ALBERT

Description: Scouring around bridge pier is a major cause of bridge instability. Thus, providing appropriate methods in order to reduce and control the scour depth have received much attention. Using a slot in the bridge piers is one of modern methods of reducing bridge local scouring. In the present study, the effects of a rectangular slot on local scour mitigation around bridge pier groups have been investigated with adaptive neuro-fuzzy (ANFIS) method. ANFIS shows very good learning and prediction capabilities, which makes it an efficient tool to deal with encountered uncertainties in any system like scouring. The results show that the scour depth increased in the first pier by reinforcing effect and it decreased in the rear piers because of sheltering effect in compare with single pier. In addition, application of the slot in pier groups leads to an increase in the impact of reinforcing effect and reduce the influence of sheltering effect. The use of slot is more influential in front bridge piers than the rear piers in pier groups with 4D distance, however, this effectiveness doesn’t have significant difference among the piers with 2D distance and same as single pier. Laboratory experiments were conducted to create experimental training and checking data for ANFIS network. This intelligent estimator is implemented using Matlab/Simulink and the performances are investigated. The simulation results presented in this paper show the effectiveness of the developed method.

Description: Harbour development along the low-lying coastline of northern France necessitated the construction of a seaport protruding into the sea. The extension of the port of Dunkirk resulted in the creation of an artificial shoreline consisting of a sea dike fronted by a beach, connected to a jetty protecting the seaport access. This study illustrates how harbour infrastructure can give rise to new kinds of aeolian landforms: e.g. the spontaneous initiation of aeolian dunes on a seaport dike resulting in specific dune types. However, this coastal dune development induced unexpected sand invasion of harbour infrastructure. The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of various types of windbreaks on a dike as a means of limiting sand drift and solving sand invasion problems. Seven experimental fences installed in the eastern part of the dike were monitored over an 11 month period. The experimental fences tested in this study demonstrated their effectiveness on an asphalt coated dike. Over the whole survey period, the most efficient fences were those installed close to a sand source, at the beach-dike limit. These experiments will aid the Port of Dunkirk in building a management plan for its shoreline, which is being designed in order to preserve the diversity of landscapes, and to control sand invasion which necessitates costly sand removal operations.

Description: Chilika Lake, the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia, is a prominent biodiversity hotspot along the Indian east coast. The geomorphology, water quality and biological productivity of the lake had undergone significant changes over the years under the influence of natural events and anthropogenic interventions. Decades of research have shown that the ecological changes of the lake system and its fisheries were influenced mainly by the water exchange between the lake and the sea that controls the salinity, siltation, macrophyte infestation and recruitment of marine forms. Depletion of fisheries and loss of biodiversity in 1980s and 1990s have been linked to the northward shifting of lake’s inlet and silting up of the outer channel. In order to improve the health of the lagoon and restoration of its biodiversity, a new mouth was dredged open in September 2000. Opening of the new mouth has resulted in some improvements with substantial increase in capture fishery, reduction in weed infestation, growth of seagrasses, appearance of dolphins and increase in the population of migratory birds. But, many stake holders claim that the problems associated with the lake ecology and its contribution to the socio-economic development of the stake holders still persist which could escalate in future.

Description: We tested whether marine survival and migration pattern differed between naturally and hatchery produced European trout Salmo trutta of different origins. The hatchery fish were released 150 m above the river estuary of the southwestern, Norwegian River Imsa, the home of the local population. Recaptures were used as proxy for survival. Wild and local hatchery fish survived better than transplanted hatchery stocks. Trout that were 1 year at release survived less well than 2-year olds, and small individuals less well than larger ones. Relative to their body size at release, populations that originated most distant from the River Imsa, the Baltic River Emån and the Norwegian mountain Lake Tunhovd, exhibited the poorest sea survival. At sea, trout chiefly moved less than 240 km from the river of release, but there were significant differences in dispersal among populations. Hatchery-produced River Emån and Lake Tunhovd trout moved farther from the River Imsa than the south Norwegian sea trout populations, and the marine distributions of the former were similar to that of the natural River Imsa trout. Large fish moved farther from the river than smaller ones. Straying to other rivers was low among wild and local hatchery-produced fish, and significantly lower than among most transplanted populations, and River Emån trout in particular. Thus, the River Imsa trout appeared better adapted to survival under the local conditions than non-local trout with consequences for optimal population management.

Description: Stocking Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. in the Meuse river system is unsuccessful, since hardly any adults return upstream. To investigate problems during seaward migration, individual salmon smolts were tracked in the Dutch part of the river Meuse, using the Nedap Trail® system. The study included a comparison for two seasons, one with high (2010) and one with low (2011) discharge conditions. Cultivated smolts (Loire-Allier strain, n = 100 per year) were implanted with telemetry tags and released in the tributary Roer in March, at the beginning of the natural smolt run. The study area was split into four river sections each characterized by different conditions: tributary Roer, main river Meuse extensively dammed, main river Meuse free flowing and the estuary. Mortalities differed considerably between sections. In the free flowing river Meuse the mortalities were relatively low (10 and 25 %). Mortalities were high in the tributary (44 and 45 %), the dammed river (46 and 49 %) and in the estuary (89 and 90 %). Only 2 and 3 % of the smolts escaped into the North Sea. Results are discussed in relation to environmental factors light and discharge and the presence of man-made obstacles: weirs, hydropower plants and a sea lock. A lack of current and delays at man-made obstacles result in disorientation of fish, a higher risk of predation and disturbance of the smolt run timing. Mortality causes must decrease for sustaining a salmon population in the Meuse.

Description: Seagrass beds are highly productive ecosystems and a decline in this habitat has become a global concern in recent decades. This study mapped seagrass at three sites in Port Phillip Bay between 1939 and 2011 and reviewed possible influences on seagrass cover changes. Historical aerial photographs from multiple sources were digitally scanned and orthorectified. Automated image processing techniques incorporating an unsupervised classification combined with minor editing in a GIS were applied to map seagrass cover and analyse variations in the size and distribution of seagrass beds. Large declines in seagrass cover were observed at all three sites after 1998. In contrast to other world-wide observations, these recent declines were preceded by a period of sustained seagrass expansion between the 1960s and 1990s and lower levels of seagrass cover were observed in the 1930s/40s. The recent and earlier low levels of seagrass cover coincided with extended droughts characterised by large reductions in nutrient inputs to the Bay. However, recent declines were not consistent across the Bay with three other sites remaining relatively stable during this period. The sites with large declines are all subject to longshore drift and changes in nearshore sediment transport driven by variations in weather patterns coinciding with extended periods of drought may be important influences on seagrass cover at these locations.

Description: Estuarine barriers may significantly reduce the upstream migration of diadromous fish species like the European eel ( Anguilla anguilla L.). Previous research showed that limited barrier opening during tidal rise was a cost-efficient and effective mitigation option to improve upstream glass eel migration, without significant intrusion of sea water. This paper aims to optimise this adjusted barrier management to improve eel passage at a tidal barrier complex at the mouth of the River Yser, Flanders, Belgium, one of the most important migration routes for glass eel in Flanders. Specifically, three hypotheses were tested. The first hypothesis analysed the impact of the number of barriers opened on the upstream glass eel migration. The second hypothesis evaluated the relation between the size of the barrier opening and glass eel migration. Finally, we tested whether the suggested adjusted barrier management may lead to a significant increase in conductivity in the River Yser. Increased opening of one barrier appeared more efficient than opening several barriers slightly. Conductivity increased during periods of extreme drought and at base flow, but decreased within 24 h after the first peak flow. This indicates that adjusted barrier management does not entail salt intrusion in the Yser basin, as long as this management is not applied in extremely dry periods. Since the adjusted barrier management is easily implemented and could be applied on numerous tidal barriers, the presented results may contribute to restoration of eel populations worldwide and be of interest to a wide range of river managers and stakeholders.

Description: The Gulf of Kachchh is characterised by a strong tidal variation and the reef communities are capable of higher exposure time during negative tides. About 11 sites located along the Marine National Park (MNP) from west to east were studied for assessing the present status of live coral cover along with other life-form categories. In the present study, the maximum live coral cover was recorded in Pirotan Island, followed by Laku Point, Mithapur and Boriya reef. Multivariate analyses such as Principal Component Analysis and Correspondence Analysis supported that the contribution of live coral cover was more towards Pirotan Island whereas the contribution of coral species cover was more towards Laku Point. Bray-Curtis cluster analysis categorized all the study sites into four major clusters with 78 % similarity based on life-form categories. Among them, two clusters from western region (one forming site from Mithapur Reef to Lakku Point and another one forming from Ashaba Gugar Reef to Dabdaba Island), the third one combines the western and eastern regions (Boriya Reef to Kalubar Island), the fourth one comprises the eastern region (Narara Reef to Sikka), and one outlier Pirotan Island. Based on coral species cover, two major clusters with 55 % similarity were formed. Among them, one cluster was formed from Pirotan Island to Kalubar Island in the eastern side of MNP and the second one comprised the western region of MNP (Boriya Reef to Laku Point), and one outlier Mithapur Reef. Thirty one species of live corals belonging to 8 families and 18 genera were recorded in the Marine National Park itself during the study period.

