elevated temperature, within the thermal limits of organisms, tends to compensate for the negative impact of UV‐B radiation when acting together, while their additive interaction is likely to assist impact prognosis. Our study, therefore, provides new insights into the predictions of the interactive effects of global change drivers across different habitats.

Beschreibung: Abstract The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) has been investigated for decades, with hundreds of studies focusing on different organisms, regions and habitat types. Meta‐analysis may be considered, therefore, a useful tool to explore the generality and limitations of this remarkable macroecological pattern. The first meta‐analysis exploring variations in the LDG, published by Hillebrand in 2004, revealed that the latitudinal decline in species richness seems to be indeed a general phenomenon. However, Kinlock et al. (2018, Global Ecology and Biogeography, 27, 125–141) revisited recently the challenge of synthesizing individual LDGs and indicated that the phenomenon is not ubiquitous among habitats of the marine realm. More precisely, they indicated that the phenomenon is non‐significant in the benthic habitat. Here, we suggest that the marine habitat categories used by them (i.e., benthic, coral reefs, coastal, open ocean) are not independent and that reclassifying the studies significantly alters one of their main results. By assigning the studies into benthic and pelagic categories, and additionally into coastal or oceanic zones, we show that non‐ambiguous, evolutionarily meaningful marine habitats display a significant latitudinal decline in species richness.

Beschreibung: Abstract Issue Geodiversity (i.e., the variation in Earth's abiotic processes and features) has strong effects on biodiversity patterns. However, major gaps remain in our understanding of how relationships between biodiversity and geodiversity vary over space and time. Biodiversity data are globally sparse and concentrated in particular regions. In contrast, many forms of geodiversity can be measured continuously across the globe with satellite remote sensing. Satellite remote sensing directly measures environmental variables with grain sizes as small as tens of metres and can therefore elucidate biodiversity–geodiversity relationships across scales. Evidence We show how one important geodiversity variable, elevation, relates to alpha, beta and gamma taxonomic diversity of trees across spatial scales. We use elevation from NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and c. 16,000 Forest Inventory and Analysis plots to quantify spatial scaling relationships between biodiversity and geodiversity with generalized linear models (for alpha and gamma diversity) and beta regression (for beta diversity) across five spatial grains ranging from 5 to 100 km. We illustrate different relationships depending on the form of diversity; beta and gamma diversity show the strongest relationship with variation in elevation. Conclusion With the onset of climate change, it is more important than ever to examine geodiversity for its potential to foster biodiversity. Widely available satellite remotely sensed geodiversity data offer an important and expanding suite of measurements for understanding and predicting changes in different forms of biodiversity across scales. Interdisciplinary research teams spanning biodiversity, geoscience and remote sensing are well poised to advance understanding of biodiversity–geodiversity relationships across scales and guide the conservation of nature.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Although various theories have been proposed to explain the outstanding endemism of plants in the Cerrado, four hypotheses about the mechanisms of diversification and distribution are most supported: (a) plateau/valley, (b) stable/unstable climate, (c) core/peripheral distribution, and (d) soil fertility. The first argues that plateaus harbour more ancient lineages than valleys and therefore present higher endemism. The second theory suggests that climatically stable environments maintained more palaeoendemic species. The third scenario attributes the distribution of endemism to gradients of conditions available to locally adapted species and predicts higher endemism in nuclear than in marginal areas. The last theory suggests that soils with lower fertility account for higher endemism owing to the habitat specialization of their species. We compared endemism patterns with the predictions of each theory to discuss their importance. Location Brazil. Time period Quaternary. Major taxa studied Angiosperms. Methods We mapped the endemism using records of 311 plant species of the Cerrado and applied spatial analysis and distribution models to summarize the importance of each predictor of endemism. Results We identified 28 areas in which the higher endemism of Cerrado plants were concentrated and presented a map of their distribution. We found correlations among endemism, climate stability, elevation and marginality, which supported the plateau/valley, core/peripheral and stable/unstable hypotheses. No association between soil fertility and endemism was detected. We propose that plateaus are more stable climatic environments, and this characteristic along with their elevation and centrality are predictive of endemism. Main conclusions We concluded that most of the endemism is concentrated in overlapping areas of stability of species, which are concentrated in higher elevation central regions. Soil fertility was not linked to endemism. We recommend that central plateaus in the Cerrado require special attention in conservation to optimize the protection of endemic species in the biome.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We sought to characterize spatial and temporal beta diversity of birds and butterflies in the Great Basin (western U.S.A.) and to determine whether the magnitude of beta diversity was associated with spatial resolution, trait‐based groups or local environmental variables. Location Central and western Great Basin, western U.S.A. Time period 1995–2014. Major taxa studied Birds and butterflies. Methods We calculated temporal and spatial beta diversity of birds and butterflies at two spatial resolutions, points (birds) or transects (butterflies) and canyons (birds and butterflies). Points and transects corresponded to the spatial resolution of sampling, whereas canyons might be a more ecologically meaningful resolution. We partitioned beta diversity into turnover and nestedness components, and we calculated these components for entire assemblages and for trait‐based groups within assemblages. We used Bayesian hierarchical models to relate turnover and nestedness to spatial resolution, trait‐based groups and environmental variables. Results Variation in the composition of bird and butterfly assemblages was primarily associated with turnover. Species composition was more consistent at the resolution of canyons than at finer spatial resolutions. The species composition of birds changed more through space than through time, and spatial turnover of bird species tended to be higher than that of butterfly species. There were few strong associations of turnover and nestedness with environmental variables, and none with trait‐based groups. Main conclusions Our results suggest that the identities of bird and butterfly species vary at locations within canyons among years but are less variable among canyons. Decreases in temporal turnover as spatial resolution increases suggest that, at fine spatial resolutions and among years, bird and butterfly species in the Great Basin might acquire resources somewhat opportunistically rather than via strong interspecific competition (birds and butterflies) or site tenacity to breeding territories (birds).

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Root turnover is an important process determining carbon and nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. It is an established fact that root turnover is jointly regulated by climatic, edaphic and biotic factors. However, the relative importance of these forces in determining the global patterns of root turnover time is far from clear. Location Global. Time period 1946–2017. Major taxa studied Grasslands. Methods We compiled a database of 141 sites with 433 observations on root turnover time and applied structural equation modelling (SEM) to investigate the relative contribution of climate, soil properties and vegetation type to the observed variations in root turnover time. Results Root turnover time was 3.1 years on average across the global grasslands and differed significantly among grassland types (tropical grassland and savanna, temperate grassland and meadow, alpine grassland and meadow, tundra and desert). It decreased with mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation and Palmer drought severity index but increased with soil organic carbon content, total nitrogen content and carbon : nitrogen ratio. Soil bulk density and soil texture also significantly affected root turnover time, with clay content negatively correlating to root turnover time and explaining more variations than bulk density and sand content. The SEM showed that climatic factors had dominant effects on root turnover time when vegetation type was not considered. Vegetation type became the primary driver when it was included in the SEM. Main conclusions Our results indicate that the influences of climatic and edaphic factors on root turnover time are predominantly manifested through vegetation type. The critical role of precipitation as revealed for the first time in this study challenges our current understanding of climate impacts on root turnover time. The findings necessitate accurate representation of vegetation type in Earth system models to predict root function dynamics under global change.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim On 11 March 2011, the Great East Japan Earthquake triggered a massive tsunami that resulted in the largest known rafting event in recorded history. By spring 2012, marine debris began washing ashore along the Pacific coast of the United States and Canada with a wide range of Asian coastal species attached. We used this unique dataset, where the source region, date of dislodgment and landing location are known, to assess the potential for species invasions by transoceanic rafting on marine debris. Location Northeast Pacific from 20 to 60°N. Time period Current. Major taxa studied Forty‐eight invertebrate and algal species recorded on Japanese tsunami marine debris (JTMD). Methods We developed maximum entropy (MaxEnt) species distribution models for 48 species recorded on JTMD to predict establishment potential along the Pacific coast from 20 to 60°N. Models were compared within the context of historical marine introductions from Japan to this region to validate the emergence of marine debris as a novel vector for species transfer. Results Overall, 27% (13 species) landed with debris at locations with suitable environmental conditions for establishment and survival, indicating that these species may be able to establish new populations or introduce greater genetic diversity to already established non‐native populations. A further 21 species have an environmental match to areas where tsunami debris likely landed, but was not extensively sampled. Nearly 100 Japanese marine species previously invaded the northeastern Pacific, demonstrating this region’s environmental suitability for rafting Japanese biota. Historical invasions from Japan are highest in California and largely known from bays and harbours. Main conclusions Marine debris is a novel and growing vector for non‐native species introduction. By utilizing a unique dataset of JTMD species, our predictive models show capacity for new transoceanic invasions and can focus monitoring priorities to detect successful long‐distance dispersal across the world’s oceans.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The great variation in range sizes among species has fascinated ecologists for decades. Reef‐associated fish species live in highly spatially structured habitats and adopt a wide range of dispersal strategies. We consequently expect species with greater dispersal ability to occupy larger ranges. However, empirical evidence for such a positive relationship between dispersal and range size remains scarce. Here, we unveil the role of dispersal on the range size distribution of reef‐associated fishes using empirical data and a novel spatially explicit model. Location Tropical Eastern Pacific. Major taxa studied Reef‐associated fishes. Time period Underlying records are from the 20th and 21st centuries. Methods We estimated range size distributions for all reef‐associated fishes separated into six guilds, each with different dispersal abilities. We used a one‐dimensional spatially explicit neutral model, which simulates the distribution of species along a linear and contiguous coastline, to explore the effect of dispersal, speciation and sampling on the distribution of range sizes. Our model incorporates biologically important long‐distance dispersal events with a fat‐tailed dispersal kernel and also adopts a more realistic gradual “protracted” speciation process than originally used in neutral theory. We fitted the model to the empirical data using an approximate Bayesian computation approach, with a sequential Monte Carlo algorithm. Results Stochastic birth, death, speciation and dispersal events alone can accurately explain empirical range size distributions for six different guilds of tropical, reef‐associated fishes. Variation in range size distributions among guilds are explained purely by differences in dispersal ability with the best dispersers being distributed over larger ranges. Main conclusions Neutral processes and guild‐specific dispersal ability provide a general explanation for both within‐ and across‐guild range size variation. Our results support the theoretically expected, but empirically much debated, hypothesis that high dispersal capacity promotes the establishment of large range size.