ALBERT

Description: Purpose Oil shale is an unconventional petroleum source that can be produced domestically in the USA. Oil shale resources are primarily located in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, within the Colorado River Basin. In this paper, we analyze the life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale production and its impacts on water resources of the Colorado River Basin. Methods The study is focused on life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale development. Consumptive water use is defined as “water that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment.” The analysis includes direct consumptive water requirements to extract, process, and refine shale oil, as well as indirect consumptive water use for generating the electricity associated with the extraction and processing. From the results, strategies for water supply certainty are discussed, and strategies for implementation are suggested. In addition, refining the shale oil outside of the oil shale region (removing the need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water) are evaluated. Results and discussion Life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale is significant and could impact water availability for consumers in the lower Colorado River Basin. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant: between 140 and 305 billion gallons (0.4 and 0.9 million acre-ft.) of water per year if surface mining and retorting is done, or between 150 and 340 billion gallons (0.5 and 1 million acre-ft.) of water per year if the Shell in situ process is used. Strategies could be implemented to provide water supply certainty including refining the shale oil outside of the region (removing some need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water). Conclusions Water supply in the Colorado River Basin could be a primary constraint to the development of oil shale. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant. Energy companies or governments may want to invest in water management and supply strategies that would eliminate the uncertainty associated with the water availability in the Colorado River Basin for oil shale development.

Description: Purpose In the transportation sector, reducing vehicle weight is a cornerstone strategy to improve the fuel economy and energy efficiency of road vehicles. This study investigated the environmental implications of lightweighting two automotive parts (Ford Taurus front end bolster, Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy assist step) using glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) instead of steel alloys. Methods The cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments (LCAs) for these studies consider a total service life of 150,000 miles for two applications: a 46 % lighter GFRP bolster on the 2010 Ford Taurus that replaced the 2008 steel and GFRP bolster, and a 51 % lighter GFRP running board for the 2007 Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy that replaced the previous steel running board including its polymer fasteners. The life cycle stages in these critically reviewed and ISO-compliant LCA studies include the production of upstream materials and energy, product manufacturing, use, and the end-of-life treatment for all materials throughout the life cycle. Results and discussion The results show that the lighter GFRP products performed better than the steel products for global warming potential and primary energy demand for both case studies. In addition, the GFRP bolster performed better for acidification potential. The savings of fuel combustion and production during the use stage of a vehicle far outweigh the environmental impacts of manufacturing or end-of-life. An even greater benefit would be possible if the total weight reduction in the vehicle would be high enough to allow for the reduction of engine displacement or an elongation of gear ratio while maintaining constant vehicle dynamics. These so-called secondary measures allow the fuel savings per unit of mass to be more than doubled and are able to offset the slightly higher acidification potential of the GFRP running board which occurs when only the mass-induced fuel savings are considered. Conclusions The lightweight GFRP components are shown to outperform their steel counterparts over the full life cycle mainly due to the reduced fuel consumption of the vehicle in the use phase. To harvest the benefits of light weighting to their full extent, it is recommended that the sum of all mass reductions in the design process be monitored and, whenever feasible, invested into fuel economy by adapting the drive train while maintaining constant vehicle performance rather than leveraging the weight reduction to improve vehicle dynamics.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool for quantifying the overall environmental impacts of a product, process, or service. The scientific scope and boundary definition are important to ensure the accuracy of LCA results. Defining the boundary in LCA is difficult and there are no commonly accepted scientific methods yet. The objective of this research is to present a comprehensive discussion of system boundaries in LCA and to develop an appropriate boundary delimitation method. Methods A product system is partitioned into the primary system and interrelated subsystems. The hierarchical relationship of flow and process is clarified by introducing flow- and process-related interventions. A system boundary curve model of the LCA is developed and the threshold rules for judging whether the system boundary satisfies the research requirement are proposed. Quantitative criteria from environmental, technical, geographical and temporal dimensions are presented to limit the boundaries of LCA. An algorithm is developed to identify an appropriate boundary by searching the process tree and evaluating the environmental impact contribution of each process while it is added into the studied system. Results and discussion The difference between a limited system and a theoretically complete system is presented. A case study is conducted on a color TV set to demonstrate and validate the method of boundary identification. The results showed that the overall environmental impact indicator exhibits a slow growth after a certain number of processes considered, and the gradient of the fitting curve trends to zero gradually. According to the threshold rules, a relatively accurate system boundary could be obtained. Conclusions It is found from this research that the system boundary curve describes the growth of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results as processes are added. The two threshold rules and identification methods presented can be used to identify system boundary of LCA. The case study demonstrated that the methodology presented in this paper is an effective tool for the boundary identification.

Description: Polysaccharides account for more than 90% of the content of fungal cell walls, but the mechanism underlying the formation of the architecture of the cell walls, which consist of microfibrils embedded in an amorphous wall matrix, remains unknown. We used electron microscopy to investigate ten different fungal cell-wall polysaccharides to determine whether they could self-assemble into the fibrillar or amorphous component of fungal cell walls in a test tube without enzymes. The ultrastructures formed by precipitating β-1,3-glucan and β-1,6-glucan are different depending on the existence of branching in the molecule. Linear β-1,3-glucan and linear β-1,6-glucan precipitate into a fibrillar ultrastructure. Branched β-1,6-glucan, mannan and glycogen precipitates are amorphous. Branched β-1,3-glucan forms a fibrillar plus amorphous ultrastructure. Self-assembly among combinations of different linear and branched cell-wall polysaccharides results in an ultrastructure that resembles that of a yeast cell wall, which suggests that self-assembly of polysaccharides may participate in the development of the three-dimensional architecture of the yeast cell wall.