Description: Coastal dunes are increasingly at risk due to pressures deriving from global climate change, sea level rise, recreation and development. The consequences of the “coastal squeeze” in which dunes are placed, such as erosion and the loss of critical ecosystem services, are usually followed by expensive restoration and protection measures, many of which are unsuccessful. Due to the poor understanding and acknowledgement of the key attributes of coastal dunes in decision making processes, it is essential to provide scientific data on the impacts of human interference on coastal dunes so as to inform executives and guide them towards a sustainable management of the coastal zone. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of five different levels of infrastructure development on the vegetation community structure of coastal dunes in Jeffreys Bay, South Africa. The effects of infrastructure development on dune vegetation were quantified by measuring the richness, diversity, cover, height and composition of plant species. With an increase in infrastructure development a significant decrease in dune width, average species richness and height of the plants occurred, accompanied by a shift in plant community composition. The foredunes that were backed immediately by infrastructure presented significantly greater species richness, diversity, cover and height compared with the foredunes abutted by primary dunes. This study demonstrated that coastal dunes are environments which are sensitive to varying levels of human impact. Informed and comprehensive management planning of these environments is therefore imperative for the restoration and maintenance of remnant dunes and for the conservation of undeveloped coastal dunes.

Description: On the western coast of France some storms have a dramatic impact while others have almost none. Some sites were insensitive to storms until the 50ies and are, today, retreating. This paper tries to explain why. First we sort out which storms are responsible for retreat and second we search for any change in management practices on the sites. The erosive storms are not always the most powerful ones (high wind speeds or high waves) but the ones which occur during the peak of high spring tides and have long period waves. The sites which retreat are the ones which, during the 20th Century; were maintained and rebuild, for economic reasons after each small storm event. Today they are left to themselves as they have no more economic activities and are turned into “natural areas”. Therefore the sensitivity of these sites to storm is human-induced. Though, they may be even more sensitive if the observed evolution in storminess (namely the increasing frequency of clusters of storms) appears to be a real trend.

Description: The fresh water reaching an estuary fluctuates on many scales and the fluctuation in the flow over a time period is also due to the anthropogenic activities like construction of dams, diversions and upstream withdrawals. These fluctuations may have profound effects on the estuarine ecosystem, which usually has remarkable biological productivity and diversity. A desktop analysis is carried out by compiling historical records of discharge and other hydrological information to study the dynamics of the river Coleroon, a distributary of the Cauvery River, Tamil Nadu, India. Remote sensing analysis was carried out on images ranging from the years 1977 to 2008 and the changes in the Pichavaram mangrove areas adjoining the Coleroon were studied by comparing the results with the freshwater flow into the ecosystem. Environmental flow analysis indicates that the minimum flow needed for a healthy mangrove system in Pichavaram is 750.75 cumecs; however, this is currently achieved only 12 % of the time. The reduction in freshwater flow over the years has resulted in loss of species diversity and degradation of the mangroves; this needs to be corrected immediately to conserve the Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem.

Description: Luwu is one of the regencies located on the east coast of South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia which has large brackishwater ponds area, but it has a low productivity of shrimp and fish. Therefore, a study was carried out to know the land characteristics for determining suitability and management of land for tiger prawn ( Penaeus monodon ) culture in brackishwater ponds to increase the productivity and sustainability. Factors considered in land characteristics are: topography and tidal range, soil quality, water quality and climate. Spatial analysis in Geographic Information System is used for determining the land suitability for tiger prawn culture in brackishwater ponds. Land management is determined based on land characteristics to conform to technology that can be applied in brackishwater ponds. The results of study showed that brackishwater ponds soil in Luwu Regency are classified as acid sulfate soil and acid sulfate soil associated with peat soils that are characterized by low pH and macro nutrient content as well as high potential acidity and toxic elements content. Texture is generally classified as loamy sand, sand, sandy clay loam and sandy loam. Water quality in general can support brackishwater pond culture, except the forms of nitrogen which has relatively high content. Low rainfall was found from September to February and high rainfall in the other months. The analysis shows the actual land suitability of the existing brackishwater ponds in Luwu, namely 11,740.9 ha, where no land is classified as highly suitable (S1 class), 10,434.4 ha classified as moderately suitable (S2 class) and 1,306.5 ha classified as marginally suitable (S3 class) for tiger prawn culture. One of the recommendations for land management is through remediation, in the form of drying, submerging and flushing or liming for improving soil quality.

Description: A novel technique of aerial photography was examined using parasailing for mapping the coral reefs located in the coastal waters of Kish Island (central north of the Persian Gulf). A total number of 11 overall and 96 overlapped aerial photos were taken (6 overall and 67 overlapped were selected to use) and then were mosaicked and geo-corrected using ENVI® 5.1 image processing software by considering 8 pre-located diving buoys as ground control points. Afterwards, the corrected overall photos were stitched and used to produce a schematic map while the mosaic was digitized by applying a manual on-screen digitizing method in AutoCAD® raster design software, and a GIS-based topological thematic map was generated as output. The final results revealed that the method is applicable to map the coral reefs, while the ability to distinguish coral types by visual interpretation is the most advantageous factor for the proposed technique. Particularly in the studied area, an area ~4,500 m 2 comprising Porites and Acropora spp. as dominant coral genus could be mapped. Additionally, the low cost, quick and easy to manage and implementation, as well as producing precise thematic maps are considered as advantages of applying the proposed technique, in comparison with other alternative methods such as satellite imagery and field observations. In contrast, the limitation of this method is to use it in remote regions or areas with high turbid waters where it is not possible to interpret the coral types visually on the photos.

Description: System thinking and integrated research are widely applied approaches in environmental management, often facilitating the organization of information from different levels and sources. They are here applied to support the review of (1) political and management instruments and (2) elements that characterize the Bahia de Cádiz Nature Park (Spain). The latter objective is sustained by the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework. A first DPSI conceptual map offers a broader view of the park capturing a range of elements that act at global, national and regional levels. Next, through expert consultation, prioritized DPSI issues describing the current situation of Bahia de Cádiz Nature Park are highlighted. A second DPSI map is designed to explore specific land-use and land-cover changes and their effects on the park’s ecological integrity, offering a greater level of detail. ‘Responses’ are discussed separately, through a review of most recent response actions that have originated at various levels, and future ones proposed by the park’s management. The framework proves to be appropriate to identify elements from both social and environmental dimensions, but excludes global-scale elements that do not fit the scope of this analysis. The review hopes to support future integrated research initiatives, involving in-depth analysis though the use of tools as are indicators or models.

Description: Scale-appropriate, foundational datasets are necessary for ecological analyses of the rocky intertidal ecosystem. We used terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to characterize and quantify the rocky intertidal zone topography at a western U.S. coastal site (Rabbit Rock, Oregon) to support ecological research relating to potential climate-induced changes in distribution and abundance of intertidal invertebrates and a large-bodied shorebird, the Black Oystercatcher ( Haematopus bachmani ). Alternate available data (e.g., aerial photography, airborne LIDAR) proved inadequate or infeasible for development of a topographic surface model inclusive of intertidal area from Mean Lower Low Water to Mean Higher High Water tidal elevation. Our TLS-derived topographic surface model competently supported development of an invertebrate distribution model relative to tidal elevation and topography. Using the developed model, we estimated current and future aerial extent of the intertidal zone and potential foraging habitat for Black Oystercatcher in our study area. Intertidal zone area decreased from 7,194 m 2 to 6,409 m 2 and 3,070 m 2 with 1 and 2 m sea-level rise, respectively. Surprisingly, due to the configuration of site substrate, potential foraging habitat for Black Oystercatcher increased from 5,658 to 5,903 m 2 with 1 m sea-level rise, but declined to 3,068 m 2 with 2 m sea-level rise. Our results demonstrate the utility of TLS for ecological research in the rocky intertidal zone. They further illustrate that climate change effects on ecological conditions may vary considerably depending on local configurations.

Description: India’s Gujarat state has a long coastline with rich maritime history. The entrepreneurial nature of its citizens enabled Gujarat to emerge as the most aggressive industrial development state in the country. Due to the availability of vast land resource for industrial expansion along the coast, affordable labor cost, sparse human density and liberal state government policies have significantly contributed towards the outburst of the industrial sector’s growth across Gujarat. Ecologically fragile ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, mudflats, salt marshes, sea grass beds and nesting sites of winter migratory birds are increasingly threatened due to direct and indirect pressure induced by the industrial and allied development projects. This article reviews the status of coastal environment in Gujarat state with an emphasis on integrated coastal management associated laws and regulations.