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The aim was to assess whether and to what extent the role of local landscape attributes in shaping macroscopic biodiversity patterns is sensitive to spatial and thematic resolutions of land cover data. Location Sub‐Saharan Africa and continental China. Time period Early 21st century. Taxa studied Terrestrial mammals. Methods We conducted spatial and thematic scaling analyses to generate land cover datasets of different spatial (0.3, 0.5, 1.0 and 9.0 km) and thematic (two, three and five classes) resolutions. We calculated landscape metrics based on the resulting land cover maps and examined the power of landscape metrics for explaining species richness patterns, using non‐spatial (OLS) and spatial (SAR) linear models and random forest (RF) models. We systematically assessed the resolution dependence of explanatory power for different geographical regions, different scaling approaches and different model types. We also compared the explanatory power of landscape attributes with that of macroclimate. Results Collectively, local landscape attributes generally had strong explanatory power for species richness. For the African system, the largest explanatory power was c. 60% based on the OLS models and random forest models and c. 30% based on the non‐spatial components of the SAR models. For the Chinese system, the largest explanatory power was c. 35% based on the OLS models and c. 40% based on the SAR and random forest models. We observed a linear scaling relationship, which is robust to studied systems, scaling approaches and model types. In contrast, the scaling relationship varies substantially among single landscape metrics. At coarse resolutions, the addition of landscape attributes collectively would not improve climate‐envelope models significantly, whereas at finer resolutions, landscape attributes collectively have explanatory power that is close to or even exceeds climate. Main conclusions Local landscape attributes play an important role in shaping macroscopic biodiversity patterns. However, their strength is highly sensitive to both spatial and thematic resolutions of land cover data, with stronger explanatory power detected at finer resolutions. Strong sensitivity to spatial and thematic resolutions makes landscape attributes highly plastic determinants, leading to contrasting conclusions if based on greatly different resolutions of land cover data. Scaling analyses are needed to examine such cross‐scale effects of macroecological determinants systematically.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Observed, realized niche space often underestimates species’ physiological tolerances due to interactions with other species, dispersal constraints, and because some combinations of influential environmental factors do not currently exist in the real world. Conversely, correlative ecological niche models rely on the assumption that the range of environmental conditions encompassed by a species’ geographic distribution accurately reflects their environmental tolerances, including community‐level approaches like generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM). We extend GDM to better understand what effect broader environmental tolerances could have on compositional turnover under climate change. Innovation We show how GDM can be adjusted as a function of best‐available estimates of the average ratio between realized and potential niche widths to modify projected temporal turnover. We demonstrate this approach by using the estimated niche ratios of Australian plant species (n = 7,184) relative to thermal extremes, and the rate at which this ratio varied with temperature. The modified GDMs showed existing thermal tolerance could reduce the turnover predicted by standard models under climate change by up to 11%. We further show how the reduction in expected turnover by 2090 will influence where a greater proportion of the current community will persist in a region. Main conclusions We suggest that standard spatial GDMs and their modified versions represent the extremes of ecological niche perspectives (i.e., realized and potential) and the range of tolerance communities may have when responding to environmental change. GDM projections therefore identify the range of uncertainty associated with a critical model assumption, and as climate change continues, ongoing community monitoring could be used to validate the balance between the two possibilities.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Leaf nutrient resorption is a key nutrient conservation trait, which also influences nutrient cycling rates and pools. Most global biogeochemical models assume that resorption is non‐varying at a temporal scale. However, this trait can differ substantially within populations among years. We assessed the commonality of attaining proficient resorption, the factors associated with proficient resorption, as well as the variability of this trait and the factors controlling trait variability. Location Global. Time period 1965–2009. Major taxa studied Plants. Methods We compiled multi‐year nutrient resorption data from the literature, representing 50 studies, 94 unique study locations, and 141 species from 53 families and 29 orders. We used multiple linear regression to relate resorption data, as well as the variability in this trait, expressed as the coefficient of variation, to environmental factors. Results Resource availability was a key driver of resorption, with nutrient‐poor soils associated with more complete resorption and lower resorption plasticity. Nitrogen and phosphorus resorption differentially responded to some drivers, such as leaf habit, soil order and mycorrhizal status. Main conclusions Overall, environmental and biological factors representing a strong selective force for nutrient conservation, such as nutrient‐poor soil orders, semi‐arid soil moisture regimes, or lack of plant mutualists, were associated with complete resorption, whereas incomplete resorption was associated with weak selective forces, such as nutrient‐rich soil orders, or factors impeding this physiological process (e.g., drought). Inter‐annual variability in resorption was common, particularly for phosphorus. This plasticity has implications for ecosystem nutrient cycling and plant productivity, and accounting for this plasticity in dynamic models of nutrient cycling will improve predictions of nutrient limitations and productivity under future climate conditions.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The aim was to quantify gradients in local richness levels, feeding strategies and body mass distributions in bats and relate them to environmental variation and habitat disturbance. Location The New World. Time period Present day. Major taxa studied Bats. Methods I assembled 152 local species inventories from the published literature, which include 245 species, along with body mass measurements and dietary categorizations. I quantified species richness using the Chao 1 extrapolator, obtained mean mass values for the inventories and computed proportions of species and of individuals belonging to different feeding guilds. I reduced the dimensonality of environmental variables using factor analysis and regressed richness values upon the factor scores. Results South of the Tropic of Cancer, bats exhibit sharp increases in local diversity, the abundance of frugivores and nectarivores, and mean body mass. These offsets are driven by increases in the richness and abundance of the leaf‐nosed bats (Phyllostomidae). Richness steeply declines near the Tropic of Capricorn, but the other variables do not trend strongly at this point. Most of the variance is explained by mean annual temperature, temperature seasonality and precipitation. There is no direct evidence that richness is lower in disturbed landscapes. Main conclusions The great radiation of phyllostomids in the Neotropics has created a uniquely rich biota. The reason that phyllostomids are now absent from the northern temperate zone might be that they are mostly frugivores or nectarivores. Therefore, they have prospered only in regions that provide fruit and nectar year‐round. Thus, biotic interactions might be the immediate cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient in New World bats. If so, then the biogeographical break is driven by environmental factors and is not a historical artefact. These results suggest that a more nuanced consideration of latitudinal gradients will prove to be helpful when it comes to studying many taxonomic groups.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We show how macroecological patterns at different phylogenetic scales below the species level may aid the identification of the predominant process controlling biological assemblages (niche versus dispersal). We compare two taxa with different ecological and dispersal requirements (terrestrial molluscs and leaf beetles) in the same geographical setting. Location Iberian Peninsula. Time period 2010–2015. Major taxa Terrestrial molluscs and leaf beetles. Methods The cox1‐5′ fragment was sequenced for 1,592 mollusc specimens in 20 localities. Leaf beetle assemblages had been sequenced previously in 15 of these localities. Species richness, distance decay of similarity, endemism and range size were measured at two levels: molecular variants (i.e., haplotypes) and putative species (i.e., operational taxonomic units). Using a multi‐hierarchical macroecology approach, distance‐decay patterns were measured at multiple intermediate genealogical levels (nested clades) to assess whether the geometry of the ranges of lineages followed a fractal pattern. Results Richness and distance‐decay patterns at both molecular variant and species levels were different in leaf beetles and terrestrial molluscs, although both taxa showed a fractal pattern in the distance decay of similarity across genealogical levels. The self‐similarity of the distance‐decay pattern across phylogenetic scales suggests a predominance of neutral, but limited, dispersal driving macroecological patterns in both taxa. Endemism was similar in both taxa at the level of molecular variants but higher at the species level in terrestrial molluscs, and range size was smaller at both levels in terrestrial molluscs. Taken altogether, our results suggest that dispersal limitation is stronger in terrestrial molluscs. Main conclusion The assessment of how diversity patterns change at different phylogenetic scales below the species level allowed us to identify unifying characteristics in otherwise seemingly heterogeneous biological systems. Congruence was observed in diversity patterns of leaf beetles and terrestrial molluscs, suggesting that dispersal is a relevant process in both taxa but acts at a different strength.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The diversity of birds and mammals is typically described in separate analyses, but species may play similar roles. Here, we develop a comparative trait framework for birds and mammals to provide a global quantification of the similarity of species roles (functional redundancy) and the breadth of roles across taxa (functional dispersion). We predict different contributions of birds and mammals to redundancy and dispersion, and unique geographical patterns of redundancy and dispersion by including both taxa. Location Global. Time period Contemporary. Major taxa studied Birds and mammals. Methods We systematically select, compile and impute the same six traits (i.e., a common currency of traits) across 15,485 bird and mammal species from multiple databases. We use these six traits to compute functional redundancy and functional dispersion for birds and mammals across all 825 terrestrial ecoregions. We then calculate the standardized effect size (SES) of these observed values compared with null expectations, based on a randomization of species composition (i.e., independent of differences in species richness). Results We find that species‐rich regions, such as the Neotropics, have high functional redundancy coupled with low functional dispersion, characterizing a global trade‐off. Thus, in general, as species richness increases, the similarity in species functional roles also increases. We therefore suggest that different processes generate species richness/functional redundancy and functional dispersion, leading to a novel, and generally non‐tropical, distribution of hotspots of high functional dispersion across Madagascar, Eastern Asia and Western USA. Main conclusions We recommend consideration of both the similarity and the breadth of functional roles across species pools, including taxa that may play similar roles. We therefore suggest that functional redundancy, as a means of insurance, and functional dispersion, as an indicator of response diversity, should be evaluated further as conservation objectives.