Description: Purpose Land use is a main driver of global biodiversity loss and its environmental relevance is widely recognized in research on life cycle assessment (LCA). The inherent spatial heterogeneity of biodiversity and its non-uniform response to land use requires a regionalized assessment, whereas many LCA applications with globally distributed value chains require a global scale. This paper presents a first approach to quantify land use impacts on biodiversity across different world regions and highlights uncertainties and research needs. Methods The study is based on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) land use assessment framework and focuses on occupation impacts, quantified as a biodiversity damage potential (BDP). Species richness of different land use types was compared to a (semi-)natural regional reference situation to calculate relative changes in species richness. Data on multiple species groups were derived from a global quantitative literature review and national biodiversity monitoring data from Switzerland. Differences across land use types, biogeographic regions (i.e., biomes), species groups and data source were statistically analyzed. For a data subset from the biome (sub-)tropical moist broadleaf forest, different species-based biodiversity indicators were calculated and the results compared. Results and discussion An overall negative land use impact was found for all analyzed land use types, but results varied considerably. Different land use impacts across biogeographic regions and taxonomic groups explained some of the variability. The choice of indicator also strongly influenced the results. Relative species richness was less sensitive to land use than indicators that considered similarity of species of the reference and the land use situation. Possible sources of uncertainty, such as choice of indicators and taxonomic groups, land use classification and regionalization are critically discussed and further improvements are suggested. Data on land use impacts were very unevenly distributed across the globe and considerable knowledge gaps on cause–effect chains remain. Conclusions The presented approach allows for a first rough quantification of land use impact on biodiversity in LCA on a global scale. As biodiversity is inherently heterogeneous and data availability is limited, uncertainty of the results is considerable. The presented characterization factors for BDP can approximate land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA studies that are not intended to directly support decision-making on land management practices. For such studies, more detailed and site-dependent assessments are required. To assess overall land use impacts, transformation impacts should additionally be quantified. Therefore, more accurate and regionalized data on regeneration times of ecosystems are needed.

Description: When considering drug delivery, the amount of drug that can be carried at a particular time and how the drug is incorporated efficiently into cells are important parameters. Transferrin (Tf)-conjugated nanocarriers have been used for the targeted delivery of drugs to cancer cells due to the availability of receptor-mediated clathrin-dependent endocytosis. In general, however, endocytosis seems to differ according to the size and shape of carriers. Large substances are generally internalized into cells by phagocytosis. We studied the internalization mechanism of Tf-conjugated nanoparticles (diameter, 522 nm). Tf-conjugated polystyrene particles were incorporated into cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis with large clathrin-coated vesicles even though their diameter was 〉500 nm and despite that fact that clathrin-coated vesicles have a diameter of 100 nm. This finding suggests that signals for internalization generated by stimulated Tf receptors (TfRs) activate clathrin-mediated endocytosis preferentially. Whether these larger particles could deliver drugs more efficiently than smaller particles was then examined. The toxicity of larger Tf-conjugated biodegradable nanoparticles (poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)) encapsulating doxorubicin (diameter, 216 ± 38 nm) was appreciably dependent on the number of Tf molecules conjugated on a particle and the number of TfRs expressed on the cell membrane. Larger Tf-conjugated particles delivered drugs to cancer cells expressing many TfRs more selectively than their smaller counterparts (diameter, 56 ± 9 nm) if they were decorated with an appropriate number of Tf molecules.

Description: Structural biology relies on good-quality protein crystals in order for structure determination. Many factors affect the growth process of a protein crystal including the way it nucleates and the types of damage and contamination during its growth. Although the nucleation process and quality of a crystal is vital to structure determination, they are both under-studied areas of research. Our research begins to explore ways of measuring the quality of protein crystals, using TEM, thus overcoming the problems associated with viewing wet specimens in a vacuum. Our current understanding of nucleation is that it is a two-step mechanism involving the formation of nuclei from dense liquid clusters; however; it is still unclear whether nuclei first start as amorphous aggregates or as crystalline lattices. Potentially, electron diffraction may be capable of uncovering this process. Using TEM imaging and diffraction of lysozyme as a model protein crystal, we report the internal two-dimensional strain and the density of crystallites in a protein crystal, at a resolution never seen before. The TEM diffraction shows unique features of crystal mosaicity that can be directly correlated to TEM images.

Description: The cotyledon of legume seeds is a storage organ that provides nutrients for seed germination and seedling growth. The spatial and temporal control of the degradation processes within cotyledons has not been elucidated. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals, a common calcium deposit in plants, have often been reported to be present in legume seeds. In this study, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was employed at the SPring-8 facility to examine the three-dimensional distribution of crystals inside cotyledons during seed maturation and germination of Lotus miyakojimae (previously Lotus japonicus accession Miyakojima MG-20). Using this technique, we could detect the outline of the embryo, void spaces in seeds and the cotyledon venation pattern. We found several sites that strongly inhibited X-ray transmission within the cotyledons. Light and polarizing microscopy confirmed that these areas corresponded to CaOx crystals. Three-dimensional observations of dry seeds indicated that the CaOx crystals in the L. miyakojimae cotyledons were distributed along lateral veins; however, their distribution was limited to the abaxial side of the procambium. The CaOx crystals appeared at stage II (seed-filling stage) of seed development, and their number increased in dry seeds. The number of crystals in cotyledons was high during germination, suggesting that CaOx crystals are not degraded for their calcium supply. Evidence for the conservation of CaOx crystals in cotyledons during the L. miyakojimae germination process was also supported by the biochemical measurement of oxalic acid levels.

Description: The electron irradiation damage of MFI-type zeolite was estimated under various accelerating voltages of 100, 200 and 300 kV from successively captured high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images. To determine the optimal accelerating voltage for HRTEM imaging of electron-sensitive MFI zeolite, the critical dose was estimated from the disappearance of a specific fast Fourier transform spot calculated from experimental images. Based only on the electron dose, a higher voltage was more advantageous. However, taking into account the minimum dose for imaging with a CCD camera, the optimal accelerating voltage for imaging MFI zeolite was 200 kV. The minimum dose for image detection with a CCD camera was surmised from the output/input signal ratio dependence on the accelerating voltage and the contrast range in simulated HRTEM images.

Description: The magnetic field generated by a magnetic recording head is evaluated using electron holography. A magnetic recording head, which is connected to an electric current source, is set on the specimen holder of a transmission electron microscope. Reconstructed phase images of the region around the magnetic pole show the change in the magnetic field distribution corresponding to the electric current applied to the coil of the head. A simulation of the magnetic field, which is conducted using the finite element method, reveals good agreement with the experimental observations.

Description: A new multilayer-coated varied line-spaced grating, JS4000, was fabricated and tested for extending the upper limit of a grating X-ray spectrometer for electron microscopy. This grating was designed for 2–3.8 keV at a grazing incidence angle of 1.35°. It was revealed that this new multilayer structure enables us to take soft-X-ray emission spectra continuously from 1.5 to 4.3 keV at the same optical setting. The full-width at half maximum of Te-L α1,2 (3.8 keV) emission peak was 27 eV. This spectrometer was applied to indium tin oxide particles and clearly resolved Sn-L α (3444 eV) and In-L β1 (3487 eV) peaks, which could not be resolved by a widely used energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer.