Description: With sea level rise, erosion, and human disturbances affecting coastal areas, strategies to protect and stabilize existing shorelines are needed. One popular solution to stabilize while conserving intertidal habitat is the use of “living shoreline” techniques which are designed to mimic natural shoreline communities by using native plants and animals. However, little information is available on the success of living shoreline stabilization. This project evaluated the wave energy attenuation associated with living shorelines that contained Crassostrea virginica (eastern oyster) and/or Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) in a wave tank. Four living shoreline techniques were assessed, including a control (sediment only), oysters alone, cordgrass alone, and a combination of oysters plus cordgrass. Time since deployment (newly deployed, one-year after deployment) was also assessed to see how wave energy attenuation changed with natural oyster recruitment and plant growth. Wave energy was calculated for each newly deployed and one-year old shoreline stabilization treatment using capacitance wave gauges and generated waves that were representative of boat wakes in Mosquito Lagoon, a shallow-water estuary in Florida. All one-year old treatments attenuated significantly more energy than newly-deployed treatments. The combination of one-year old S. alterniflora plus live C. virginica was the most effective as this treatment reduced 67 % of the wave energy created by a single recreational boat wake, compared to bare sediment. Natural resource managers and landowners facing shoreline erosion issues can use this information to create effective stabilization protocols that preserve shorelines while conserving native intertidal habitats.

Description: Serious attempts have been made to manage the highly populated Indian coast during the last 25 years in terms of regulating the activities and managing disasters. This has lead to formulation of various policies to maintain environmental quality and sustainably manage the coastal resources. Basically, the coastal zone needs to address the demands of all the stakeholders starting from traditional local communities, administrators, to academic researchers etc. India has faced tremendous challenges in implementing regulatory measures like Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) issued in 1991 by demarcating countries coast in to four different zones with provisions and prohibitions for various activities. The concept of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has been taken with the support of spatial decision-support tools derived from satellite data including national programmes on inter-sectoral approaches towards ICZM. 2004 onwards a series of disasters have reminded the necessity of having regulatory measures through implementable approaches. Subsequently, the CRZ 2011 notification has been a new addition to the list of policies using bottom-up approach as a good governance tool. The country has strengthened its potential in coastal management, disaster management and several community based field projects to enhance participation of stakeholders. This paper is aimed to critically review the processes that are made during the last two decades including the future challenges towards sustainable management of coastal zone with special emphasis on the three coastal areas from eastern, western and southern coast of India.

Description: Understanding the governance system, stakeholder relationships and perceptions of coastal landscape risk is essential to improving the sustainability of coastal environments. Our main objective was to analyse social networks for the Maresme Sud coastal area in Catalonia and examine public perceptions of risk in order to shed light on how the current governance system could be improved to promote more adaptive coastal landscape risk management. Our methodology was based on semi-structured interviews of key stakeholders and a social network analysis, which provided context-based information on stakeholder interactions and power relationships and the transfer and diffusion of different types of knowledge. In Maresme Sud, the strong presence of public bodies makes the integration of more adaptive and innovative discourses in coastal management practices more difficult. The role of supra-local stakeholders, currently poorly represented in the network, should be enhanced. Coastal partnerships could also act as bridging organizations to facilitate learning, cooperation and knowledge exchange among stakeholders.

Description: Coastal cliff erosion is a widespread problem that threatens property and infrastructure along many of the world’s coastlines. Rates of erosion used for shoreline management are generally based on analysis of historic maps and aerial photographs which, in rocky coast environments, does not wholly capture the detail in the processes and the failures occurring across the cliff face. This study uses airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data to gain a quantitative understanding of cliff erosion along rocky coastline where recession rates are relatively low (c. 0.1 m yr −1 ). It was found that three-dimensional volumetric changes on the cliff face and linear rates of retreat can be reliably calculated from consecutive digital elevation models (DEMs) several years apart. Furthermore, the accuracy of the data on sloping surfaces was tested by applying a threshold below which data that could be construed as error were removed. Using a vertical change threshold of 0.5 m had limited effect on the computed rates of retreat. The spatial variability in recession rates around the coastline was considered in terms of the relationship with the varying boundary conditions (rock mass characteristics, cliff geometries, beach morphology) and forcing parameters (wave climate and wave exposure). Recession rates were statistically correlated with significant wave height ( H s ), rock mass characteristics (GSI) and the ratio between the two (GSI/ H s ). The current method of assessing rocky cliff recession using maps and aerial photographs tends to not only miss the detail in the three-dimensional nature of the cliff evolution, but may also be too coarse a resolution to capture the small scale changes that contribute to the overall failure. LiDAR data, although limited in its temporal extent due to it being a relatively new technology, is a suitable method of evaluating cliff erosion on a time scale of 3–4 years and provides additional insight into the process occurring in slowly eroding environments.

Description: This paper presents an analysis of anthropogenic pressures in terms of indicators which would contribute to the relative vulnerability of coastal Wilayats (Administrative Zones) to development and related activities in the Al-Batinah North region of Oman. The main objective of this work is to rank each Wilayat based on the pressure indicators to provide inputs for local stakeholders involved in coastal management by developing a sense of understanding on the relative vulnerability of coastal Wilayats. The study of using pressure indicators would help to identify, key development pressures with the potential to affect coastal ecosystems. This would also enable to identify a Wilayat having strong driving forces for development and to determine which Wilayat’s coastal ecosystems are most affected and relatively experiencing anthropogenic pressures. Results of ranking exercise indicated that Suwaiq and Sohar Wilayats are more vulnerable, having pressures of studied drivers such as agriculture and urbanization. The identified pressure indicators presented in this study could be used to design coastal monitoring systems that can help further development of holistic environmental and socio-economic indicators for the coast.

Description: Eastern oysters ( Crassostrea virginica ) in Gulf of Mexico estuaries create complex reefs and provide important habitat for fish and crustaceans. Oyster reefs have suffered historic losses due to overharvest, disease, and degraded water quality, and recent efforts have focused on restoring reefs to benefit nekton populations. Oyster shell is the preferred substrate for oyster reef restoration, but as a consequence of its limited supply, a variety of alternative substrates are being used. We used field experiments to quantify the effects of substrate type (concrete, porcelain, limestone, river rock, and oyster shell) on oyster recruitment, growth, and nekton habitat use in St. Charles Bay, TX. After 4 months, oyster spat recruitment density, nekton density and community structure were similar across substrate types—and analogous to those on natural reefs—but differed from samples collected on bare sediment. To determine refuge value of the alternative substrates, we tested mud crab (Panopeidae) prey mortality with and pinfish ( Lagodon rhomboides ) or blue crab ( Callinectes sapidus ) predators. Prey mortality was similar across substrate types for both predators, and was significantly lower than no substrate and bare sand controls. Alternative substrates can provide important structural materials to support the development of oyster populations and nekton assemblages, and may be used to promote sustainable management of oyster reef resources via restoration.

Description: Tsunami disaster poses a great threat to coastal infrastructures. Bridges without adequate provisions for earthquake and tsunami loading is generally vulnerable to tsunami attack. During the last two disastrous tsunami event (i.e. Indian Ocean and Japan Tsunami) a number of bridges were observed subsequent damages by tsunami waves. Since it is very crucial problem in this paper was constructed a process which simulates the effects of perforations in bridge girder in force reduction with adaptive neuro-fuzzy (ANFIS) method. ANFIS shows very good learning and prediction capabilities, which makes it an efficient tool to deal with encountered uncertainties in any system like tsunami waves. Laboratory experiments were conducted to create experimental training and checking data for ANFIS network. This intelligent estimator is implemented using Matlab/Simulink and the performances are investigated. Results showed that significant amount of forces were reduced using perforations in girder. Approximately 10 to 18 % force reductions were achieved by using about 16 % perforations in bridge girder. Subsequent amount of force reductions revealed that perforations in girder are effective in reducing tsunami forces as perforations in girder let water to be passed through. Thus, less bridge damages are expected with the presence of perforations in girder during tsunami period. The simulation results presented in this paper show the effectiveness of the developed method.