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aims Plant pH is a functional trait deserving more attention than the current few studies at local scales, given its roles in nutrient cycling and physiological processes. How plant pH varies and is regulated at large scales remain unclear. Here we explore the biogeography of foliar pH and the potential drivers. Location East–west transect of northern China with increasing aridity westward. Time period 2016–2017. Major taxa Spermatophytes. Methods We analysed foliar pH of plants from 22 sites across northern China, and investigated its spatial pattern and relationships with climate, soil, and plant functional type (PFT). Results Foliar pH was generally acidic (5.33 ± .04) in northern China, showing distinct geographical variability: foliar pH decreased significantly westward at an average rate of 0.25 units per 10° longitude. Climate, soil and PFT explained 11, 17 and 59% of the variance in foliar pH, respectively. Foliar pH decreased (about 0.16) with mean annual precipitation (per 100 mm), soil stress coefficient (per 10%) and aridity index (per 0.14), but increased with mean annual temperature (per 2 °C). Across PFTs, herbs exhibited higher foliar pH than woody plants (6.0 vs. 4.9); gymnosperms relative to angiosperms had lower foliar pH (3.7 vs. 5.6); and monocotyledons showed higher foliar pH compared with dicotyledons (6.0 vs. 5.5). Main conclusions This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the evident pattern of foliar pH over a large spatial scale. Foliar pH is higher in warm‐arid northwestern relative to cold‐humid northeastern China and in later‐ than earlier‐evolved plants. Similar to leaf mineral elements, foliar‐pH biogeography is shaped by the joint effects of climate, soil and PFT; PFT and moisture are the most influential factors. Our findings provide a new impetus for understanding functional biogeography, and lay the groundwork for research on the linkage of foliar pH to ecological functions and macroevolutionary implications.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Ecological properties governed by threshold relationships can exhibit heightened sensitivity to climate, creating an inherent source of uncertainty when anticipating future change. We investigated the impact of threshold relationships on our ability to project ecological change outside the observational record (e.g., the 21st century), using the challenge of predicting late‐Holocene fire regimes in boreal forest and tundra ecosystems. Location Boreal forest and tundra ecosystems of Alaska. Time period 850–2100 CE. Major taxa studied Not applicable. Methods We informed a set of published statistical models, designed to predict the 30‐year probability of fire occurrence based on climatological normals, with downscaled global climate model data for 850–1850 CE. To evaluate model performance outside the observational record and the implications of threshold relationships, we compared modelled estimates with mean fire return intervals estimated from 29 published lake‐sediment palaeofire reconstructions. To place our results in the context of future change, we evaluate changes in the location of threshold to burning under 21st‐century climate projections. Results Model–palaeodata comparisons highlight spatially varying accuracy across boreal forest and tundra regions, with variability strongly related to the summer temperature threshold to burning: sites closer to this threshold exhibited larger prediction errors than sites further away from this threshold. Modifying the modern (i.e., 1950–2009) fire–climate relationship also resulted in significant changes in modelled estimates. Under 21st‐century climate projections, increasing proportions of Alaskan tundra and boreal forest will approach and surpass the temperature threshold to burning, with 〉 50% exceeding this threshold by 〉 2 °C by 2070–2099. Main conclusions Our results highlight a high sensitivity of statistical projections to changing threshold relationships and data uncertainty, implying that projections of future ecosystem change in threshold‐governed ecosystems will be accompanied by notable uncertainty. This work also suggests that ecological responses to climate change will exhibit high spatio‐temporal variability as different regions approach and surpass climatic thresholds over the 21st century.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Species–area relationships (also known as “species–area curves” and “species accumulation curves”) represent the relationship between species richness and the area sampled in a given community. These relationships can be used to describe diversity patterns while accounting for the well‐known scale‐dependence of species richness. Despite their value, their functional form and parameters, as well as their determinants, have barely been investigated in drylands. Location 171 drylands from all continents except Antarctica. Time period 2006–2013. Major taxa studied Perennial plants. Methods We characterized species–area relationships of plant communities by building accumulation curves describing the expected number of species as a function of the number of sampling units, and later compared the fit of three functions (power law, logarithmic and Michaelis–Menten). We tested the prediction that the effects of aridity, soil pH on the species–area relationship (SAR) are mediated by vegetation attributes such as evenness, cover and spatial aggregation. Results We found that the logarithmic relationship was the most common functional form (c. 50%), followed by Michaelis–Menten (c. 33%) and power law (c. 17%). Functional form was mainly determined by evenness. Power‐law relationships were found mostly under low evenness, logarithmic relationships peaked under intermediate evenness and the Michaelis–Menten function increased in frequency with increasing evenness. The SAR parameters approximated by the logarithmic model [“small‐scale richness” (b0) and “accumulation coefficient” (b1)] were determined by vegetation attributes. Increasing spatial aggregation had a negative effect on the small‐scale richness and a positive effect on the accumulation coefficient, while evenness had an opposite effect. In addition, the accumulation coefficient was positively affected by cover. Interestingly, increasing aridity decreased small‐scale richness but did not affect the accumulation coefficient. Main conclusions Our findings highlight the role of evenness, spatial aggregation and cover as the main drivers of SARs in drylands, the Earth’s largest biome.

Beschreibung: Abstract With increasing availability of plant distribution data, the information about global plant diversity is improving rapidly. Recently, Ulloa Ulloa et al. (2017) presented the first comprehensive overview of the native vascular flora of the Americas, yielding a total count of 124,993 native species. Of these, 51,241 occur in North America and 82,052 in South America. By combining these data with the information in the Global Naturalized Alien Flora (GloNAF) database of naturalized alien floras, we point out that for a complete picture of the regional and continental plant richness, the naturalized alien species need to be considered. Ignoring this novel component of regional floras can lead to an inaccurate picture of overall change in biodiversity in the Anthropocene. We show that North and South America might face contrasting challenges in terms of potential threats to biodiversity posed by alien plant species, because of the different past and present dynamics of invasions and predictions of future development. In total, there are 7,042 naturalized alien plants occurring in the Americas, with 6,122 recorded in North America and 2,677 in South America; if only introductions from other continents are considered additions to the native continental flora make up 6.9 and 1.4 %, respectively. Nevertheless, predictions of naturalized plant trajectories based on global trade dynamics and climate change suggest that considerable increases in naturalized plant numbers are expected in the next 20 years for emerging South American economies, which could reverse the present state.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding the mechanisms behind broad‐scale gradients in animal body size remains challenging. In contrast to endotherms, the extent to which biophysical properties of ectotherms scale up into interspecific size gradients at macroecological scales remains elusive. Our aim here is to investigate what latitudinal body size gradients are expected to emerge from first biophysical principles regarding heat and water balances in terrestrial vertebrate ectotherms. Location Nearctic and Western Palaearctic. Time period Theoretical model under current climatic conditions. Major taxa studied Terrestrial vertebrate ectotherms. Methods We developed a biophysical model to derive heat balances and rates of water loss of lizard‐like reptiles and anuran‐like amphibians from microclimatic variables. We projected geographically model predictions for different size classes to explore how body temperature (Tb) and cutaneous evaporative water loss (EWL) are influenced by body size at macroscales. Results Large‐bodied ectotherms (over 100 g) attain a slightly higher Tb and conserve it for longer than small animals (5 g), owing to the lower convective heat dissipation and their greater thermal inertia. While large animals are more at risk of overheating in warm regions, all organisms, irrespective of body size, are constrained by low temperatures experienced at boreal latitudes. Furthermore, because of the nonlinear decrease in EWL with increasing size, larger size allows reduction of water loss of small wet‐skinned ectotherms in more evaporative environments. Main conclusions Size differences in heat balance offer a mechanistic explanation for the pattern of increasing body size northwards, as well as for the associated decrease in species richness. Water conservation is also identified as a potential mechanism for larger body sizes in dryer areas in wet‐skinned ectotherms such as amphibians. Moreover, our model reveals nonlinear relationships involving size and optimum states of thermal and hydric functions, accounting for complexities that are unnoticeable by traditional, correlative investigations.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Why are so many species rare, yet persistent? Possibly, rare species experience strong negative frequency dependence (NFD, i.e. strong intraspecific competition relative to interspecific competition), which both makes them rare and buffers them against extinction. A second, not mutually exclusive, possibility is that rare species that experience weak NFD go extinct quickly due to demographic and environmental stochasticity. Both possibilities predict that persistent rare species will experience stronger NFD than common ones. A previous study confirmed this prediction in a range of mostly terrestrial communities. Here, we test that prediction in lake zooplankton and explore its theoretical basis. Location Fifty‐three temperate lakes. Time period 1970–2011. Major taxa studied Cladocerans, copepods. Methods We used long‐term time series data to estimate the covariance between strength of NFD and mean frequency (relative abundance) for crustacean zooplankton. We used a randomization test to ask whether the covariance between NFD and mean frequency is stronger than expected, given sampling error. We also calculated the covariance between NFD and mean frequency in simulated communities from three different ecological models. Results Rare species experience significantly stronger NFD than common species in over half of the communities. The distribution of associations between NFD and rarity is skewed towards weak associations, which always occur in communities with high evenness. All three theoretical models reproduce these empirical results, even though they are based on different mechanisms (demographic or environmental stochasticity, and mathematical constraints on possible NFD–frequency relationships). Main conclusions Rare species typically experience stronger NFD than common ones because there are many different ecological scenarios in which they will do so, and only a few scenarios in which they won't. Like several other macroecological patterns, the tendency for rare species to experience stronger NFD than common ones is a “statistical attractor” that is hard to avoid.