Description: Purpose The paper introduces the publication on “Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment Databases”; it focuses on the development of training material and other implementation activities on the publication. Methods The document is the output of the “Shonan Guidance Principles” workshop. The publication provides guidance principles for life cycle assessment (LCA) databases; this includes how to collect raw data, how to develop datasets, and how to manage databases. The publication also addresses questions concerning data documentation and review, coordination among databases, capacity building, and future scenarios. As a next step, the publication is used to prepare training material and other implementation activities. Results The publication was launched at the LCM 2011 Conference. Since then outreach activities have been organized in particular in emerging economies. Further developments with regard to the guidance principles are foreseen as part of a flagship project within phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Training material is being developed that will include how to set up databases and develop datasets. The topic has been taken up by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains. Conclusions The adoption of the “Global Guidance Principles” publication as a de facto global standard is expected to facilitate the work of database teams, especially, in developing countries, and the collaboration in regional networks. These efforts are supported by the development of training material and other implementation activities.

Description: Purpose The paper provides a late report from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative workshop “Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)—where we are, trends, and next steps;” it embeds this report into recent development with regard to the envisaged development of global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators and related methodologies. Methods The document is the output of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative’s workshop on “Life Cycle Impact Assessment—where we are, trends, and next steps.” The presentations and discussions held during the workshop reviewed the first two phases of the Life Cycle Initiative and provided an overview of current LCIA activities being conducted by the Initiative, governments and academia, as well as corporate approaches. The outcomes of the workshop are reflected in light of the implementation of the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Results The range of views provided during the workshop indicated different user needs, with regards to, amongst other things, the required complexity of the LCIA methodology, associated costs, and the selection of LCIA categories depending on environmental priorities. The workshop’s results signified a number of potential focus areas for Phase 3 of the Initiative, including capacity building efforts concerning LCIA in developing countries and emerging economies, the preparation of training materials on LCIA, the production of global guidance on LCIA, and the potential development of a broader sustainability indicators framework. Conclusions These suggestions have been taken into account in the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative in two flagship projects, one on global capability development on life cycle approaches and the other on global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators. In the context of the latter project, first activities are being organized and planned. Moreover, UNEP has included the recommendations in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and SETAC through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains.

Description: Purpose Substantial evidence from numerous studies indicate that Uganda is already experiencing the negative impacts attributed to climate change, manifested by changing and unpredictable weather patterns, with implications to food production, water, and livelihood. Therefore, reducing carbon footprints is a key ingredient in mitigating climate change. However, this requires availability of adequate knowledge and human resource capacities to analyze and manage the carbon dynamics as well as energy-related aspects at all levels of organizations. It is against this background that training activities were designed to equip participants with knowledge and skills on the subject of carbon footprints. Results Participants were exposed to current techniques and methods of estimating and reducing carbon footprints; and equipped with knowledge on pathways for realizing carbon neutral resilient systems. In addition, participants formed a carbon footprint network with a view of sharing experience with other actors elsewhere in this field, and periodically organize similar trainings and other avenues for experience and knowledge sharing.

Description: Purpose This study analyzes the influence of value choices in impact assessment models for human health, such as the choice of time horizon, on life cycle assessment outcomes. Methods For 756 products, the human health damage score is calculated using three sets of characterization factors (CFs). The CFs represent seven human health impact assessment categories: water scarcity, tropospheric ozone formation, particulate matter formation, human toxicity, ionizing radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate change. Each set of CFs embeds a combination of value choices following the Cultural Theory, and reflects the individualist, hierarchist, or egalitarian perspective. Results We found that the average difference in human health damage score goes from 1 order of magnitude between the individualist and hierarchist perspectives to 2.5 orders of magnitude between the individualist and egalitarian perspectives. The difference in damage score of individual materials among perspectives depends on the combination of emissions driving the impact of both perspectives and can rise up to 5 orders of magnitude. Conclusions The value choices mainly responsible for the differences in results among perspectives are the choice of time horizon and inclusion of highly uncertain effects. A product comparison can be affected when the human health damage score of two products differ less than a factor of 5, or the comparing products largely differ in their emitted substances. Overall, our study implies that value choices in impact assessment modeling can modify the outcomes of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and thus the practical implication of decisions based on the results of an LCA.

Description: Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC). Methods Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders. Results and recommendations Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development. Discussion, conclusions, and outlook The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009.

Description: For development of advanced materials, characterization using a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) including analysis via X-ray energy-dispersive spectrometry and electron energy-loss spectrometry is essential. Recent advances in aberration-corrected instruments have offered large-scale data acquisition at a high resolution for limited acquisition times both in imaging and in analysis. Further advanced procedures are required to analyze such large-scale datasets more efficiently including quantification. In addition, more simplified tuning procedures are crucial to the best possible resolution in the latest aberration-corrected instruments. In this review article, several approaches to perform advanced electron microscopy, which the author has been developing with his colleague, are described as ‘Microscopy Hacks’. These are (i) quantification and elemental/chemical-imaging procedures, (ii) advanced statistical approaches to handle large-scale datasets and (iii) instrument characterization and tuning procedures including the latest development of an ad hoc autotuning procedure for aberration-corrected STEM imaging.

Description: The crystal structure of a new type of molybdenum oxide crystal encapsulated in a single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) was examined via diffraction and spectroscopic techniques using both X-rays and electron beams. This new type of molybdenum oxide crystal has a chemical bonding state of MoO 3 , as confirmed by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and the MoO 3 units exhibit axial symmetry, as clarified by electron diffraction from bundled and individual CNTs encapsulating the crystal. To obtain three-dimensional information on the structure, a cross-sectional sample was prepared using a conventional dimple and ion-mill method. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images exhibit ring-like shapes that originated from the arrangement of the MoO 3 units inside the CNTs, as observed along the tube axis. The units are spaced 0.36 nm from each other in a ring arrangement and the distance between each ring is 0.391 nm.

Description: This review summarizes the recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) imaging techniques and their application to polymer nanostructures, for example, microphase-separated structures of block copolymers. We place particular emphasis on the method of transmission electron microtomography (electron tomography for short; hereafter abbreviated as ET). As a result of recent developments in ET, truly quantitative 3D images of polymer nanostructures can now be obtained with subnanometer resolution. The introduction of scanning optics in ET has made it possible to obtain large amounts of 3D data from micrometer-thick polymer specimens by using conventional electron microscopes at a relatively low accelerating voltage, 200 kV. Thus, ET covers structures over a wide range of thicknesses, from a few nanometers to several hundred nanometers, which corresponds to quite an important spatial range for hierarchical polymer nanostructures. ET provides clear 3D images and a wide range of new structural information that cannot be obtained using other methods. Information traditionally derived from conventional microscopy or scattering methods can be directly acquired from 3D volume data. ET is a versatile technique that is not restricted to only polymer applications; it can also be used as a powerful characterization tool in energy applications such as fuel cells.