Description: We gathered the available information about the anurofauna in Brazilian sand coastal plains (“restingas”) published since the 1966, which is the date of the first study we found that was conducted exclusively about anurans in these ecosystems. We made a compilation of available data found in publications and sought to finding a pattern on anuran communities of Brazilian sandy coastal plains. We found 63 published studies about anurans in remaining restingas along the Brazilian coast. We record the occurrence of 14,010 individuals, comprised of 145 amphibian species from 12 families. The species were distributed latitudinally in a peculiar way, and here, we discuss this distribution regarding the characteristics of the species. Our results showed that the available existing base still does not allow us to define the structural patterns of the anuran communities in sandy coastal plains in Brazil. The relative lack of studies about the anurofauna in “restingas” and the high rate of degradation are negative factors that can cause extinctions in these environments even before we understand the patterns and processes that act on anuran communities in restinga environments.

Description: Coastal risk management has received increasing attention from policy-makers and practitioners over the last 20 years. The introduction by the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), of a new approach to coastal risk management in England, led to the Environment Agency being given overall responsibility for the management of coastal risks in 2007. The establishment of a framework for coastal management, together with appropriate policy guidance, is particularly important on account of the increasing influence that predicted climate change may have on coastal economies, infrastructure, communities and conservation interests over the next century. Within this framework, the issue of coastal land instability is now being considered alongside the hazards of coastal erosion and flooding. In developing coastal management policies, and in deciding on whether coastal change should be adapted to rather than prevented, the availability of funding for coastal risk management projects and schemes is often an overriding consideration. This is encouraging new and innovative approaches for the avoidance of risks, through the implementation of adaptation strategies and the publication of improved advice and guidance. This paper describes recent policy guidance for coastal cliffs introduced in England and Wales, as well as the testing of new approaches in the field, and provides examples of updated tools to support engagement with stakeholders.

Description: The 155 km long Dorset and East Devon Coast World Heritage Site is recognized for its 250 million years of earth history, including internationally renowned coastal geomorphological landforms and processes. It is a naturally active coast ranging from vertical ‘hard’ cliffs to very active landslides, protected by both national and international conservation designations. The primary conservation focus of the Site is geoconservation, but its cliff ecosystems also provide outstanding examples of natural resilience to rapid change as well as preserving very important communities. One of the key features of the Site is that its dynamics allow a constant renewal of the visible geology and exposures of fossils, Erosion is accepted as normal. It is a heavily used tourist location with cliff-top paths in use all year and there are concerns about safety, especially for visitors beneath cliffs and crossing mudslides. Management of the Site deals with such issues as fossil collecting and conservation, access, education, coast protection and through a management plan.

Description: It now seems likely that the first human colonists to reach this part of the world would have had to negotiate a coastal zone largely comprising a combination of towering sea cliffs, sand dunes, or closed canopy woodland even on some of the steepest slopes. On a few coastal slopes in Wales there are still remnants of these ancient woodlands now considered to be of major conservation interest and representing a coastal habitat that was no doubt much more widespread before human influence. Nevertheless, there are few detailed studies of these woodlands. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to carry out a basic assessment of their ecology and conservation, and to provide both a collation of all existing stands in Wales (Table  1 , Fig.  4 ) and review of all existing ecological surveys. In terms of arboreal species many of the most natural examples are characterised by Quercus petraea (sessile oak) and Corylus avellana (hazel). Some examples, including Gallt y Bwlch in North Wales, are extremely stunted typically growing to a maximum height of about three metres but in places canopy height can be lower than head height. These woodlands are distinctive in other ways and experience environmental conditions that differ from those just a few kilometres inland including less precipitation and more solar radiation. Reflected light from sea water is thought to provide additional solar radiation. Their species composition typically appear very natural with little evidence of management although in some cases there is evidence that coppicing took place many years ago. In Britain there are very few remaining examples of these distinctive coastal woodland and most have not been described in the terms of the United Kingdom’s National Vegetation Classification (Rodwell 1991 ). However, some appear to have affinities with the so-called Atlantic hazel woodlands of Scotland. After the last Ice Age, hazel and birch were the earliest woody species to become established in the UK dating back some 10,000 years BP. They predate both oak woodlands and the pine forests of Scotland. Hazel became well established in the coastal zones of Wales and Scotland from about 9500 years BP. The evidence provided here suggests a need to further review both the conservation and protection status of these distinctive woodlands.

Description: Rising sea levels and changing wind climates are widely expected to be associated with receding coastlines, creating a planning need for coastal change prediction, especially for soft shores like those associated with saltmarsh. We ask whether it is possible use a simple cartographic wind-wave fetch method to estimate the spatial pattern of progradation and recession of soft shores in swell-sheltered situations in which there is little or no input of new sediment from terrestrial sources. For points on an extensive embayment shoreline of this type we mapped change over 54 years from aerial photographs, recorded current shoreline morphology and calculated a wave fetch index (WFI). Morphological indication of strong progradation was associated with low WFI, but there was no statistically significant effect of variation in WFI on the degree of shoreline retreat. Saltmarsh shorelines averaged 14 cm per annum retreat between 1952 and 2006, a rate that did not vary significantly between air photo periods. We conclude that our geographic information system approach utilising WFI is likely to be useful as a planning tool in identifying those parts of sediment-poor saltmarsh shores where erosion is most likely or least likely to occur, but not particularly useful for predicting finer-scale variation in rates of shoreline recession within the particular substrate types in our study area. In the context of relative sea-level rise and increasing wind speeds, such modelling can help identify coastlines which are likely to support saltmarshes into the future.

Description: One way of measuring pre-existing knowledge of a threatened species and its circumstances is to measure the degree of surprise expressed by stakeholders in relation to factual statements regarding the species. Beach-goers ( n  = 684) were surveyed in regard to their knowledge of the beach-dwelling, threatened, Hooded Plover Thinornis rubricollis , a coastal obligate in south eastern Australia. Principle components analysis revealed that respondents’ degree of knowledge could be categorized as involving ‘chick (flightless young) ecology’ and ‘human impacts’ (threatening processes). Respondents were more surprised by aspects of chick ecology than by threatening processes (F 1,514  = 460.446, p  〈 0.001). Prior knowledge of the species was associated with less surprise at factual statements. Therefore, priorities for further education should focus on linking threats with chick ecology, particularly because an understanding that chicks are not stationary within fenced areas is critical to the interpretation and effectiveness of current signage used to mitigate human impacts.

Description: Coastal zones are comprised of a great variety of natural ecosystems and resources and for this reason they are highly attractive for many human activities including settlement and recreational tourism. This great societal interest has resulted in rapid development and even urbanization of the coasts. Coastal tourism is still a rapidly growing part of the economy in many nations including countries along the Black Sea like Bulgaria. Increasingly, coastal areas and ecosystems are pressured by population, tourism, pollution, habitat degradation and loss, overfishing and increased hazards. This study assesses the population changes during 1934–2011 and tourist growth over 1999–2011 in the coastal zone of Bulgaria as an example of human pressure on today’s shorelines. The tourist boom over the last decade has resulted in substantial coastal population growth in Bulgaria. Results based on 2011 Census data show that population density in the zone within 10 km of the coast is 223 people per square km, while in 10–30 km and 30–60 km zones from the coast, the density is much less: 27 and 33 people per square km. Tourism has substantially increased over the recent years and it is expected to continue to grow despite the effects of global financial crisis after 2008. Coastal municipalities are also subject to major population influxes during peak vacation periods. Coastal population in summer can typically increase 20 %, but at some municipalities over 320 %. The existing facilities and infrastructure in these most crowded coastal municipalities are unable to meet this additional pressure. These peak periods often overwhelm local treatment capacity resulting in heavy impacts on natural geosystems and natural resources. Obviously, this tourism is critical to many local economies, but in order to preserve the economic benefits, we must also preserve the coastal environment that the tourists so desire. This is the challenge for coastal managers in the 21st Century.

Description: The Marine Park Prof. Luiz Saldanha, in the coast of Arrábida, is the first marine park in continental Portugal. This area is a Nature 2000 site and is considered to be a hotspot for European marine biodiversity. In 2005, the management plan of the park was implemented, ending several habitat menaces, thereby allowing an application to the LIFE—NATURE Programme. The LIFE-BIOMARES project aimed at the restoration and management of the biodiversity of the marine park through several actions. The restoration of the seagrass prairies that were completely destroyed by fishing activities and recreational boating, was one of the most challenging. It included the transplanting of seagrasses from donor populations and the germination of seagrass seeds for posterior plantation to maintain genetic diversity in the transplanted area. One of the most popular actions was the implementation of environmental friendly moorings to integrate recreational use of the area with environmental protection. Several dissemination and environmental education actions concerning the marine park and the project took place and contributed to the public increase of the park acceptance. The seabed habitats were mapped along the park and a surrounding area to 100 m depth in order to create a habitat cartography of the park and to help locate alternative fishing zones. Biodiversity assessments for macrofauna revealed seasonal variations and an effect of the protection status. Preliminary results are presented and show that the marine park regulations are having a positive effect on biodiversity conservation and sustainable fisheries, thereby showing that these kind of conservation projects are important to disseminate coastal conservation best practices. The Biomares project is a model project that can be followed in the implementation of marine reserves and the establishment of the Natura 2000 marine network.