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Experimental nitrogen (N) addition (fertilization) studies are commonly used to quantify the impacts of increased N inputs on plant biodiversity. However, given that plant community responses can vary considerably among individual studies, there is a clear need to synthesize and generalize findings with meta‐analytical approaches. Our goal was to quantify changes in species richness and abundance in plant communities in response to N addition across different environmental contexts, while controlling for different experimental designs. Location Global. Time period Data range: 1985–2016; Publication years: 1990–2018. Major taxa studied Plants. Methods We performed a meta‐analysis of 115 experiments reported in 85 studies assessing the effects of N addition on terrestrial natural and semi‐natural plant communities. We quantified local‐scale changes in plant biodiversity in relationship to N addition using four metrics: species richness (SR), individual species abundance (IA), mean species abundance (MSA) and geometric mean abundance (GMA). Results For all metrics, greater amounts of annual N addition resulted in larger declines in plant diversity. Additionally, MSA decreased more steeply with N that was applied in reduced (NH4+) rather than oxidized () form. Loss of SR with increasing amounts of N was found to be larger in warmer sites. Furthermore, greater losses of SR were found in sites with longer experimental durations, smaller plot sizes and lower soil cation exchange capacity. Finally, reductions in the abundance of individual species were larger for N‐sensitive plant life‐form types (legumes and non‐vascular plants). Main conclusions N enrichment decreases both SR and abundance of plants in N‐addition experiments, but the magnitude of the response differs among biodiversity metrics and with the environmental and experimental context. This underlines the importance of integrating multiple dimensions of biodiversity and relevant modifying factors into assessments of biodiversity responses to global environmental change.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The current geographical distribution of species largely reflects colonization success after natural long‐distance dispersal or introduction by humans. Plants with selfing ability should have an advantage when establishing on islands where mates and pollinators are limited (Baker’s law). However, high percentages of dioecious and self‐incompatible species have been reported for some islands, possibly resulting from post‐colonization evolution. Given that such evolution is less likely to apply to alien species recently introduced to islands by humans, tests of Baker’s law on islands need to consider both native and naturalized alien species. Location Global. Time period Undefined. Major taxa studied Angiosperms. Methods To test whether the colonization of islands is associated with selfing ability (self‐compatibility and autofertility), we combined three comprehensive global databases: one on breeding systems of species, one on island and mainland distributions of native species and one on global naturalization of alien plants. We assigned each of a total of 1,752 species, from 161 angiosperm families, as mainland species, island colonists and/or island endemics (i.e., species that are restricted to islands). To assess potential relationships between island occurrence and selfing ability of species, we used multinomial logistic regressions. Results We found that species with high selfing ability were slightly more likely to be island colonist than mainland species. However, selfing ability did not increase the likelihood of being an island endemic in contrast to mainland species. Among island colonists, selfing ability did not differ between species on oceanic and on continental islands or between species native to islands and naturalized on islands. Main conclusions We performed a comprehensive test of Baker’s law by considering many angiosperm families, using continuous metrics of self‐compatibility and autofertility and including both native and naturalized species. We provide global evidence that high selfing ability may foster island colonization of angiosperms.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We examined body size scaling relationships for two developmental life stages of parasitic helminths (egg and adult) separately in relationship to latitude (i.e. Bergmann's rule), temperature and temperature seasonality. Given that helminth eggs experience environmental conditions more directly, whereas adults live inside infected host individuals, we predict stronger environmentally driven gradients of body size for eggs than for adults. Location Global. Time period Present day. Major taxa studied Parasitic helminths. Methods We compiled egg size and adult body size data (both minimum and maximum) for 265 parasitic helminth species from the literature, along with species latitudinal distribution information using an extensive global helminth occurrence database. We then examined how the average helminth egg and adult body size of all helminth species present (minimum and maximum separately) scaled with latitude, temperature and temperature variability, using generalized linear models. Results Both the egg size and the adult body size of helminths tended to decrease towards higher latitudes, although we found the opposite body size scaling pattern for their host species. Helminth sizes were also positively correlated with temperature and negatively, but more weakly, with temperature seasonality. Main conclusions Instead of following the body size patterns of their hosts, helminth parasites are more similar to other ectotherms in that they follow the converse Bergmann's rule. This pattern did not differ between helminth developmental stages, suggesting that mean annual temperature and seasonality are unlikely to be related mechanistically to body size variation in this case.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We sought to understand how the individual and combined effects of multiple environmental change drivers differentially influence terrestrial nitrogen (N) concentrations and N pools and whether the interactive effects of these drivers are mainly antagonistic, synergistic or additive. Location Worldwide. Time period Contemporary. Major taxa studied Plants, soil, and soil microbes in terrestrial ecosystems. Methods We synthesized data from manipulative field studies from 758 published articles to estimate the individual, combined and interactive effects of key environmental change drivers (elevated CO2, warming, N addition, phosphorus addition, increased rainfall and drought) on plant, soil, and soil microbe N concentrations and pools using meta‐analyses. We assessed the influences of moderator variables on these effects through structural equation modelling. Results We found that (a) N concentrations and N pools were significantly affected by the individual and combined effects of multiple drivers, with N addition (either alone or in combination with another driver) showing the strongest positive effects; (b) the individual and combined effects of these drivers differed significantly between N concentrations and N pools in plants, but seldom in soils and microbes; (c) additive effects of driver pairs on N concentrations and pools were much more common than synergistic or antagonistic effects across plants, soils and microbes; and (d) environmental and experimental factors were important moderators of the individual, combined and interactive effects of these drivers on terrestrial N. Main conclusions Our results indicate that terrestrial N concentrations and N pools, especially those of plants, can be significantly affected by the individual and combined effects of environmental change drivers, with the interactive effects of these drivers being mostly additive. Our findings are important because they contribute to the development of models to better predict how altered N availability affects ecosystem carbon cycling under future environmental changes.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Rapid global environmental change predicts increasingly seasonal climate in the tropics, causing expansion of seasonally dry habitats and leading to shifts in species distribution and potential extinction. Here, we use a macroevolutionary framework to understand the processes driving palm diversity patterns between moist and seasonally dry tropical habitats. We hypothesize that the discrepancy in species richness between habitats is explained by higher speciation rates in moist habitat and that niche conservatism prevents frequent shifts between habitats. Location Global. Time period Last 100 Ma. Major taxa studied Arecaceae. Methods We used trait‐dependent diversification models to test whether different habitats affect palm speciation rates. Furthermore, palm assemblages were divided into three regions (Africa, Australasia and Neotropics) to test for niche conservatism and evaluate phylogenetic dissimilarity. Results We found no relationship between speciation rate and habitat type. We detected phylogenetic signal for habitats at both global and continental scales, indicating that closely related species were more similar than expected by chance. Colonization of seasonally dry habitats occurred c. 60 Ma, yet most clades only diversified after c. 30 Ma. The high phylogenetic dissimilarity between habitat types at both global and continental scales was driven by high lineage turnover, at least for Africa and the Neotropics. Main conclusions We found a lack of differential speciation rates in setting the seasonally dry and moist palm‐richness discrepancy. However, over evolutionary history most palm lineages fail to colonize seasonally dry habitats owing to a tendency to retain ancestral habitat. Indeed, seasonally dry palm assemblages are the result of the diversification of particular lineages. Likewise, long‐term dry periods appear to induce shifts in taxonomic and functional diversity, and we emphasize that the expansion of dry habitats might also imply a loss of palm clades, hence a reduction in phylogenetic diversity.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Vertebrates are declining worldwide, yet a comprehensive examination of the sources of mortality is lacking. We conducted a global synthesis of terrestrial vertebrate cause‐specific mortality to compare the sources of mortality across taxa and determine predictors of susceptibility to these sources of mortality. Location Worldwide. Time period 1970–2018. Major taxa studied Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. Methods We searched for studies that used telemetry to determine the cause of death of terrestrial vertebrates. We determined whether each mortality was caused by anthropogenic or natural sources and further classified mortalities within these two categories (e.g. harvest, vehicle collision and predation). For each study, we determined the diet and average adult body mass of the species and whether the study site permitted hunting. Mortalities were separated into juvenile or adult age classes. We used linear mixed effects models to predict the percentage of mortality from each source and the overall magnitude of mortality based on these variables. Results We documented 42,755 mortalities of known cause from 120,657 individuals representing 305 vertebrate species in 1,114 studies. Overall, 28% of mortalities were directly caused by humans and 72% from natural sources. Predation (55%) and legal harvest (17%) were the leading sources of mortality. Main conclusions Humans were directly responsible for more than one‐quarter of global terrestrial vertebrate mortality. Larger birds and mammals were harvested more often and suffered increased anthropogenic mortality. Anthropogenic mortality of mammals and birds outside areas that prohibited hunting was higher than within areas where hunting was prohibited. Mammals experienced shifts from predominately natural to anthropogenic mortality as they matured. Humans are a major contributor to terrestrial vertebrate mortality, potentially impacting evolutionary processes and ecosystem functioning.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Most protist plankton are mixotrophic, with potential to engage in photoautotrophy and phagotrophy; however, the ecology of these organisms has been misdiagnosed for over a century. A large proportion of these organisms are constitutive mixotrophs (CMs), with an innate ability to photosynthesize. Here, for the first time, an analysis is presented of the biogeography of CMs across the oceans. Location Global marine ecosystems. Time period 1970–2018. Major taxa studied Marine planktonic protists. Methods Records for CM species, primarily from the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), were grouped by taxonomy and size to evaluate sampling efforts across Longhurst's oceanic provinces. Biases were evaluated through nonparametric tests and multivariate analysis. Biogeographies of CMs from OBIS data were compared with data from studies that specifically targeted these organisms. Results Constitutive mixotrophs of different taxonomic groups, across all size ranges, are ubiquitous. However, strong database biases were detected with respect to organism size, taxonomic groups and region. A strong bias was seen towards dinophytes. Species 〈 20 µm, especially non‐dinophytes, were least represented, with their recorded distribution limited to coastal regions and to temperate and polar seas. Studies specifically targeting these organisms revealed their distribution to be much wider. Such biases are likely to have occurred owing to a failure to capture and correctly identify these organisms in routine sampling protocols. Main conclusions Constitutive mixotrophs are dominant members of organisms traditionally termed “phytoplankton”. However, lack of routine protocols for measuring phagotrophy in “phytoplankton” protists has led to widespread misrepresentation of the fundamental nature of marine planktonic primary producers; most express both “animal‐like” and “plant‐like” nutrition. Our results have implications for studies of the global biogeography of plankton, of food web dynamics (including models) and of biogeochemical cycling in the oceans.