Description: The performances of a newly developed 80–200 kV cold field emission gun (CFEG) transmission electron microscope (TEM) integrating a spherical aberration corrector for a TEM image-forming lens have been evaluated. To begin, we show that the stability of both emission and probe currents makes use of this new CFEG much friendlier. The energy spread of electrons emitted from the CFEG has been measured as a function of emission current and shows a very last 0.26 eV energy resolution at 200 kV and even 0.23 eV at 80 kV. The combination of the CFEG and the CEOS™ aberration corrector, associated with enhanced mechanical and electrical stabilities of this new microscope, allows reaching an information transfer below 75 pm at 200 and 80 pm at 80 kV. This unseen resolution at 200 kV has allowed us to study the structure of CoPt nanoparticles by observing direct images of their atomic arrangement along the high indexes zone axis. We have evidenced the presence of defects in these nanostructures that are not parallel to the electron beam. The precise stoichiometry of two iron oxides, FeO and Fe 2 O 3 , has been determined from an analysis of iron valence state that was obtained from a direct analysis of EELS fine structures spectrum of the two oxides.

Description: Data mining from noisy data/images is one of the most important themes in modern science and technology. Statistical image processing is a promising technique for analysing such data. Automation of particle pickup from noisy electron micrographs is essential, especially when improvement of the resolution of single particle analysis requires a huge number of particle images. For such a purpose, reference-based matching using primary three-dimensional (3D) model projections is mainly adopted. In the matching, however, the highest peaks of the correlation may not accurately indicate particles when the image is very noisy. In contrast, the density and the heights of the peaks should reflect the probability distribution of the particles. To statistically determine the particle positions from the peak distributions, we have developed a density-based peak search followed by a peak selection based on average peak height, using multi-reference alignment (MRA). Its extension, using multi-reference multiple alignment (MRMA), was found to enable particle pickup at higher accuracy even from extremely noisy images with a signal-to-noise ratio of 0.001. We refer to these new methods as stochastic pickup with MRA (MRA-StoPICK) or with MRMA (MRMA-StoPICK). MRMA-StoPICK has a higher pickup accuracy and furthermore, is almost independent of parameter settings. They were successfully applied to cryo-electron micrographs of Rice dwarf virus. Because current computational resources and parallel data processing environments allow somewhat CPU-intensive MRA-StoPICK and MRMA-StoPICK to be performed in a short period, these methods are expected to allow high-resolution analysis of the 3D structure of particles.

Description: The sensory nerve endings of the rat tongue, cheek and palate were studied using immunohistochemical staining and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The specimens were fixed in modified Karnovsky solution and embedded in Spurr resin. Substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)- and protein gene product 9.5 (PGP b9.5)-containing nerve fibers in the rat tongue, cheek and palate were examined by electronic microscopical analysis and immunohistochemical localization. These fibers run very close to the basal lamina of the epithelium and extend into the filliform and fungiform papillae. Numerous plexiform fibers immunoreactive for substance P, CGRP and PGP 9.5 were found in the connective tissue of mucosa. Electron microscopic observations showed clearly immunostained nerve fibers, which are located very close to the basal lamina of epithelial cells. Some electron-dense granules may be observed in the axoplasms of both substance P and CGRP immunoreactive fibers. Several lamellar corpuscles into the subepithelial connective tissue papillae, Merkel corpuscles and numerous thin unmyelinated and myelinated axons were observed. The terminal axons revealed numerous mitochondria, neurofilaments, microtubules and clear vesicles in the base of axoplasmic protrusions. The lamellar cells showed caveolae and interlamelar spaces filled by amorphous substance. Between the lamellar cells and axoplasmic membrane, and in the adjacent lamellae region, desmosome-type junctions were observed. The quantitative and morphometric analysis showed nerve endings with an average area of 4.83 ± 3.4 μm 2 and 19.4 internal mitochondria in this site and the organized corpuscles with an average area of 79.24 ± 27.24 μm 2 and 24.23 internal mitochondria in this place. All the structures observed are involved in the transmission of pain and mechanoreceptors stimulus of these oral mucosae.

Description: Purpose This study discusses the significance of the use of non-renewable fossil cumulative energy demand (CED) as proxy indicator in the beverage packaging sector, in order to detect those situations in which companies can benefit from the use of proxy indicators before a full life cycle assessment (LCA) application. Starting from a case study of two milk containers, the objectives of this paper are to assess if the use of this inventory indicator can be a suitable proxy indicator both (1) to decide which is the packaging alternative with the lowest environmental impact and (2) to identify the most impacting process units of the two products under study. Method The analysis was made according to ISO14040-44. The goal of the comparative LCA was to evaluate and to compare the potential environmental impacts from cradle to grave of a laminated carton container and a HDPE bottle. The results of the comparative LCA obtained with the non-renewable CED indicator are compared with a selection of impact categories: climate change, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, fossil depletion, photochemical oxidant formation. A further analysis is made for the two products under study in order to determine which are the environmental hot spots in terms of life cycle stages, by the means of a contribution analysis. Results and discussion From the comparative LCA, the use of non-renewable CED revealed to be useful for a screening as the results given by the non-renewable CED indicator are confirmed by all the impact categories considered, even if underestimated. If the aim of the LCA study was to define which is the packaging solution with a lower environmental impact, the choice of this inventory indicator could have led to the same decision as if a comprehensive LCIA method was used. The contribution analysis, focusing on the identification of environmental hot spots in the packaging value chain, revealed that the choice of an inventory indicator as non-renewable CED can lead to misleading results, if compared with another impact category, such as climate change. Conclusions As in the future development of beverage packaging system, LCA will be necessarily integrated in the design process, it is important to define other ways of simplifying its application and spread its use among companies. The LCI indicator non-renewable fossil CED can effectively be used in order to obtain a preliminary estimation of the life cycle environmental impacts of two or more competing products in the beverage packaging sector.