Description: Coastal erosion occurs as a result of human ac tivity and natural phenomena. Coastal erosion causes significant economic and ecological problem. There is continuing serious coastal erosion along the Karasu coastline. This study reports on the process of determining the extent of the coastal erosion using satellite images from different time periods and the analysis of the risk to the environment. The change in the coastline over a 26-year period from 1987 to 2013 was determined using satellite images. In this study, significant coastline movements were detected for a 26-year period. For this study, the Karasu coastline was subdivided into 7 sections for analyses the coastal erosion risk. The risk of each section can be determined by using the classic risk. The results showed that both sides of the river outfall and the coastline have a moderate risk level with the area of the breakwater has a low risk.

Description: This study examined the relative impacts of different human activities and natural resource protections on the spatial distribution of beach vegetation and related habitat features (wrack, dune succession) in New Jersey (USA). Field surveys of the 209-km shoreline categorized beach segments according to vegetation cover classes, human activities, protection measures (exclosures, beach management plans, access restrictions) and ownership status (federal, state, etc.). A partition model (classification tree) was used to confirm the relative dominance hierarchy of human actions on the distribution of beach vegetation observed, and quantitative comparisons of dominant activities were conducted using vegetation data collected on 218 transects. The spatial extent of beach vegetation was found to be severely restricted by human activities when unconstrained by resource protections. The greatest reductions were found to result from mechanical raking (−99 %), scraping (−91 %) and all-year recreational ORV use (−86 %), which were dominant on nearly 70 % of the state shoreline. Beaches containing larger areas of vegetation (〉5 m) were concentrated in areas with resource protections of various kinds (99 %), and on federal or other public parklands (68 %). Exclosures resulted in the greatest coverage of vegetation (48 % of beach surface) compared to public access restricted areas (41 %), beach management plans (31 %), government-only ORV use (31 %), and off-season recreational ORVs (15 %). Greater protection and recovery of beach vegetation and habitat is needed for species conservation and erosion protection in New Jersey and other coastal environments where these activities occur.

Description: Coastal erosion may be caused by natural causes as well as human factors. Karasu town of the city of Sakarya in Turkey which is a touristic region on the Black Sea coast has been experienced a drastic coastal erosion. In recent years, this erosion reached the threatening dimensions for the structures in the settlement. According to the temporal analyses of Landsat satellite images, the maximum erosion on the coastline was detected 100 m between 1987–2013. The results of the study show that the harbour construct on the Karasu coast has the major impact on this event. The secondary factor is that the amount of the sediment carried by the Sakarya River was decreased in time due to different reasons. To prevent the coastal erosion, a series of offshore breakwaters were planned after the failed application of groins on the coastline. In this study, temporal changes of the coastline are investigated by the Landsat satellite data and land surveys, possible reasons of the erosion are discussed and the solutions are proposed regarding the coastal structures.

Description: In this study we evaluate the effect of coastal re-alignment on the utilisation of coastal grasslands by staging geese. We assessed vegetation change and utilisation by geese using repeated mapping and regular dropping counts in both the restored marsh and adjacent reference sites. All measurements were started well before the actual re-alignment. In addition, we studied the effects of livestock grazing on vegetation and geese, using exclosures. The vegetation transformed from fresh grassland into salt-marsh vegetation. A relatively large proportion of the de-embanked area became covered with secondary pioneer vegetation, and the overall cover of potential food plants for geese declined. Goose utilisation had initially dropped to low levels, both in autumn and in spring, but it recovered to a level comparable to the reference marsh after ten years. Exclosure experiments revealed that livestock grazing prevented the establishment of closed swards of grass in the poorly drained lower area of the restored marsh, and thereby negatively affected goose utilisation of these areas during spring staging. Goose grazing in the restored marsh during spring showed a positive numerical response to grass cover found during the preceding growing season. (1) The value of restored salt marsh as foraging habitat for geese initially decreased after managed re-alignment but recovered after ten years. (2) Our findings support the idea that the value of foraging habitats depends largely on the cover of forage plants and that this can be manipulated by adjusting both grazing and drainage.

Description: The access for anadromous brown trout (Salmo trutta) to watercourses on Funen was poor due to migratory barriers for upstream moving fish. Since 1990 fish passages have been established at 192 of these obstructions. We investigated the effect of the fish passages on parr abundance (age-0) at 24 obstructions between 1999 and 2008. Parr density increased significantly in stream sections upstream of the fish passage with a typical increase of 200 to 300 % with a maximum of 500 %. Mean parr density increased from 44 to 85 individuals 100 m 2 bottom area during the study period in the streams where the fish passages were established. Parr density was unchanged in streams where the migratory barriers remained. Thus, anadromous brown trout populations can be enhanced by the establishment of fish passages in rivers with migratory obstacles, and trout production increased quickly after access to new spawning and nursery areas were opened.

Description: The study uses a rather unusual method, dendrochronology, to investigate the growth and survival of Atriplex portulacoides L. and Artemisia maritima L. on salt marshes at two field sites on the Dutch North Sea barrier islands of Terschelling and Ameland. By providing information on longevity of these typical salt-marsh shrubs, dendrochronology offers an indirect way to investigate the influence of management regime – grazing in this case – on marsh quality and areal extent. Diminishment of salt marshes is a continuing concern in the northern Netherlands. The two shrub species studied here, A. portulacoides and A. maritima , are common to salt marshes. With their extensive roots and branches, they facilitate sedimentation and stabilize salt marshes. Using dendrochronology, this study found that annual growth rings could be identified to determine shrub age and growth. In A. portulacoides these rings took the form of a narrow band of terminal parenchyma. In A. maritima they were made up of unlignified marginal parenchyma together with higher vessel density at the beginning of the growing season. Growth rings indicated that intense grazing was clearly detrimental to the survival of A. portulacoides at the Terschelling site. However, grazing facilitated survival of A. maritima at the Ameland site by reducing light and nutrient competition from grasses. No growth trends could be found, however, as the lifespan for both species is short and many other influences on shrub growth could be identified.

Description: A new dune area was constructed by beach and foreshore nourishments along the Delfland Coast in the southwestern Netherlands. The new area is intended to be a compensation for losses of existing high quality dunes in nearby areas, due to the use/construction of Maasvlakte 2, the new harbour extension of Rotterdam opening in 2013. The target habitats for compensation include dry grey dunes and moist dune valley grassland. Due to the habitat type, the nourished material had to have a special character. The nourishment was carried out according to a special design and initial development of the new area had to follow certain pathways. In order to meet the compensation requirements in time. Careful monitoring is done to assess whether development of the new habitat is taking place in the direction of the desired target habitats. This paper reports on the construction of the new area and on the first years of development and monitoring. The monitoring mainly concerns development of the abiotic landscape elements, geomorphology, groundwater and soils. The lessons learned from this area are discussed in the light of the development of other recent young nature areas in the sandy Dutch delta coast. This gives new insights for coastal management in general in the context of building with nature.

Description: On 26 March 2003, the Tokyo Bay Renaissance Promotion Council, composed of six central government agencies and eight regional government bodies endorsed an “Action Plan for Tokyo Bay Renaissance”. Under the action plan, the monitoring campaign of bay environment has been started in 2008. Dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, and temperature were monitored in sea area, chemical oxygen demand, temperature, and discharge were monitored in river area. These data sets show a detailed snap shot of hypoxic water occurrence in the inner part of the bay. A series of environment maps for Tokyo Bay have been published for sharing the data. For example, in 2012, goby census has been implemented to show importance of biological – environmental relations. Participants of the census are 240, and the more than 8,000 data of fished gobies has been corrected. It clearly shows relation between growth and special environment variation. From just few trial of the campaigns are not enough to answer all questions, nevertheless, these trials shows its importance and efficiency on bay environment monitoring and management as one of the ICM tools.

Description: The importance of tourism and the evident impacts from coastal overdevelopment are two realities that coastal managers have to face. Coastal tourism in the Ravenna province started in the end of 19th century and has grown immensely over the last 60 years, stimulated by a combination of rapid urban built-up and increasing in beach holiday attraction. This paper presents preliminary results on evolution of coastal dunes focusing on tourism development and impacts arising from it. Determination of spatial and temporal dunes settings was performed within a GIS environment. A multitemporal investigation provided a description of coastal dunes transformation with emphasis on historical aspects of landscape changes. Marina di Ravenna was selected as a remarkably representative example illustrating the highest level of tourism development pressure on the coastal dunes. The study shows that extensive stretches of coastal dunes have been removed, mainly due to intensive construction of beach establishments. Total loss of coastal dunes in Marina di Ravenna was estimated about 18 ha over almost 60 years, an equivalent to 28 football pitches. The results reveal that the relation between tourism development and coastal dune evolution in Ravenna coastal area is evident, and requires more detailed investigation at different scales, combining other coastal factors to the analysis.