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Horticulture has been recognized as the main pathway of plant invasions worldwide. The selection of ornamental garden plants is not random, and certain plant characteristics related to adaptive plant strategies are preferred by horticulture and may promote invasion. We examined the direct and indirect interactions between horticultural use, species adaptive strategies (competitive (C), stress‐tolerant (S), and ruderal (R)), native range size and naturalization success. Location Global. Time period From 1492 to the present. Major taxa studied Vascular plants. Methods We compiled a dataset of 3,794 plant species including their C‐, S‐ and R‐scores, native range size, cultivation in botanic and domestic gardens and whether the species is naturalized in at least one region globally (naturalization incidence). For the 1,711 naturalized species, we also calculated naturalization extent, that is, the number of regions where the species has naturalized. We used phylogenetic path analysis to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of all variables on both naturalization incidence and extent, and the relationships between variables. Results Approximately 87 and 94% of the 1,711 naturalized species were cultivated in botanic or domestic gardens, respectively, compared to c. 55 and 50% of the 2,083 non‐naturalized species, respectively. We found a cascading structure among the examined variables: (a) species exhibiting C‐ or R‐selected strategies and having large native ranges tended to be cultivated in domestic and botanic gardens, became naturalized outside their native ranges and occupied more regions in their naturalized ranges; (b) C‐, S‐ and R‐scores also had indirect effects on naturalization success, which were mediated by horticultural use and native range size; and (c) cultivation in domestic gardens was the strongest factor examined that could explain plant species’ naturalization success. Main conclusions We show that horticulture is not only the major introduction pathway of alien plants, but also that in particular domestic gardens select species predisposed to invade and naturalize.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Previous analyses of remotely sensed data detected the multimodality of the tree‐cover distribution of the boreal forest, and identified areas with potentially alternative tree‐cover states. This paper aims at investigating the causes of multimodality and multistability of the boreal forest, their influence on the asymmetric tree species distribution between Eurasia and North America, and whether multistability could be associated with recent greening trends in leaf area index (LAI) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Location Eurasian and North American boreal forests. Time period 2000–2010. Major taxa studied Boreal forest plant functional types. Methods We employ a conceptual model based on tree species competition to simulate the sensitivity of tree cover to stochastic disturbances and to changes in environmental factors. We include different plant functional types based on survival adaptations, and force the model with remotely sensed environmental data. We analyse the model as a dynamical system. We use metrics from statistics and information theory to compare the detection of alternative tree‐cover states and greening trends in LAI and NDVI. Results We find that multimodality and multistability can emerge through competition between different plant functional types. Additionally, our model is able to reproduce the asymmetry in tree species distribution between Eurasia and North America. Moreover, changes in permafrost distribution can be associated with phenomenological bifurcation points of the model. Finally, we find that the detection of multistable areas is not affected by recent vegetation trends, whereas shifts between alternative states could have affected the greening trends. Main conclusions Tree‐cover multistability in the boreal region can emerge through competition between species subject to periodic disturbances. Changes in permafrost thaw and distribution could be responsible for the asymmetry in tree species distribution between North America and Eurasia. Climate change and permafrost degradation could cause shifts in tree‐cover states and dominant species. Recent vegetation greening trends in multistable areas could have been affected by shifts between alternative states.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim A common approach for prioritizing conservation is to identify concentrations (hotspots) of biodiversity. Such hotspots have traditionally been designated on the basis of species‐level metrics (e.g., species richness, endemism and extinction vulnerability). These approaches do not consider phylogenetics explicitly, although phylogenetic relationships reflect the ecological, evolutionary and biogeographical processes by which biodiversity is generated, distributed and maintained. The aim of this study was to identify hotspots of phylogenetic diversity and compare these with hotspots based on species‐level metrics and with the existing protected areas network. Location Global. Time period Contemporary. Major taxa studied Terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, birds and amphibians) and angiosperms. Methods We used comprehensive phylogenies and distribution maps of terrestrial birds, mammals, amphibians and angiosperms to identify areas with high concentrations of phylogenetic diversity, phylogenetic endemism, and evolutionary distinctiveness and global endangerment. We compared the locations of these areas with those included within the current network of protected areas and concentrations of species‐level indices: species richness, species endemism and species threat. Results We found spatial incongruence among the three evolutionary diversity metrics in each taxonomic group. Spatial patterns of diversity and endemism also differed among taxonomic groups, with some differences between vertebrates and angiosperms. Complementarity analyses of phylogenetic diversity identified the minimal area that encapsulates the full branch lengths for each taxonomic group. The current network of protected areas and species‐level hotspots largely does not overlap with areas of high phylodiversity. Main conclusion Overall, 〈 10% of hotspot areas were designated as protected areas. Patterns of diversity, endemism and vulnerability differ among taxonomic groups.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Climate and disturbance alter forest dynamics, from individual trees to biomes and from years to millennia, leaving legacies that vary with local, meso‐ and macroscales. Motivated by recent insights in temperate forests, we argue that temporal and spatial extents equivalent to that of the underlying drivers are necessary to characterize forest dynamics across scales. We focus specifically on characterizing mesoscale forest dynamics because they bridge fine‐scale (local) processes and the continental scale (macrosystems) in ways that are highly relevant for climate change science and ecosystem management. We revisit ecological concepts related to spatial and temporal scales and discuss approaches to gain a better understanding of climate–forest dynamics across scales. Location Eastern USA. Time period Last century to present. Major taxa studied Temperate broadleaf forests. Methods We review regional literature of past tree mortality studies associated with climate to identify mesoscale climate‐driven disturbance events. Using a dynamic vegetation model, we then simulate how these forests respond to a typical climate‐driven disturbance. Results By identifying compound disturbance events from both a literature review and simulation modelling, we find that synchronous patterns of drought‐driven mortality at mesoscales have been overlooked within these forests. Main conclusions As ecologists, land managers and policy‐makers consider the intertwined drivers of climate and disturbance, a focus on spatio‐temporal scales equivalent to those of the drivers will provide insight into long‐term forest change, such as drought impacts. Spatially extensive studies should also have a long temporal scale to provide insight into pathways for forest change, evaluate predictions from dynamic forest models and inform development of global vegetation models. We recommend integrating data collected from spatially well‐replicated networks (e.g., archaeological, historical or palaeoecological data), consisting of centuries‐long, high‐resolution records, with models to characterize better the mesoscale response of forests to climate change in the past and in the future.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The species abundance distribution (SAD) is a fundamental pattern in macroecology. Understanding how SADs vary spatially, and identifying the variables that drive any change, is important from a theoretical perspective because it enables greater understanding of the factors that underpin the relative abundance of species. However, precise knowledge on how the form of SADs varies across large (continental) scales is limited. Here, we use the shape parameter of the gambin distribution to assess how meta‐community‐scale SAD shape varies spatially as a function of various climatic variables and dataset characteristics. Location Eastern North America (ENA). Time period Present day. Major taxa studied Trees. Methods Using an extensive continental‐scale dataset of 863,930 individual trees in plots across ENA sampled using a standardized method, we use a spatial regression framework to examine the effect of temperature and precipitation on the form of the SAD. We also assess whether the prevalence of multimodality in the SAD varies spatially across ENA as a function of temperature and precipitation, in addition to other sample characteristics. Results We found that temperature, precipitation and species richness can explain two‐thirds of the variation in tree SAD form across ENA. Temperature had the largest effect on SAD shape, and it was found that increasing temperature resulted in more logseries‐like SAD shapes (i.e. SADs with a relatively higher proportion of rarer species). We also found spatial variation in SAD multimodality as a function of temperature and species richness. Main conclusions Our results indicate that temperature is a key environmental driver governing the form of ENA tree meta‐community‐scale SADs. This finding has implications for our understanding of local‐scale variation in tree abundance and suggests that niche factors and environmental filtering are important in the structuring of ENA tree communities at larger scales.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The latitudinal diversity gradient is the dominant geographic pattern of life on Earth, but a consensus understanding of its origins has remained elusive. The analysis of recently diverged, hyper‐rich invertebrate groups provides an opportunity to investigate latitudinal patterns with the statistical power of large trees while minimizing potentially confounding variation in ecology and history. Here, we synthesize global phylogenetic and macroecological data on a hyperdiverse (〉 1,100 species) ant radiation, Pheidole and test predictions of three general explanations for the latitudinal gradient: variation in diversification rates, tropical conservatism and ecological regulation. Location Global. Time period The past 35 million years. Major taxa studied The hyperdiverse ant genus Pheidole Westwood. Methods We assembled geographic data for 1,499 species and morphospecies, and inferred a dated phylogeny for 449 species of Pheidole, including 167 species newly sequenced for this study. We tested for correlations between diversification rate and latitude with Bayesian analysis of macroevolutionary mixtures (BAMM), hidden state speciation and extinction (HiSSE), geographic state speciation and extinction (GeoSSE), and a non‐parametric method (FiSSE), evaluated evidence for richness steady state, and examined patterns of diversification as Pheidole spread around the globe. Results There was no evidence of systematic variation of net diversification rates with latitude across any of the methods. We found that Pheidole diversification occurred in bursts when new continents were colonized, followed by a slowdown in each region, but there is no evidence richness has saturated at an equilibrium in any region. Additionally, we found latitudinal affinity is moderately conserved with a Neotropical ancestor and simulations show that phylogenetic inertia alone is sufficient to produce the gradient pattern. Main conclusions Our results provide no evidence that diversification rates vary systematically with latitude. Richness is far from steady state in each region, contrary to the ecological regulation hypothesis, although there is evidence that ecological opportunity promotes diversification after colonization of new areas. The fact that niche conservatism is strong enough to produce the gradient pattern is in accord with the tropical conservatism hypothesis. Overall, these results shed light on the mechanisms underlying the emergence of the diversity gradient within the past 34 million years, complementing recent work on deeper time‐scales, and more generally contribute toward much‐needed invertebrate perspective on global biodiversity dynamics.