Description: Purpose There has been lively debate, especially in Finland and Sweden, on the climate impacts of peat fuel. Previous studies of peat fuel's life-cycle climate impacts were controversial in their interpretation. The aim of this paper is conclusive examination of the issues of LCA methodology, derived from critical review of previous studies and recalculation based on the latest knowledge of greenhouse gas balances related to peat fuel’s utilisation and the radiative forcing impacts of greenhouse gases. Methods The most recent findings on emissions and the gas fluxes between soil, vegetation and atmosphere were used in calculation of the life-cycle climate impacts of the various peat fuel utilisation chains by means of LCA methodology. In the main, the calculation methods and rules were the same as in the previous studies, with the aim being to distinguish the impact of peat fuel’s utilisation from that of the natural or semi-natural situation. A dynamic method was employed for assessing changes in radiative forcing. The results of alternative peat fuel utilisation chains were compared to the corresponding result for coal. Results There are many steps in peat fuel LCA, where different assumptions lead to different outcomes. Determining the functional unit, reference situations and system boundaries, as well as the emission calculation methods, is important from this point of view. Determination of the initial reference situation emerged as one of the critical points in the calculations. Time scale can strongly affect the final outcomes in a study where effects of long-term land-use change are considered. Conclusions Each peatland area is unique. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions in the initial reference situation, the greater is the climate impact of the area and the more suitable the area is for peat extraction. The study showed that more greenhouse gas flux measurements are needed, for better assessment of the climate impacts of different potential peat extraction sites. Climate change mitigation requires quick actions, and uncertainties related to emissions are higher for longer time spans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a perspective spanning more than 100 years is inappropriate in peat fuel's life-cycle climate impact assessments.

Description: The F-actin cytoskeleton of Cryptococcus neoformans is known to comprise actin cables, cortical patches and cytokinetic ring. Here, we describe a new F-actin structure in fungi, a perinuclear F-actin collar ring around the cell nucleus, by fluorescent microscopic imaging of rhodamine phalloidin-stained F-actin. Perinuclear F-actin rings form in Cryptococcus neoformans treated with the microtubule inhibitor Nocodazole or with the drug solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or grown in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YEPD) medium, but they are absent in cells treated with Latrunculin A. Perinuclear F-actin rings may function as ‘funicular cabin’ for the cell nucleus, and actin cables as intracellular ‘funicular’ suspending nucleus in the central position in the cell and moving nucleus along the polarity axis along actin cables.

Description: To evaluate the advantages of combination of two advanced electron microscopic technologies such as serial block-face scanning electron microscopy and double-axis electron beam tomography, we analyzed the three-dimensional morphology of cellular relationships between dendritic and plasma cells in the synovial membrane from patients with rheumatoid arthritis, using the combined approach.

Description: The low-energy Ar-ion milling method was used to prepare ultrathin specimens for transmission electron microscope observation. The samples were thinned initially by a usual focused ion beam technique or typical Ar-ion milling with a high energy of 2–10 keV and were thinned additionally by an Ar-ion beam with an energy less than 1 keV, typically 500–900 eV. This low-energy ion beam was scanned over the specimen, and secondary electrons induced by the ion beam could be detected to form secondary electron images with a resolution of a few micrometre. Because a desired area can be selected and thinned by the low-energy ion beam, redeposition or cross contamination from irradiation of a metal grid that supports the sample can be prevented. It was shown that the low-energy Ar-ion beam thins a surface amorphous damage layer preferentially and effectively rather than a crystal specimen. Images from ultrathin specimens of two different materials revealed a detailed structure.

Description: Purpose Political interest in the future availability of natural resources has spiked recently, with new documents from the European Union, United Nations Environment Programme and the US National Research Council assessing the supply situation of key raw materials. As resource efficiency is considered a key element for sustainable development, suitable methods to address sustainability of resource use are increasingly needed. Life cycle thinking and assessment may play a principal role here. Nonetheless, the extent to which current life cycle impact assessment methods are capable to answer to resource sustainability challenges is widely debated. The aim of this paper is to present key elements of the ongoing discussion, contributing to the future development of more robust and comprehensive methods for evaluating resources in the life cycle assessment (LCA) context. Methods We systematically review current impact assessment methods dealing with resources, identifying areas of improvement. Three key issues for sustainability assessment of resources are examined: renewability, recyclability and criticality; this is complemented by a cross-comparison of methodological features and completeness of resource coverage. Results and discussion The approach of LCA to resource depletion is characterised by a lack of consensus on methodology and on the relative ranking of resource depletion impacts as can be seen from a comparison of characterisation factors. The examined models yield vastly different characterisations of the impacts from resource depletion and show gaps in the number and types of resources covered. Conclusions Key areas of improvement are identified and discussed. Firstly, biotic resources and their renewal rates have so far received relatively little regard within LCA; secondly, the debate on critical raw materials and the opportunity of introducing criticality within LCA is controversial and requires further effort for a conciliating vision and indicators. We identify points where current methods can be expanded to accommodate these issues and cover a wider range of natural resources.

Description: Purpose The purse seine fishery for sardine is the most important fishery in Portugal. The aim of the present study is to assess the environmental impacts of sardine fished by the Portuguese fleet and to analyse a number of variables such as vessel size and time scale. An additional goal was to incorporate fishery-specific impact categories in the case study. Methods Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied, and data were collected from nine vessels, which represented around 10 % of the landings. Vessels were divided into two length categories, above and below 12 m, and data were obtained for the years 2005 to 2010. The study was limited to the fishing phase only. The standard impact categories included were energy use, global warming potential, eutrophication potential, acidification potential and ozone depletion potential. The fishery-specific impact categories were overfishing, overfishedness, lost potential yield, mean trophic level and the primary production required, and were quantified as much as possible. Results and discussion The landings from the data set were constituted mainly by sardine (91 %), and the remainders were other small pelagic species (e.g. horse mackerel). The most important input was the fuel, and both vessel categories had the same fuel consumption per catch 0.11 l/kg. Average greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) were 0.36 kg CO 2 eq. per kilo sardine landed. The fuel use varied between years, and variability between months can be even higher. Fishing mortality has increased, and the spawning stock biomass has decreased resulting in consequential overfishing for 2010. A correlation between fuel use and stock biomass was not found, and the stock condition does not seem to directly influence the global warming potential in this fishery. Discards were primarily non-target small pelagic species, and there was also mortality of target species resulting from slipping. The seafloor impact was considered to be insignificant due to the fishing method. Conclusions The assessment of the Portuguese purse seine fishery resulted in no difference regarding fuel use between large and small vessels, but differences were found between years. The stock has declined, and it has produced below maximum sustainable yield. By-catch and discard data were missing but may be substantial. Even being difficult to quantify, fishery impact categories complement the environmental results with biological information and precaution is need in relation to the stock management. The sardine carbon footprint from Portuguese purse seine was lower than that of other commercial species reported in.