Description: Cultural ecosystem services are generally understood to be the non-material value that can be gained through ecosystems such as a sense of well-being, reflection and spiritual enhancement. These are often linked with a sense of place, culture, heritage and identity. The assessment of cultural ecosystem services, particularly in the marine environment is an inherently complex and difficult task, because they often involve making value judgments which can be hard to quantify. Methods applied to determining the value of these services are often focused on their financial value. Whilst methodologies have been developed to assess the non-material importance of these services, this paper argues that Q methodology provides a highly appropriate way of examining unmeasurable values by being able to convert qualitative, subjective data into quantitative information. The research presents two data sets derived from Q methodology which examined stakeholder views of the cultural values from two marine protected areas; the Pacific Rim National Park, Vancouver Island, Canada and an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Chichester Harbour, UK. The relevance of using Q methodology as a valuation mechanism in this type of study is examined and justified; whilst highlighting the advantages of tackling a subject of values and intangibility, highly qualitative information, with a structured, semi-automated and primarily quantitative methodology. The findings show that the case-study areas hold three predominant ‘factors’ of value for its stake holders. These include the protected areas; as a place of care for each other and oneself through the natural world; a place of spirituality; and as a place of freedom and refuge. The paper strongly argues for the use of Q methodology in such a study, which ultimately helps to bring about a depth of information that arguably traditional methods are incapable of in the same capacity.

Description: This paper highlights the biological and geological importance of England’s coastal soft cliff resource, and the coastal processes that sustain their conservation value. Since publication of the Maritime Cliff and Slope Habitat Action Plan in 1999 and designation of Special Areas of Conservation for the Annex I habitat ‘Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic coasts’ there has been a legal and policy obligation to conserve and enhance the quality of cliff environments, their habitats and species and their dependence on geomorphology at different scales. Although the development of strategic coastal planning in England now includes a better appreciation of coastal processes and cliff recession, tensions inevitably arise where properties and infrastructure are affected by coastal change, with soft cliffs at greatest risk of landslides and marine erosion. Rather than always using hard engineering approaches to stabilise soft cliffs, there is an increasing appreciation of the need to make use of adaptation for built assets through the planning system and working towards better understanding of the role of eroded sediment in provision of ecosystem services.

Description: Of the 52 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, 12 are separated from the main islands at high tide. Within these 12 sites, only one of which (St Kilda) has any human inhabitants, there are a further eight islands or groups of islands more than 2 km apart, so that within the Outer Hebrides, there are - for practical purposes - 20 separate offshore designated sites requiring survey, monitoring and management input. This presents challenges of resource allocation and logistics for the small team of conservation staff based within the two Outer Hebrides offices of Scottish Natural Heritage, Scotland’s statutory nature conservation agency. There are also challenges for the other agencies and managers involved in these sites, which in some cases allow the pooling of resources, but in others, lead to new sets of problems with conservation implications. These problems are discussed and reviewed with regard to future management and the obligations placed on Scottish Natural Heritage.

Description: The coast of Holy Island, situated off the Isle of Anglesey, Wales, is recognised for its geological, biological, cultural, aesthetic and recreational values by multiple conservation designations. The ecological functions of geology, climate, soil, biota, human history and current management in shaping this landscape are outlined. Much of the site is now managed by the RSPB as their “South Stack” nature reserve. The challenge of addressing the sometimes conflicting objectives of diverse interests in an iconic landscape is described. Solutions have developed through monitoring of key features and understanding of ecological relationships and through close liaison between local managers and the various communities of interest. In the process pioneering approaches have been developed which are now accepted practice elsewhere.

Description: It has been suggested that studies of geomorphological systems should identify potential system feedbacks, determine their direction of influence, and assess their relative importance. In this paper we show how a core set of processes and feedback loops can be distilled from existing literature on rock coast morphodynamics. The structure has been represented using Causal Loop Diagrams and a methodology to estimate the strength of a single feedback loop is presented. The backwearing erosion rate (cliff horizontal erosion) has been found to be controlled by at least four feedback loops; three balancing (cliff toe wave energy depletion, ground-water pore pressure diminution and cliff deposit protection) and one positive loop (abrasion enhancement). The downwearing erosion rate (vertical erosion) has been found to be controlled by at least three balancing feedback loops (weathering limited, shear depletion, cover-protection). Mean sea level directly influences the downwearing rate, through the water depth relative to the wave base, and indirectly influences the backwearing erosion rate through the wave energy dissipation that determines the amount of energy reaching the cliff toe. The offshore wave non-linearity parameter is proposed to capture the complex interaction between waves and shore platform geometries. The strength of the cliff toe energy depletion loop is assessed by reasoning on its causal pathway and found to be O(−10 −10 to −10 −4 ) for poorly lithified rock coasts. By understanding how the individual and overall feedback strengths are influenced by different future environmental and human intervention scenarios we could provide better assessment at the time scales needed for coastal management.

Description: Conservation and management of Sundarban mangrove forest is difficult chiefly due to inaccessibility and hostile condition. Remote sensing serves as an important tool to provide up-to date baseline information which is the primary requirement for the conservation planning of mangroves. In this study, supervised classification by maximum likelihood classifier (MLC) has been used to classify LANDSAT TM and LANDSAT ETM satellite data. This algorithm is used for computing likelihood of unknown measurement vector belonging to unknown classes based on Bayesian equation. Image spectra for various mangrove species were also generated from hyperspectral image. During field visits, GPS locations of five dominant mangrove species with appreciable distribution were taken and image spectra were generated for the same points from hyperion image. The result of this classification shows that, in 1999 total mangrove forest accounted for 55.01 % of the study area which has been reduced to 50.63 % in the year 2010. Avicennia sp . is found as most dominating species followed by Excoecaria sp. and Phoenix sp. but the aerial distribution of Avicennia sp. , Bruguiera sp . and Ceriops sp. has reduced. In this classification technique the overall accuracy and Kappa value for 1999 and 2010 are 80 % and 0.77, 85.71 % and 0.81 respectively.

Description: The reconstruction of environmental conditions allows us to categorize an area before it has suffered disturbances or even completely disappeared. The aim of this study is to gain insight into the natural conditions of the Guanarteme dune system (Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain) before it disappeared, focusing on studying its processes, landforms and vegetation cover. To this end, both primary sources and bibliographical references have been used as the basis of a description for the environmental state of this system between the 15th century and the middle of the 20th century, when the system was considered extinct. The different shapes and forms of the dunes over the centuries have enabled us to study the system evolution: its landforms have changed both in shape and number, as has the volume of sediments. This variation becomes obvious when we study the appearance of the system at the different dates of analysis. These changes are linked to the aeolian sediment dynamics, which are fairly stable from the 15th century until the last third of the 19th century, when a large amount of sediment in circulation was observed together with the shift of large aeolian landforms.

Description: The aim of this study is twofold. First, it explores the local discourses of poverty and well-being in a fishing community in Baja California Sur, Mexico. Second, the study examines the several constraints that fishers face for secure and sustainable livelihoods. The assessment used the sustainable livelihoods framework as analytical approach. The study concluded that poverty and marginalization in this fishing community is closely linked with institutional and social factors rather than to economics issues. The most severe constraints observed were corruption in the allocation of fishing licenses and permits, social exclusion and marginalization of new settlers and domestic violence associated with alcoholism and drug addictions. The current discourse that explains poverty exclusively in economic terms is discussed largely and confronted with empirical evidence. Finally, the study emphasizes the necessity to implement a marine protected area in the region, with the aim to preserve the marine resources as well as to establish a normative framework which guarantees transparency and justice in the resources allocation.

Description: This paper explores the impact of erosion and restoration measures on habitat development and on wave damping by a small salt marsh nestled alongside a dike on the Wadden island of Terschelling. The aim is to advance knowledge about the benefits and possible side-effects of salt-marsh restoration. Analysis of a time series of aerial photographs from 1944 to 2010 indicates that the salt marsh decreased steadily in size after maintenance of accretion works was terminated. In the western part of the marsh, which is accessible to sheep, vegetation is low (5–15 cm) and dominated by Salicornia europaea and by Spartina anglica . In the most intensively grazed parts, vegetation is very scarce. The eastern, inaccessible part of the salt marsh is covered by dense patches of the shrubby perennial Atriplex portulacoides and Spartina anglica (15–25 cm in height). SWAN wave models show that wave height at this location is significantly affected by the areal extent of the salt marsh as well as by the vegetation. High or dense vegetation are in the models nearly as effective in damping waves (with an initial height of 0.15 and 0.5 m) as widening the salt-marsh area by 350 m. A low density of low plants, as observed in the grazed part of the marsh, has almost no wave-damping effect. Even under conditions of sea level rise, a broader salt marsh vegetated with high plants significantly affects modelled wave height. Therefore, salt-marsh restoration is an adaptation measure worth exploring, though an array of effect types must be considered.