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Are different fruit colours related to large‐scale patterns of dispersal, distribution and diversification? Here, we investigate this question for the first time, using phylogenetic approaches in the tribe Gaultherieae (Ericaceae). We test relationships between fruit colour and (a) biogeographic dispersal, (b) elevational and latitudinal species distributions and (c) rates of diversification. Location Global. Time period Recent to 30 million years ago. Major taxa studied The plant tribe Gaultherieae in the family Ericaceae (blueberries and relatives). Methods We estimated a new time‐calibrated phylogeny for Gaultherieae. Data on fruit colours and geographic distributions for each species were compiled from published sources and field observations. Using phylogenetic methods, we estimated major dispersal events across the tree and the most likely fruit colour associated with each dispersal event, and tested whether dispersal between major biogeographic regions was equally likely for different fruit colours, and whether dispersal distances were larger for certain colours. We then tested the relationships between fruit colours and geographic variables (latitude, elevation) and diversification rates. Results Large‐scale dispersal events were significantly associated with red‐fruited lineages, even though red‐fruited species were relatively uncommon. Further, different fruit colours were associated with different elevations and latitudes (e.g. red at lower elevations, violet at lower latitudes, white at higher elevations). Violet colour was related to increased diversification rates, leading to more violet‐fruited species globally. Main conclusions Overall, we show that different fruit colours can significantly impact the large‐scale dispersal, distribution and diversification of plant clades. Furthermore, the interplay between biogeography and fruit‐colour evolution seems to generate “taxon cycles” in fruit colour that may drive variation in fruit colour over macroevolutionary time‐scales.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim We test hypotheses on the environmental control of elevational richness patterns of sphingid moths for their global applicability and generality. Specifically, we compare effects of area with climate‐related drivers, such as primary productivity and temperature, while also considering direct effects of precipitation. Major taxa Sphingid moths (Lepidoptera). Location Eighty‐six mountain ranges of the Old World and the Australia/Pacific region, from Scandinavia and Siberia through the African and Australasian tropics to South Africa and Southern Australia. Methods We used a large compilation of point locality records for 744 species, in addition to fine‐grained range maps derived from species distribution modelling of these records, to characterize the elevational pattern of species richness in 86 custom‐delineated mountain regions. For both types of data, we compared the effects of environmental drivers on richness by comparing standardized coefficients of multivariate models for pooled data after accounting for between‐region variation in richness. Results We observed varying patterns of elevational richness across the research region, with a higher prevalence of midpeaks in arid regions. We found overwhelming support for area as a main determinant of richness, modulated by temperature and productivity, whereas we detected no effect of precipitation. Main conclusions Area, productivity and temperature are the main environmental predictors explaining a large proportion of variability in sphingid richness. This is consistent not only with other elevational studies, but also with empirical and theoretical biodiversity research in a non‐elevational context (with the caveat of some unresolved issues in elevational area effects). However, distinct differences in elevational patterns remain even within the same mountain ranges when comparing with other Lepidoptera, that is, geometrid moths, which highlights the importance of understanding higher clade differentiation in ecological responses, within insects and in other groups.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To investigate biotic and abiotic correlates of reef‐fish species richness across multiple spatial scales. Location Tropical reefs around the globe, including 485 sites in 109 sub‐provinces spread across 14 biogeographic provinces. Time period Present. Major taxa studied 2,523 species of reef fish. Methods We compiled a database encompassing 13,050 visual transects. We used hierarchical linear Bayesian models to investigate whether fish body size, reef area, isolation, temperature, and anthropogenic impacts correlate with reef‐fish species richness at each spatial scale (i.e., sites, sub‐provinces, provinces). Richness was estimated using coverage‐based rarefaction. We also tested whether species packing (i.e., transect‐level species richness/m2) is correlated with province‐level richness. Results Body size had the strongest effect on species richness across all three spatial scales. Reef area and temperature were both positively correlated with richness at all spatial scales. At the site scale only, richness decreased with reef isolation. Species richness was not correlated with proxies of human impacts. Species packing was correlated with species richness at the province level following a sub‐linear power function. Province‐level differences in species richness were also mirrored by patterns of body size distribution at the site scale. Species‐rich provinces exhibited heterogeneous assemblages of small‐bodied species with small range sizes, whereas species‐poor provinces encompassed homogeneous assemblages composed by larger species with greater dispersal capacity. Main conclusions Our findings suggest that body size distribution, reef area and temperature are major predictors of species richness and accumulation across scales, consistent with recent theories linking home range to species–area relationships as well as metabolic effects on speciation rates. Based on our results, we hypothesize that in less diverse areas, species are larger and likely more dispersive, leading to larger range sizes and less turnover between sites. Our results indicate that changes in province‐level (i.e., regional) richness should leave a tractable fingerprint in local assemblages, and that detailed studies on local‐scale assemblage composition may be informative of responses occurring at larger scales.

Beschreibung: Global Ecology and Biogeography, Volume 28, Issue 3, Page 287-289, March 2019.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Deep‐diving cetaceans are oceanic species exposed to multiple anthropogenic pressures including high intensity underwater noise, and knowledge of their distribution is crucial to manage their conservation. Due to intrinsic low densities, wide distribution ranges and limited presence at the sea surface, these species are rarely sighted. Pooling data from multiple visual surveys sharing a common line‐transect methodology can increase sightings but requires accounting for heterogeneity in protocols and platforms. Location North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Time period 1998 to 2015. Major taxa Ziphiidae; Physeteriidae; Kogiidae. Methods About 1,240,000 km of pooled effort provided 630 sightings of ziphiids, 836 of physeteriids and 106 of kogiids. For each taxon, we built a hierarchical model to estimate the effective strip width depending on observation conditions and survey types. We then modelled relative densities in a generalized additive modelling framework. Geographical predictions were limited to interpolations identified with a gap analysis of environmental space coverage. Results Deeper areas of the North Atlantic gyre were mostly environmental extrapolation in the predictions, thereby highlighting gaps in sampling across the different surveys. For the three species groups, the highest relative densities were predicted along continental slopes, particularly in the western North Atlantic Ocean where the Gulf Stream creates dynamic frontal zones and eddies. Main conclusions Pooling a large number of surveys provided the first basin‐wide models of distribution for deep‐diving cetaceans, including several data‐deficient taxa, across the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. These models can help the conservation of elusive and poorly known marine megafauna.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding how ecosystem functioning and evolution shape taxonomic assemblages is a lively debate basically involving two major opposite views: the niche‐ and dispersal‐assembly hypotheses. Here, we introduce a new method allowing for the identification of the first‐order process of assembly underlying a set of taxonomic assemblages. Methods Building on Clarke’s SIMPER (for “similarity percentage”) analysis of a taxon/locality occurrence data set, we develop a permutation‐based algorithm named PER‐SIMPER, allowing for the identification of the first‐order process—either niche‐ or dispersal‐assembly—that drives species distribution within two or more groups of assemblages. We demonstrate the reliability and robustness of the method through cellular automaton‐like simulations generating niche‐assembled and/or dispersal‐assembled species occurrence data sets. Sensitivity analysis further allows evaluation of its accuracy and robustness to sampling effort, including reduced numbers of sampled localities and/or species. Main conclusions Niche‐ and/or dispersal‐assembled communities generate very different SIMPER profiles, which, in turn, allow for the accurate and consistent identification of the first‐order process of assembly operating within two or more groups of species assemblages through a threefold randomization procedure named PER‐SIMPER. The PER‐SIMPER method appears robust to varying sampling efforts that may affect the number of sampled localities and/or species, especially when one of the two processes of assembly dominates the other. The PER‐SIMPER analysis can be achieved on any empirical occurrence data set using a dedicated R function available as Supporting Information.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Catastrophic forest mortality due to more extreme rainfall deficits and higher temperatures under future climate scenarios has been predicted. The aim of this study is to explore the magnitude of historical drought‐induced tree mortality under pre‐warming conditions. Location North‐eastern Australia. Time period 1845–2017. Major taxa studied Trees. Methods Field survey, historical analysis and climate analysis. Results We present evidence of 18%–30% tree mortality from recent droughts across three regions of north‐eastern Australia with rainfall deficits less severe than earlier historical droughts. The corrected temperature record represents modest warming at the stations with long records in the vicinity of the study areas. In terms of rainfall deficit the most severe drought on record occurred in the early 20th century, and historical evidence confirms that this drought and earlier droughts before the advent of pastoralism coincided with substantial tree mortality. Main conclusions Dramatic declines in woody biomass in response to drought historically occurred more than once a century and are a natural phenomenon in semi‐arid Australia. The magnitude of drought‐induced tree mortality under natural climate fluctuations requires further investigation in other continents. Widespread drought‐induced tree mortality is not just a recent global change phenomenon and has been underestimated as a natural ecological process. However, even more severe forest die‐off events from more extreme hotter droughts are predicted if Earth’s warming proceeds as currently projected.