Description: Purpose Proper recycling of mobile phones and other electronic products is important in order to reduce the generation of large amounts of hazardous waste, lessen environmental and social problems associated to the extraction of minerals and primary production of materials, and also minimize the depletion of scarce materials that are often difficult to substitute. Current material recovery processes are used to recycle electronic waste of various compositions. Methods Based on a review of the recycling processes and material flow analysis (MFA), we attribute the material and energy required to recover metals from 1 tonne of discarded mobile phones. Results and discussion We estimate that the recovery rates of gold, palladium, silver, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, and tin from the recycling processes described are 80 to 99 % (16.4 % of the phone in weight). The two main industrial processes used at present time (pyrometallurgical and combined pyro-hydrometallurgical) have similar energy consumptions (7,763 and 7,568 MJ/tonne of mobile phones, respectively). An average tonne of used mobile phones represents a potential of 128 kg of copper, 0.347 kg of gold, 0.15 kg of palladium, 3.63 kg of silver, 15 kg of nickel, 6 kg of lead, 1 kg of antimony, and 10 kg of tin as well as other metals that are not yet profitable to recover but might be in the future. Conclusions We find that the energy consumed to recover copper from mobile phones is half of that needed for copper primary extraction and similar or greater energy savings for precious metal refining. Nevertheless, only 2.5 % of mobile phones arrive to industrial recovery facilities. There is a great potential to increase the amount of metals being recovered, thereby reducing energy consumption and increasing resource efficiency.

Description: Brain function is based on proper connectivity between neuronal cells. In the developing brain, neurons extend axons and form synaptic connections with appropriate postsynaptic neurons. Molecular mechanisms underlying establishment of proper synaptic connections are one of the most important topics in the field of developmental neurobiology. Dynamics of synaptic structure and local recruitment of synaptic molecules can be studied by live-cell imaging of neurons expressing fluorescent probes of synaptic molecules. In this review, examples of live-cell fluorescence imaging are presented and their contributions to our understanding about the molecular mechanisms of synapse formation and remodeling are discussed. Imaging of synaptic proteins in living neurons revealed rapid formation of individual synapses within hours and extensive remodeling of synaptic connections. Different types of neurons express unique protrusions from dendrites and axons, which play important roles in synapse formation and maturation. Rapid formation of synaptic structure is associated with continual assembly and disassembly of synaptic scaffolding proteins, which are essential building blocks of the presynaptic active zone and the postsynaptic density (PSD). Quantitative analyses of PSD scaffolding proteins further confirmed their essential roles in maintenance of the synaptic structure. These examples clearly indicate that fluorescence-based live-cell imaging is an indispensable technique in the research on synapse development and its impact will further increase in combination with development of new light microscopic techniques in the future.

Description: High-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) has been developed as a nano-dynamics visualization technique. This microscopy permits direct observation of structure dynamics and dynamic processes of biological molecules in physiological solutions, at a subsecond to sub-100 ms temporal resolution and an ~2 nm lateral and a 0.1 nm vertical resolution. Importantly, tip–sample interactions do not disturb the biomolecules' functions. Various functioning proteins including myosin V walking on an actin filament and bacteriorhodopsin responding to light have been successfully visualized with HS-AFM. In the quest for understanding the functional mechanisms of proteins, inferences no longer have to be made from static snapshots of molecular structures and dynamic behavior of optical markers attached to proteins. High-resolution molecular movies obtained from HS-AFM observations reveal the details of molecules' dynamic behavior in action, without the need for intricate analyses and interpretations. In this review, I first describe the fundamentals behind the achieved high imaging rate and low invasiveness to samples, and then highlight recent imaging studies. Finally, future studies are briefly described.

Description: This is a personal history of my structural studies of icosahedral viruses that evolved from crystallographic studies, to hybrid methods with electron cryo-microscopy and image reconstruction (cryoEM) and then developed further by incorporating a variety of physical methods to augment the high resolution crystallographic studies. It is not meant to be comprehensive, even for my own work, but hopefully provides some perspective on the growth of our understanding of these remarkable biologic assemblies. The goal is to provide a historical perspective for those new to the field and to emphasize the limitations of any one method, even those that provide atomic resolution information about viruses.

Description: Biological processes occur on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales: from femtoseconds to hours and from angstroms to meters. Many new biological insights can be expected from a better understanding of the processes that occur on these very fast and very small scales. In this regard, new instruments that use fast X-ray or electron pulses are expected to reveal novel mechanistic details for macromolecular protein dynamics. To ensure that any observed conformational change is physiologically relevant and not constrained by 3D crystal packing, it would be preferable for experiments to utilize small protein samples such as single particles or 2D crystals that mimic the target protein's native environment. These samples are not typically amenable to X-ray analysis, but transmission electron microscopy has imaged such sample geometries for over 40 years using both direct imaging and diffraction modes. While conventional transmission electron microscopes (TEM) have visualized biological samples with atomic resolution in an arrested or frozen state, the recent development of the dynamic TEM (DTEM) extends electron microscopy into a dynamic regime using pump-probe imaging. A new second-generation DTEM, which is currently being constructed, has the potential to observe live biological processes with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution by using pulsed electron packets to probe the sample on micro- and nanosecond timescales. This article reviews the experimental parameters necessary for coupling DTEM with in situ liquid microscopy to enable direct imaging of protein conformational dynamics in a fully hydrated environment and visualize reactions propagating in real time.

Description: In this review, a non-standard application of high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), namely the creation of so-called NanoLaboratory for the nanomaterial property studies within its pole piece, is presented. The most modern research trends with respect to nanotube, graphene and nanowire, as well as electrical, mechanical and electromechanical properties are demonstrated. In addition, the unique possibilities of modeling real technological processes inside HRTEM, for example, the performance of Li-ion batteries, are illustrated. The contribution particularly highlights the recent research endeavors of our Tsukuba group in line with all the above-mentioned directions of in situ TEM.

Description: Inherently unstable, detergent-solubilized membrane protein complexes can often not be crystallized. For complexes that have a mass of 〉300 kDa, cryo-electron microscopy (EM) allows their three-dimensional (3D) structure to be assessed to a resolution that makes secondary structure elements visible in the best case. However, many interesting complexes exist whose mass is below 300 kDa and thus need alternative approaches. Two methods are reviewed: (i) Mass measurement in a scanning transmission electron microscope, which has provided important information on the stoichiometry of membrane protein complexes. This technique is applicable to particulate, filamentous and sheet-like structures. (ii) 3D-EM of negatively stained samples, which determines the molecular envelope of small membrane protein complexes. Staining and dehydration artifacts may corrupt the quality of the 3D map. Staining conditions thus need to be optimized. 3D maps of plant aquaporin SoPIP2;1 tetramers solubilized in different detergents illustrate that the flattening artifact can be partially prevented and that the detergent itself contributes significantly. Another example discussed is the complex of G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin with its cognate G protein transducin.