Description: Cetaceans are top-level predators that serve as sentinels of the health and status of lower trophic levels in the marine ecosystem. For this reason they attract significant attention in marine conservation planning and often have been used to promote designation of reserve areas in many countries (e.g., Ligurian Sea, Moray Firth, Hawaiian Islands, The Gully, Wadden Sea, Banks Peninsula, and Golfo San José). Many policies are designed to protect cetaceans. For example, the Habitat Directive requires member states to select, designate, and protect sites that support certain natural habitats or species, such as the bottlenose dolphin, as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) that aim to create a network of protected areas across the European Union known as Natura 2000. The boundaries of protected areas for cetacean species must be defined for management purposes. In recent years, many techniques have been developed to define the distribution of cetaceans in relation to habitat preferences. Although these models can provide an understanding of the ecological processes that determine species distribution, their application requires prior knowledge of the variables that should be included in the model, the interactions among these variables, and their effects on species distribution. Thus, the lack of available data in understudied areas precludes the application of these types of models. As an alternative, we describe a geostatistical approach to identifying areas that potentially should be designated as marine protected areas for cetaceans. We illustrate the application of the kriging algorithm to the bottlenose dolphin population that resides in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. The data derived from a 7-year survey were used. The encounter rate is the only variable required for this method, making it very easy to apply. The resulting georeferenced and high resolution map includes areas most visited by bottlenose dolphins, which are called core areas. Core areas are helpful for establishing the boundaries of marine reserves for the protection of the species. The approach described herein is accurate, precise, unbiased, replicable to all highly mobile species and easy to understand by both researchers and policy makers.

Description: The spatial distribution of mangroves in the Mngazana Estuary under sea level rise induced by climate change, together with different substrate elevation change scenarios was predicted for 2020, 2050 and 2100. The present inundation frequency tolerance range was from 0.8 to 31.2 %, equivalent to substrate elevation thresholds of 1.1 and 1.7 m amsl. These thresholds were measured by field surveys and analysis of a gauge station situated near the mouth of the estuary. The predictions were based on the assumption that the inundation frequency tolerance range of mangrove stands remains constant in the future. Through the use of a digital elevation model an initial increase of 2.10 ha year −1 was found in mangrove area between present and 2020 (from 122.6 to 143.6 ha). This was due to habitat becoming available that is currently too compacted for seedling establishment to occur. This compaction resulted from human and cattle traffic for grazing. Thereafter there would be a mean loss of 0.66 ha year −1 from 2020 through 2100. Landward migration of mangroves would not take place due to the elevation limit of adjacent non-mangrove areas. In addition, the loss rate would increase to 1.01 ha year −1 under insufficient sediment accretion, but would decrease to 0.18 ha year −1 under thriving mangroves condition. The analysis of sea storm event in September 2008 showed that local water level increased by 28 cm and maximum affected area was 87.0 ha (about 71 % of mangrove stands). The inundation continued over 5 days. The results indicated that the combination impact of sea level rise, substrate elevation change and sea storm would possibly be a threat to tropical African estuaries with large flat intertidal areas and mangroves.

Description: With the increasing appreciation that sea grass habitats are in global decline, there is a great need to be able to efficiently and effectively assess and characterize the status and trends of sea grass in our coastal ecosystems. This paper examines the utility of remotely sensed vs. in situ plot-based monitoring using the Barnegat Bay-Little Egg Harbor (BB-LEH), New Jersey, USA estuarine system as a case study. Eelgrass ( Zostera marina ) is the dominant species, while widgeon grass ( Ruppia maritima ) is also common in lower salinity regions of the BB-LEH. Aerial imagery collected during the months of July and August 2009 was interpreted and mapped using object based image analysis techniques, similar to techniques used in the 2003 mapping survey of this system. Boat-based in situ monitoring data were collected concurrently with the aerial photography to assist the image interpretation and for an independent accuracy assessment. We compared the remotely-sensed mapping of sea grass cover change (in 2003 vs. 2009) vs. in situ plot-based monitoring conducted from 2004 through 2009. Comparison of the remotely-sensed vs. the in situ plot-change analysis suggests that the two methodologies had broadly similarly results, with the percent area showing declines in sea grass cover greater than those that exhibited increases. In conclusion, the two studies provide corroborating evidence that sea grass has declined in percent cover in the BB-LEH system during the decade of the 2000’s. While remotely-sensed surveys provide synoptic information for a “big picture” view on sea grass distribution, site specific in situ sampling is required to determine other aspects of sea grass status, e.g. above vs. below-ground biomass, blade length, shoot density, epiphytic loading, etc. Either method alone gives an incomplete picture. As demonstrated in this study, to fully characterize the spatial extent, health, and density of sea grass meadows across the entire estuary, combining remote sensing surveys concomitantly with comprehensive in situ assessment provides the most robust approach.

Description: The present study was carried out to determine the mangrove area water quality, mangrove diversity and density at Minnie Bay, Lalaji Bay and Aerial Bay (Andaman Islands, India). The physicochemical parameters such as salinity, nitrate, inorganic phosphate and total phosphorus varied significantly. Mangrove diversity was high at Minnie Bay while density at Aerial Bay. Rhizophora mucronata dominated at all three sites during the study period. Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′ = 2.261) and Pielou’s evenness (J′ = 0.8348) were high at Minnie Bay. The higher species density cover (5.679 Nos./m 2 ) was recorded at Aerial Bay. Bray-Curtis cluster analysis showed 63.35 % similarity and formed two clusters. Though uplift and subsidence of coastal land due to the Mw 9.3 Sumatra earthquake in 2004 has affected the mangrove vegetation, its rejuvenation was observed in the newly formed inter-tidal areas due to changes in coastal geomorphology. The comparative study on physicochemical parameters, mangrove coverage and conservation are discussed in detail.

Description: In Sri Lanka, the total demand for sand is about 12,000,000 m 3 per year with a demand growth projected to increase by 10 % every year. However, Sri Lanka’s construction industry seems to face a shortage of sand if offshore sand mining is not promoted as a viable alternative and over-exploitation of river sand may lead to more significant damage to rivers (which is presently a serious issue). This article discusses the suitability or otherwise of the unexplored south-eastern, east and north-western offshore areas for exploration and mining works. This study was conducted by consulting several government organizations and universities dealing with coastal resources management, literature reviews and Key Informants’ Interviews held with Fisher Folk Societies and Divers’ Organizations in the study areas. The east and north-western offshore locations are not ideal considering the bathymetry (most locations in the east coast have water depths 〉20 m, hence mining is not commercially viable; in the north-western offshore areas depth is 〈15 m; mining is prohibited in Sri Lanka at depths ≤15 m and 〈2 km offshore) and the occurrence of critical habitats. In the south-eastern offshore areas the complex wave climate resulting in significant coastal/shoreline stability variations is a concern and the sea is very deep (〉20 m beyond 2 km offshore). Therefore, by considering the views expressed by the Divers’ Organizations and Fisher Folk societies it would be ideal to undertake exploration studies in the offshore areas in the north-eastern stretch.

Description: The purpose of the study was to investigate, whether the coastal grey dune vegetation at Anholt, Denmark, is limited by nitrogen or phosphorus. The island Anholt (22,37 km 2 ) is situated in the centre of Kattegat A two factor fertilization experiment with nitrogen as NH 4 NO 3 (N-addition) and phosphorus as KH 2 PO 4 (P-addition) was carried out in the coastal grey dune vegetation of Anholt. The N-addition corresponded to 40 kg N ha −1  year −1 and the P-addition to 7 kg P ha −1  year −1 The experiment included N-, P-, N + P-addition and control. Lichens (genera: mainly Cladonia, Stereocaulon, Cetraria, Hypogymnia ) and bryophytes (genera: Polytrichum, Racomitrium ) cover most of the surface. Only two plant species, Corynephorus canescens and Empetrum nigrum , constitute nearly all vascular plant cover and biomass of this calcium poor coastal heath community. Corynephorus and Empetrum increased their cover significantly following N and N + P addition. No effect was observed by P addition alone. N limitation of this coastal heath vegetation remote from agricultural and industrial activities was evident. The effect on the plant species of the single application was short-lived. After two-three years of enhanced cover, the Corynephorus and Empetrum cover had returned to their level before the experiment. The lichen vegetation, however, changed more permanently, and after 12 years the subplots with N + P addition was dominated by rich growth of Cladina and Cetraria species. The results are discussed in relation to anthropogenic nitrogen deposition and conservation of this high priority ecosystem.