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Understanding how species assemble into assemblages and identifying the determinants of assembly processes remains a key challenge in ecology. Within assemblages, functional trait dispersion can be used to infer assembly processes, but this inference could depend on the trait considered. Here, using both single and multiple trait‐based approaches, we analysed dispersion patterns for alpha (i.e., related to niche partitioning) and beta (i.e., related to environmental tolerance) traits in freshwater fish assemblages and characterized how trait dispersion patterns vary along environmental gradients at large spatial scale. Location Western Palaearctic, 290 river catchments. Time period Contemporary. Major taxa studied Freshwater fish. Methods Based on freshwater fish occurrence records in 290 European river catchments, we computed dispersion indices (mean pairwise distance) using standardized effect sizes for each single trait and multiple traits. We then used linear models including climatic, geo‐morphological, biotic and human‐related factors to determine the key drivers shaping freshwater fish dispersion patterns across Europe. Results We highlighted spatial variation in trait dispersion, with both underdispersion and overdispersion simultaneously observed for a given trait, but also distinct patterns of trait dispersion, even within beta and alpha traits. We provided evidence that elevation range and current and past climatic conditions mainly structured trait dispersion patterns. Finally, our results revealed that spatial patterns in trait dispersion based on multiple traits were less pronounced than those based on individual traits. Main conclusions Our results highlighted that traits showed different spatial and environmental patterns, reflecting different ecological patterns. This could lead to potential problems when using functional indices computed on multiple traits and challenges their relevance to describe diversity patterns and to infer the assembly processes shaping community structure.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim To determine the global position of tree line isotherms, compare it with observed local tree limits on islands and mainlands, and disentangle the potential drivers of a difference between tree line and local tree limit. Location Global. Time period 1979–2013. Major taxa studied Trees. Methods We modelled the potential climatic tree line based on monthly temperatures and precipitation for the period 1979–2013. We then compared the potential tree line based on climate to observed tree limits at 26 oceanic islands, 55 continental islands and 382 mainland locations. The differences between potential tree line and observed tree limits was then analysed by regression with the islands’ maximum elevation, age, isolation, and area. Additionally, we estimated growing season temperature niches for 16,041 species known to occur in the vicinity of the studied tree lines, and compared them across mainlands, and islands of continental and oceanic origin. Results Observed local tree limits differ up to 2,066 m from the potential tree line at the mainland on oceanic islands. Climatic effects are responsible for a difference of up to 1,296 m between tree lines of mainland regions and oceanic islands (but only for 756 m for continental islands). On oceanic islands, a remaining difference of up to 829 m correlates with the isolation and the maximum elevation of an island. Floras of oceanic islands are however depauperate with respect to potential tree line species and species show an affinity to higher growing season temperatures. Main conclusions Climate can explain about half of the differences between observed local tree limits and potential tree lines between the mainland and continental and oceanic islands. The remaining difference can be attributed to the higher isolation of oceanic islands, especially in the tropics, and as a consequence, a more depauperate flora and a lack of tree species that are able to grow at the tree line.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Organisms that disturb the soil while foraging or creating shelter (ecosystem engineers) can have profound effects on ecosystems. Soil ejecta from these disturbances can enhance surface nutrients and the resulting depressions accrue organic matter and develop into biological hotspots. Here, we describe a global meta‐analysis of studies that assessed the impacts of vertebrate soil disturbance on both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. Location Global land surface. Time period 1941–2016. Major taxa studied Vertebrates. Methods After conducting a systematic literature search, we quantitatively synthesized the findings of 149 published studies that compared disturbed and undisturbed surfaces. Our meta‐analysis included 64 engineer species, primarily comprised of rodents and a subset of other mammals. Results We found that vertebrate soil disturbance significantly enhanced soil nitrogen (by 77%) and phosphorus (35%), and the productivity (32%) and recruitment (32%) of vascular plants. Disturbances had a greater cover of bare soil (126%) than undisturbed controls, and higher abundances of secondary vertebrates (1,233%), that use pre‐constructed burrows as shelter and foraging grounds. Soil disturbance significantly reduced water run‐off (63%) and the abundance of biocrusts (82%). Soil disturbance effects generally intensified with increasing aridity, and the magnitude of soil disturbance effects was not moderated by the area of the disturbance. Disturbances older than 12 months were more distinct from the surrounding matrix than fresh disturbances. The phylogeny of engineers was unrelated to their ecosystem effects, indicating that the same functionality could readily evolve in different taxa. Main conclusions In general, disturbances become localized patches of elevated functioning, providing strong evidence that vertebrate engineers, especially those in drylands, are an important source of environmental heterogeneity.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Animal movement is an important determinant of individual survival, population dynamics and ecosystem structure and function. Nonetheless, it is still unclear how local movements are related to resource availability and the spatial arrangement of resources. Using resident bird species and migratory bird species outside the migratory period, we examined how the distribution of resources affects the movement patterns of both large terrestrial birds (e.g., raptors, bustards and hornbills) and waterbirds (e.g., cranes, storks, ducks, geese and flamingos). Location Global. Time period 2003–2015. Major taxa studied Birds. Methods We compiled GPS tracking data for 386 individuals across 36 bird species. We calculated the straight‐line distance between GPS locations of each individual at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. For each individual and time‐scale, we calculated the median and 0.95 quantile of displacement. We used linear mixed‐effects models to examine the effect of the spatial arrangement of resources, measured as enhanced vegetation index homogeneity, on avian movements, while accounting for mean resource availability, body mass, diet, flight type, migratory status and taxonomy and spatial autocorrelation. Results We found a significant effect of resource spatial arrangement at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. On average, individual movements were seven times longer in environments with homogeneously distributed resources compared with areas of low resource homogeneity. Contrary to previous work, we found no significant effect of resource availability, diet, flight type, migratory status or body mass on the non‐migratory movements of birds. Main conclusions We suggest that longer movements in homogeneous environments might reflect the need for different habitat types associated with foraging and reproduction. This highlights the importance of landscape complementarity, where habitat patches within a landscape include a range of different, yet complementary resources. As habitat homogenization increases, it might force birds to travel increasingly longer distances to meet their diverse needs.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Variation in body size across animal species underlies most ecological and evolutionary processes shaping local‐ and large‐scale patterns of biodiversity. For well over a century, climatic factors have been regarded as primary sources of natural selection on animal body size, and hypotheses such as Bergmann's rule (the increase of body size with decreasing temperature) have dominated discussions. However, evidence for consistent climatic effects, especially among ectotherms, remains equivocal. Here, we test a range of key hypotheses on climate‐driven size evolution in squamate reptiles across several spatial and phylogenetic scales. Location Global. Time period Extant. Major taxa studied Squamates (lizards and snakes). Methods We quantified the role of temperature, precipitation, seasonality and net primary productivity as drivers of body mass across ca. 95% of extant squamate species (9,733 spp.). We ran spatial autoregressive models of phylogenetically corrected median mass per equal‐area grid cell. We ran models globally, across separate continents and for major squamate clades independently. We also performed species‐level analyses using phylogenetic generalized least square models and linear regressions of independent contrasts of sister species. Results Our analyses failed to identify consistent spatial patterns in body size as a function of our climatic predictors. Nearly all continent‐ and family‐level models differed from one another, and species‐level models had low explanatory power. Main conclusions The global distribution of body mass among living squamates varies independently from the variation in multiple components of climate. Our study, the largest in spatial and taxonomic scale conducted to date, reveals that there is little support for a universal, consistent mechanism of climate‐driven size evolution within squamates.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Amphibians exhibit two basic reproductive modes, terrestrial and aquatic, each with different ecophysiological constraints related to evaporative water loss. We hypothesize that these fundamental niche differences will generate strong geographical patterns at the global scale in response to spatial heterogeneity in temperature and water availability. Location Global. Time period Present. Major taxa studied Amphibians. Methods We used global distribution maps of 5,434 amphibian species, classified into terrestrial or aquatic breeders, to estimate the occurrence and proportion of terrestrial breeding species per 1° cell. We used multiple regression models to test the relative importance of seven abiotic variables: annual precipitation, annual mean temperature, annual mean relative air humidity, annual mean actual evapotranspiration, availability of lotic and lentic environments and slope. We used residuals autocovariate (RAC) generalized multiple regression models to control for spatial autocorrelation and a spatial vector based on amphibian phylogeny to account for phylogenetic dependencies among cells. Model generality was evaluated by contrasting results between 11 widely recognized world zoogeographical realms. Results Globally, the occurrence of terrestrial breeding species was better explained by temperature followed by total annual rainfall, relative air humidity and terrain slope. In contrast, the proportion of terrestrial breeders was better explained by terrain slope, followed by total rainfall, temperature and relative air humidity. Actual evapotranspiration and the extension of large lotic and lentic water bodies played a minor role. However, the relative importance and even the sign of the regression coefficients varied among realms, revealing different evolutionary pressures. Main conclusions Niche differences among terrestrial and aquatic breeding amphibian species are reflected in their distinct geographical distribution across the globe. Adequate conditions for terrestrial reproduction to evolve and thrive are reached in distinct ways in different realms. Temperature constraints and slope suggest that reproductive modes will be impacted differently by climate change.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The investigation of phenotypic diversity across geographical gradients is pivotal to understanding the evolution and adaptive functions of alternative phenotypes. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the polymorphism in ventral plumage colouration observed in the cosmopolitan common barn owl group is determined by climatic factors, such as temperature and rainfall, consistent with Gloger’s and Bogert’s biogeographical rules. Location World. Time period 1809–2017. Major taxa studied Tyto alba species complex. Methods We analysed the variation in heritable melanin‐based plumage colour according to annual temperature and rainfall in 9,110 individuals of the cosmopolitan barn owl, with three distinct evolutionary lineages representing its entire distribution range: the Afro‐European Tyto alba, occurring between Scandinavia and South Africa, the American Tyto furcata, found from southern Canada to Patagonia, and the Australasian Tyto javanica, living between the Himalayan Plateau and Tasmania. Results Although the geographical distribution of colour morphs is heterogeneous among the lineages, in all of them plumage colour becomes darker with increasing annual rainfall, indicating a convergent selection of darker morphs in humid habitats possibly to improve camouflage against the dark environment and/or to repel water more efficiently. Moreover, in T. alba and T. furcata, melanization increases at decreasing temperature, suggesting its possible role in thermoregulation. Discussion These findings provide convincing evidence of repeated evolution of similar body colouration patterns at a worldwide scale compatible with the main biogeographical rules, while emphasizing the possible role of melanin‐based traits in animal adaptation to climate change.