Description: In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the molecular cloning of the gene for the green fluorescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria , I would like to reflect on the development of new fluorescence imaging technology in the last two decades. As this technology has become increasingly diversified, it has become more and more of a challenge to come up with a comprehensive and exhaustive review of it. Here I will focus on optogenetics and large-scale, three-dimensional reconstruction. Those two technological innovations have been achieved in the neuroscience community owing to the combined efforts of molecular biologists and light microscopists. In addition, modern fluorescence imaging has indeed improved our understanding of the spatiotemporal regulation of fundamental biological functions at cellular level. As an example, I will introduce some findings we made regarding the movement of biomolecules across the nuclear membrane. The above-mentioned imaging approaches are possible today but were impossible two decades ago.

Description: The origins and the recent accomplishments of aberration correction in scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) are reviewed. It is remembered that the successful correction of imaging aberrations of round lenses owes much to the successful correction of spectrum aberrations achieved in electron energy loss spectrometers 2–3 decades earlier. Two noteworthy examples of the types of STEM investigation that aberration correction has made possible are shown: imaging of single-atom impurities in graphene and analyzing atomic bonding of single atoms by electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Looking towards the future, a new all-magnetic monochromator is described. The monochromator uses several of the principles pioneered in round lens aberration correction, and it employs stabilization schemes that make it immune to variations in the high voltage of the microscope and in the monochromator main prism current. Tests of the monochromator carried out at 60 keV have demonstrated energy resolution as good as 12 meV and monochromated probe size of ~1.2 Å. These results were obtained in separate experiments, but they indicate that the instrument can perform imaging and EELS with an atom-sized probe 〈30 meV wide in energy, and that an improvement in energy resolution to 10 meV and beyond should be possible in the future.

Description: Novel spherical aberration (Cs) and chromatic aberration (Cc) correctors, which correct aberrations using a new principle, were developed. The asymmetric Cs correctors were designed for use in the probe- and image-forming systems at 300 kV to diminish undesired parasitic aberrations. The correctors composed of non-equivalent multipoles connecting with a demagnifying transfer doublet in the system. The axial aberrations were corrected well up to the fifth order except 6-fold astigmatism ( A 6 ) experimentally. Next, we developed superior Cs correctors for probe- and image-forming systems of low voltage microscope that uses triple dodecapoles to correct 6-fold astigmatism ( A 6 ). An important feature of this system is the rotation of the 3-fold astigmatism azimuth at the second dodecapole. The optimum rotation of the three hexapole fields for the compensation of A 6 was derived from theoretical calculations. The experimental results confirmed the compensation of A 6 and the third-order Cs. Finally, a unique Cc corrector, which utilized the concave lens effect formed by a long quadrupole field, was designed. The performance of the Cc corrector was investigated using a 30-kV transmission electron microscope. The results confirmed that Cc correction was achieved.

Description: Theoretical considerations together with simulations of single-particle electron cryomicroscopy images of biological assemblies in ice demonstrate that atomic structures should be obtainable from images of a few thousand asymmetric units, provided the molecular weight of the whole assembly being studied is greater than the minimum needed for accurate position and orientation determination. However, with present methods of specimen preparation and current microscope and detector technologies, many more particles are needed, and the alignment of smaller assemblies is difficult or impossible. Only larger structures, with enough signal to allow good orientation determination and with enough images to allow averaging of many hundreds of thousands or even millions of asymmetric units, have successfully produced high-resolution maps. In this review, we compare the contrast of experimental electron cryomicroscopy images of two smaller molecular assemblies, namely apoferritin and beta-galactosidase, with that expected from perfect simulated images calculated from their known X-ray structures. We show that the contrast and signal-to-noise ratio of experimental images still require significant improvement before it will be possible to realize the full potential of single-particle electron cryomicroscopy. In particular, although reasonably good orientations can be obtained for beta-galactosidase, we have been unable to obtain reliable orientation determination from experimental images of apoferritin. Simulations suggest that at least 2-fold improvement of the contrast in experimental images at ~10 Å resolution is needed and should be possible.

Description: This paper reviews diverse capabilities offered by modern electron microscopy techniques in studying fine structures of nanoporous crystals such as zeolites, silica mesoporous crystals, metal organic frameworks and yolk-shell materials. For the case of silica mesoporous crystals, new approaches that have been developed recently to determine the three-dimensionally periodic average structure, e.g., through self-consistent analysis of electron microscope images or through consideration of accidental extinctions, are presented. Various structural deviations in nanoporous materials from their average structures including intergrowth, surface termination, incommensurate modulation, quasicrystal and defects are demonstrated. Ibidem observations of the scanning electron microscope and atomic force microscope give information about the zeolite-crystal-growth mechanism, and an energy for unstitching a building-unit from a crystal surface is directly observed by an anatomic force microscope. It is argued how these observations lead to a deeper understanding of the materials.

Description: Environmental transmission electron microscopy and ultra-high resolution electron microscopic observation using aberration correctors have recently emerged as topics of great interest. The former method is an extension of the so-called in situ electron microscopy that has been performed since the 1970s. Current research in this area has been focusing on dynamic observation with atomic resolution under gaseous atmospheres and in liquids. Since 2007, Nagoya University has been developing a new 1-MV high voltage (scanning) transmission electron microscope that can be used to observe nanomaterials under conditions that include the presence of gases, liquids and illuminating lights, and it can be also used to perform mechanical operations to nanometre-sized areas as well as electron tomography and elemental analysis by electron energy loss spectroscopy. The new instrument has been used to image and analyse various types of samples including biological ones.

Description: Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy (spin-SEM) is a magnetic domain observation method. In spin-SEM, polarization of secondary electrons emitted from a sample in a scanning electron microscope is detected by a spin detector and used as a signal for forming an image. The characteristics of spin-SEM are detection of all three magnetization vector components, which leads to the detection of the magnetization vector direction, high spatial resolution of around 3 nm and applicability to samples with rough or even 3D surfaces. Spin-SEM combined with other imaging methods using an electron probe beam such as scanning Auger electron microscopy for imaging element distribution and electron backscattering diffraction microscopy for imaging crystal direction distribution provides additional information that is important to study the magnetism. Spin-SEM with these excellent characteristics has a broad range of applications from basic research to applied research and developments in various industries.