Description: Drastic changes in river discharge and salinity levels are threatening the phenology and morphology of the coastal mangrove forests of the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. We have used AVHRR GIMMS (1985–2006) and MODIS (2005–2010) satellite Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data to identify the temporal variation of the phenology of the mangroves. Linear interpolation and Fourier-based adjustment were applied to remove noise from the NDVI time series. Then linear regression analysis on a single area (8 km ✕ 8 km) and a composite of 36 areas for three NDVI statistics the annual minimum, annual average, and annual maximum were performed--over the time periods 1985–1990, 1990–2000, 2000–2006 and 2005–2010 to identify possible functional changes in NDVI time series around the Sundarbans. Furthermore, we used fourteen LANDSAT images spanning the period 1989–2010 to estimate the spatiotemporal rate of shoreline changes over the three time periods 1989–2000, 2000–2006, and 2006–2010. A decreasing trend in the annual minimum NDVI was observed in most of the areas of the Sundarbans for the period 1990–2000. During the years 2000–2006, the trends of the three NDVI statistics became significantly positive, indicating an improvement of the mangrove phenology. In the period 2005–2010, a decreasing trend in all the NDVI variables was again dominant. The coast underwent rapid erosion from 1989–2000 and 2006–2010. However, the rate substantially declined between 2000 and 2006, when accretion was dominant. The advent of the upstream Farakka barrage caused a significant reduction in the Ganges-Gorai River discharge and increased the salinity in and around the Sundarbans. Our study concludes that this may be responsible for the degradation of mangrove phenology and accelerated erosion in the earlier and recent periods. In the interim, 2000–2006, improved river discharge and salinity levels due to the Ganges water sharing agreement (1996) and dredging of the Gorai River bed (1998–1999) enhanced the mangrove phenology and helped the coast to gain land.

Description: This paper identifies the coastal and river borne sediment sources and serves as a background for future work that serve to investigate possible coastal prevention strategies to limit the amount of sediment influx towards the entrance of Wairoa River, thus promoting its stability. The Wairoa River, a barrier enclosed estuary situated in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand was modelled using a one-dimensional hydrodynamic model – DYNLET. The potential rate of transport for silt, sand and gravel were investigated for both a flood flow and a median flow using the method devised by Van Rijn (J Hydraul Eng, 133(6):649–667, 2007a and J Hydraul Eng, 133(6):668–689, 2007b ). The gravel found deposited at the entrance was deemed to have originated from a coastal source whereas the silt and sand were found to be a result of fluvial processes.

Description: The marine functional zoning(MFZ) for China is a new large-scale, ecosystem-based zoning policy for management of development and use in the marine environment. The system dynamic (SD) method is used to evaluate the utilization effectiveness of existed marine functional zones (MFZs) quantitatively for China. As a case study, an impact assessment system is constructed to obtain the cause and effect feedback chart of the mariculture functional zones in Qingdao city, China. A feedback SD model and the main control loops are developed to analyze the utilization effectiveness of the mariculture functional zones. Vensim software is applied to the assessment for the mariculture functional zones of Qingdao. The results provide an effective support for policies and legislation for the division of MFZs. Analysis results and simulations are presented to verify and validate the proposed model.

Description: Beaches worldwide have been subjected to human impacts by the trampling of vegetation, leading to exposure that increases their vulnerability to erosion. Rehabilitation efforts have included dune revegetation and control of human, access along with information signs for public education. Long term evaluation of the success of these is largely lacking, particularly in Australia where there has been significant Natural Resource Management funding in the last 20 years. This study used beach monitoring profiles, sediment analysis, historical photographs and community surveys to evaluate beach rehabilitation activities at Turners Beach, Northern Tasmania, where significant community effort has been invested. Results showed that the western and central sections of Turners Beach have experienced overall accretion since 2006, with development of a foredune and evidence of marine derived sediment deposition. The eastern section continued to show some erosion, with informal access tracks remaining despite fencing and signage. After 15 years of rehabilitation, historical photographs and community survey showed that human access control using boardwalks and vegetation replanting has been successful, justifying the community effort and federal government funding that was invested at the time, and ongoing community and local government maintenance since. Dune fencing was also found to have partly contributed to rehabilitation success, while placement of rocks along the shoreline appeared to have had mixed results, and information signs were found to be the least successful management practice. Topographic survey of beach profiles was confirmed by this study to be an effective method for evaluation of erosion, justifying the involvement of surveyors, with such long term monitoring being beyond the scope of most projects. Community survey was also confirmed to be a valuable tool in identifying long term changes, and community participation to be successful in increasing the integrity and resilience of beach and dunes areas.

Description: The area of Cabedelo sand spit, located at the mouth of Douro River estuary (Porto, Portugal), reduced in recent decades. In order to study its evolution and also the impact of two breakwaters built to fix the river entrance, a dataset from 23 trimestral surveys using differential GPS techniques, conducted between 2001 and 2007, were considered. A time-series analysis and the estimation of relationships between Cabedelo spit area and several hydrodynamic parameters through statistical techniques were performed in order to determine which parameters have more influence in the Cabedelo spit behavior. From the time-series analysis a seasonal tendency is visible, with the lower values occurring in December and the higher values occurring in July. The estimation of a relationship between Cabedelo spit area and several independent variables reached better results when the dataset was divided in Part A (before the beginning of breakwaters construction) and Part B (during the breakwaters construction). An analysis of the morphological evolution of Cabedelo spit shoreline was also performed: (1) a simple analysis of retreat and accretion rates data with a geographical information system and (2) a more exhaustive analysis were performed using Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOFs). The Cabedelo spit shoreline erosion occurs mostly on the West and North side, and the accretion mostly occurs in the area protected by the South breakwater. During the breakwater’s construction, the Cabedelo spit shoreline presented high retreat rates, with a mean value greater than 100 m. In terms of spatial variance (EOFs analysis), when the dataset was divided in two parts, the first Principal Component (PC) represents 60.10 % and 89.86 % of the mean squared value of the data, for Part A and Part B, respectively. As proved, the breakwaters would tend to stabilize the coastline leading to a higher first PC value after breakwaters construction (Part B).

Description: On June 6, 2000, the Merchant Vessel River Princess – dead weight 114,645 tonnes and 261 m in length, grounded on the beach off the Candolim-Sinquerim coast, Goa, India, spilling some 40 tonnes of oil. In the past 10 years it has settled some 10 m into the sea bed and taken in circa 40,000 tonnes of sand. Until the ‘60’s the Goan economy centered on agriculture and fishing with very low key recreation. Over the last three decades it has become heavily reliant upon recreation, with 13 % of GDP arising from this sector. Nine million cubic metres of littoral drift occurs off this beach per annum, with the longshore current broken by rips into a series of circulating cells. The vessel acts as a massive groin so much so that downdrift, erosion of approximately 5 to 10 m/annum (dependent on the monsoon strength) is occurring at the Taj hotel site. Satellite imagery has shown that some 0.13 km 2 beach loss has occurred since 2001. Downdrift, the beach is circa 20 m wide compared to updrift areas where it exceeds 100 m. Embryo tombola growth has now commenced between shore and ship. In addition to this, the dune system is now seriously out of equilibrium and sand bags, geotextiles etc. are currently in use to combat dune foot erosion. Questionnaires ( n  = 111) showed that 37 % of beach users ranked erosion as the top coastal problem. Sixty seven percent of beach users rated scenery as the most important quality of a beach and due to the grounded ship, 〉60 % rated the scenery as below average, as well as viewing the ship as a source of danger for swimming purposes.

Description: There is a long history of livestock grazing on the California Central Coast, dating back over 150 years. In this study, methods were reviewed and results presented for analysis of NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite sensor data to monitor year-to-year variation of forage production on Central Coast rangelands around Big Sur, California. Time series plots from 2000 to 2012 of vegetation greenness for ten rangeland sites showed similar inter-annual patterns in satellite yield index (SYI) values. Most sites reached their maximum greenness levels each year in early May. The year with the highest observed SYI level across most sites was 2005. In the northern portion of the region (north of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park), 2007 was the year with the lowest observed SYI level, whereas in the southern allotments, 2007 was a year with a relatively high SYI level. These methods have the potential to monitor the differing seasonal growing cycles of rangeland production across the area of individual grazing allotments on the Central Coast. Such a cost-effective and timely approach is required for conservation monitoring in the Big Sur coastal ecosystems where rapid climate change may shift vegetation cover in favor of more extensive rangelands at the expense of forested lands.