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim The mechanisms of plant trait adaptation and acclimation are still poorly understood and, consequently, lack a consistent representation in terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs). Despite the increasing availability of geo‐referenced trait observations, current databases are still insufficient to cover all vegetation types and environmental conditions. In parallel, the growing number of continuous eddy‐covariance observations of energy and CO2 fluxes has enabled modellers to optimize TBMs with these data. Past attempts to optimize TBM parameters mostly focused on model performance, overlooking the ecological properties of ecosystems. The aim of this study was to assess the ecological consistency of optimized trait‐related parameters while improving the model performances for gross primary productivity (GPP) at sites. Location Worldwide. Time period 1992–2012. Major taxa studied Trees and C3 grasses. Methods We optimized parameters of the ORCHIDEE model against 371 site‐years of GPP estimates from the FLUXNET network, and we looked at global covariation among parameters and with climate. Results The optimized parameter values were shown to be consistent with leaf‐scale traits, in particular, with well‐known trade‐offs observed at the leaf level, echoing the leaf economic spectrum theory. Results showed a marked sensitivity of trait‐related parameters to local bioclimatic variables and reproduced the observed relationships between traits and climate. Main conclusions Our approach validates some biological processes implemented in the model and enables us to study ecological properties of vegetation at the canopy level, in addition to some traits that are difficult to observe experimentally. This study stresses the need for: (a) implementing explicit trade‐offs and acclimation processes in TBMs; (b) improving the representation of processes to avoid model‐specific parameterization; and (c) performing systematic measurements of traits at FLUXNET sites in order to gather information on plant ecophysiology and plant diversity, together with micro‐meteorological conditions.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Phylogenies are increasingly used in community ecology, biogeography and macroecology. However, sourcing a phylogeny comprising the entire species pool for a focal region can be difficult. Typically, a bespoke phylogeny must be created requiring considerable data manipulation and the use of many standalone software packages. Here we present a suite of methodological tools within the popular R environment that help to build molecular phylogenies appropriate for ecological studies with a regional focus. Innovation Our R package regPhylo provides a pipeline to construct a Bayesian posterior distribution of time‐calibrated trees suitable to address ecological questions. The novel contributions of regPhylo include options to: use prior phylogenetic knowledge through flexible topological constraints; include spatial metadata in sourcing DNA sequences; and include taxa without DNA sequences and then infer consequent phylogenetic uncertainty. Specifically, regPhylo helps researchers: retrieve DNA sequences; enhance available metadata; select DNA sequences based on their length or spatial proximity to the region of study; align sequences; and perform quality control. Output from the pipeline is a file ready to run in the Bayesian tree reconstruction software beast2, appropriate for estimating time‐calibrated trees and including phylogenetic uncertainty for downstream analyses. Main conclusions Overall, regPhylo improves the integration of popular standalone phylogenetic software into the flexible R environment. It provides a novel approach to include topological constraints based on prior knowledge, include taxa without DNA sequences, and select spatially appropriate DNA sequences. When coupled with a Bayesian tree‐building process, our approach provides estimates of uncertainty in both topology and branch lengths. We demonstrate the utility of the package by constructing a posterior distribution of time‐calibrated phylogenies for the New Zealand marine ray‐finned fishes (Actinopterygii) providing the unprecedented opportunity to include phylogenetic information in downstream ecological analyses for marine fishes in this region.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Forest understorey microclimates are often buffered against extreme heat or cold, with important implications for the organisms living in these environments. We quantified seasonal effects of understorey microclimate predictors describing canopy structure, canopy composition and topography (i.e., local factors) and the forest patch size and distance to the coast (i.e., landscape factors). Location Temperate forests in Europe. Time period 2017–2018. Major taxa studied Woody plants. Methods We combined data from a microclimate sensor network with weather‐station records to calculate the difference, or offset, between temperatures measured inside and outside forests. We used regression analysis to study the effects of local and landscape factors on the seasonal offset of minimum, mean and maximum temperatures. Results The maximum temperature during the summer was on average cooler by 2.1 °C inside than outside forests, and the minimum temperatures during the winter and spring were 0.4 and 0.9 °C warmer. The local canopy cover was a strong nonlinear driver of the maximum temperature offset during summer, and we found increased cooling beneath tree species that cast the deepest shade. Seasonal offsets of minimum temperature were mainly regulated by landscape and topographic features, such as the distance to the coast and topographic position. Main conclusions Forest organisms experience less severe temperature extremes than suggested by currently available macroclimate data; therefore, climate–species relationships and the responses of species to anthropogenic global warming cannot be modelled accurately in forests using macroclimate data alone. Changes in canopy cover and composition will strongly modulate the warming of maximum temperatures in forest understories, with important implications for understanding the responses of forest biodiversity and functioning to the combined threats of land‐use change and climate change. Our predictive models are generally applicable across lowland temperate deciduous forests, providing ecologically important microclimate data for forest understories.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Our aim was to quantify the extent to which nutrient pollution explains arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community richness and composition. Location Europe. Time period 2014–2016. Major taxa studied Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Methods We sampled soils of calcareous and acidic grasslands and roots of 34 host plant species across a large geographical gradient of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and soil phosphorus availability. Furthermore, we performed an independent pairwise comparison between fertilized and unfertilized grasslands in Belgium and Iceland to compare results. Results We found that nitrogen deposition had a significant negative relationship to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal richness, with a negative community threshold of 7.7 kg N/ha/year corresponding to the greatest reduction in operational taxonomic units. Additionally, we found that soil phosphorus had a significant negative relationship to mycorrhizal fungal richness. Main conclusions Our results highlight the necessity to revisit the critical loads of atmospheric nitrogen deposition used in European environmental policy, currently set at 10–15 kg N/ha/year. Importantly, our observed threshold of 7.7 kg N/ha/year does not correspond to a critical load below which there is no environmental harm, because the least negative changes in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities were observed at 〈 5 kg N/ha/year. Therefore, to avoid compromising the policy tenet of no environmental harm with respect to grassland mycorrhizal fungi, areas of zero tolerance to nitrogen pollution should be delimited. Our results also indicate that environmental policy biased towards reducing nitrogen pollution alone will fail to preserve mycorrhizal biodiversity in European grasslands. We advocate increased policy attention to avoid phosphorus enrichment, particularly through agricultural fertilization. Here too, areas of zero phosphorus input, ideally set in the currently unpolluted (or least polluted) areas, seem key for effective environmental policy, because elevated levels of soil phosphorus after phosphorus fertilization are known to be extremely persistent.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Tall and structurally complex forests can provide ample habitat and niche space for climbing plants, supporting high liana species richness. We test to what extent canopy height (as a proxy of 3‐D habitat structure), climate and soil interact to determine species richness in the largest clade of Neotropical lianas. We expect that the effect of canopy height on species richness is higher for lianas from closed tropical rain forests compared to riparian and savanna habitats. Location Neotropics. Time period Present. Major taxa studied Tribe Bignonieae (Bignoniaceae). Methods We used structural equation models to evaluate direct and indirect effects of canopy height, climate (temperature, precipitation and precipitation seasonality), and soil (cation exchange capacity and soil types) on overall Bignonieae species richness (339 liana species), as well as on species richness of lianas from forest, riparian and savanna habitats, respectively. We further performed multiple regression models with Moran's eigenvector maps to account for spatial autocorrelation. Results Canopy height was a key driver of liana species richness, in addition to climate and soil. Species richness of forest lianas showed a strong positive relationship with canopy height whereas the relationship was less pronounced for riparian species. Richness of savanna species decreased with increasing canopy height. Climate also explained a substantial proportion of variation in liana species richness whereas soil variables showed little explanatory power. Main conclusions The relationship between canopy height and liana species richness differs among habitats. While forest and riparian lianas benefit from tall and complex habitats that provide physical support to reach the canopy to escape low light availability in the understorey, high light availability in open habitats and an increased risk of embolism of conductive vessels for lianas with long stems living in areas with high seasonality might explain the inverse relationship between species richness and canopy height in savannas.

Beschreibung: Abstract Aim Net secondary production (NSP) emerges from the consumption of net primary production (NPP) by all heterotrophic organisms. There has been sporadic interest in the importance of NSP, but no global estimates have been produced. Here, we examine NSP and attempt a global estimate using contemporary NPP data combined with modern metabolic scaling theory for consumption rates. We distinguish between potential NSP, as the amount of secondary production that could be supported by NPP, and realized NSP, as the amount remaining after anthropogenic habitat disruption. Location Global. Time period 2000–2014. Methods We present a metabolic model of NSP, implementing a type II functional response for consumption rates, wherein search efficiency and handling time are calculated based on consumer mass and ambient temperature. We solve this model for each 0.05‐decimal‐degree pixel in the global terrestrial biosphere, using as data inputs NPP (MOD17A3) and land‐surface temperature (MOD11C3). We aggregate estimates within global land‐cover classifications (MCD12C1) to obtain cover‐specific and global estimates of NSP. We also correct our estimates based on declines in consumer abundance reported in Living planet report 2014. Results We estimate that potential NSP is 4.74 Pg C/year globally (95% CI: 3.75–5.75). When we correct for global consumer population declines, realized NSP is estimated at 2.37 Pg C/year (95% CI: 1.86–2.89), a loss of 50% in the rate of carbon flux through secondary consumers. Main conclusions Our estimates should not be viewed as the last word on NSP but are sufficient to suggest that the flux of carbon through consumers is of a similar magnitude to many other fluxes crucial to the global carbon cycle. We view this as a hypothesis to be tested that suggests NSP deserves significantly more attention in Earth systems, macroecology and biogeochemical research.