Description: We have compiled our recent in-situ quantitative environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM) studies on typical gold nanoparticulate catalysts for the low-temperature oxidation of CO to describe the issues surrounding the application of ETEM, with a special regard to catalyst chemistry. Thanks to the recent development of high-resolution environmental transmission electron microscopes that can work robustly to accumulate observation data in controlled environments, we can deal with the electron irradiation effects and heterogeneity of real catalysts. We established a structural evolution diagram that summarizes the structure of catalysts under electron irradiation as a function of the electron current density and the electron dose, D . By extrapolating to = 0, D = 0, we could deduce the intrinsic catalysis structure (without electron irradiation) in various environments, including reaction environments. By numerically and statistically analyzing a substantial number of ETEM images of gold nanoparticles, we established a morphology phase diagram that summarizes how the majority of gold nanoparticles change their morphology systematically as a function of the partial pressures of CO and O 2 . Similar diagrams will be helpful in elucidating the phenomena that directly correlate with the catalytic activity determined from ETEM observations. Using these quantitative analyses, we could analyze Cs-corrected ETEM images of the catalysts. The surfaces of gold nanoparticles were structurally reconstructed under reaction conditions, via interactions with CO molecules. CO molecules were observed on the surfaces of catalysts under reaction conditions using high-resolution ETEM. Finally, we discuss the potential of environmental transmission electron microscopy for quantitative in-situ microscopy at the atomic scale.

Description: Purpose The area of oil palm plantations in Malaysia is expanding by approximately 0.14 million hectare per year, and with the increasing demand for palm oil worldwide, there is no sign of the expansions slowing down. This study aims to identify the greenhouse gas emissions associated with land conversion to oil palm, in a life cycle perspective. Methods LCA methodology is applied to existing land use change data. The assessment includes the issue of temporary carbon storage in the plantations. Through quantification of emissions from state forest reserve and rubber plantation conversions, the average Malaysian palm oil-related land use changes are calculated. Results and discussion The results show that there are high emissions associated with the conversion of Malaysian state forest reserve to oil palm, whereas the conversion of rubber leaves a less significant carbon debt when indirect land use change is not included. Looking at the average Malaysian land use changes associated with oil palm shows that land use change emissions are responsible for approximately half of the total conventional biodiesel production emissions. The sensitivity analysis shows that the results could be significantly influenced by data variations in indirect land use changes, peat soils, and state forest reserve carbon stock. Conclusions The relatively extensive conversions of the state forest reserve must be reversed and preferably with a shift toward conversion of degraded land in order for the average Malaysian land use changes to have less impact on the production life cycle of palm oil and biodiesel.

Description: Purpose This article is the first of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of life cycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED) which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute—a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for Life Cycle Assessment (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for improvement and promotion of the products and services on offer. These publications are a voice in the discussion on the opportunities and pertinence of implementing life cycle thinking (LCT) in small- and medium-sized enterprises and an attempt to identify potential barriers arising from specific characteristics of SMEs which could hinder or even prevent the effective implementation of life cycle techniques. Part 1 presents the situation of SMEs in Poland, general objectives of the project and organisation of the survey process. Methods It was decided to carry out research on the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and life cycle costing (LCC) in organisations that had received financial support for the implementation of life cycle techniques. Financial constraints, which might potentially be a reason for limited interest in LC techniques among SMEs in Poland, were taken into account. Thus, financial support provided an opportunity for the project to obtain information from a wide range of companies, not only from those companies that were particularly aware of the benefits of LC techniques or had a very good financial situation. Research based on the method of individual in-depth interviews was preceded by an analysis of literature showing the status of SMEs in Poland. Given the results, the project objectives were formulated and the ways of conducting the research were defined. Results and discussion The comparison of Polish SMEs with the same category of companies in the EU shows some similarities, such as the percentage of companies engaged in various businesses. The differences are expressed primarily in the financial potential, which in the case of Polish SMEs, is significantly smaller than the average in the EU. In the SME sector, there are less than half as many small businesses in Poland than in the EU. There are, however, many more microbusinesses in Poland. An evaluation of the prevalence of LCA and LCC techniques indicates that they are used by just 3 % of Polish SMEs, which is a very small proportion compared to the more than 50 % of SMEs taking any environmental measures. Information collected on specific details of Polish SMEs was used to identify the target group and develop a survey questionnaire which aimed to audit, among other things, the approach to environmental and economic analyses in the past and the approach to the LCA and/or LCC analyses that were implemented from the point of view of difficulties in their implementation and potential use of the results. Conclusions Part 1 of the series of articles demonstrates a marginal-scale dissemination of life cycle management techniques among Polish SMEs. Companies definitely prefer to introduce relatively simple solutions that do not require specialised knowledge or unnecessary costs, e.g. they introduce energy-saving bulbs and waste segregation. Only a small percentage of companies implement more complex activities, and most commonly, these are medium-sized companies with greater financial and human capital. So what should be done to make SMEs use life cycle techniques more frequently? Is it appropriate to make changes in the methodology and life cycle techniques as such, or should, rather, the incentive for SMEs to use LCT come from outside as a requirement of public institutions or suppliers in a supply chain? Answers to these questions are provided in the research conclusions presented in parts 2 and 3 of the series of articles.

Description: Purpose In LCA, a multi-functionality problem exists whenever the environmental impacts of a multi-functional process have to be allocated between its multiple functions. Methods for fixing this multi-functionality problem are controversially discussed because the methods include ambiguous choices. To study the influence of these choices, the ISO standard requires a sensitivity analysis. This work presents an analytical method for analyzing sensitivities and uncertainties of LCA results with respect to the choices made when a multi-functionality problem is fixed. Methods The existing matrix algebra for LCA is expanded by explicit equations for methods that fix multi-functionality problems: allocation and avoided burden. For allocation, choices exist between alternative allocation factors. The expanded equations allow calculating LCA results as a function of allocation factors. For avoided burden, choices exist in selecting an avoided burden process from multiple candidates. This choice is represented by so-called aggregation factors. For avoided burden, the expanded equations calculate LCA results as a function of aggregation factors. The expanded equations are used to derive sensitivity coefficients for LCA results with respect to allocation factors and aggregation factors. Based on the sensitivity coefficients, uncertainties due to fixing a multi-functionality problem by allocation or avoided burden are analytically propagated. The method is illustrated using a virtual numerical example. Results and discussion The presented approach rigorously quantifies sensitivities of LCA results with respect to the choices made when multi-functionality problems are fixed with allocation and avoided burden. The uncertainties due to fixing multi-functionality problems are analytically propagated to uncertainties in LCA results using a first-order approximation. For uncertainties in allocation factors, the first-order approximation is exact if no loops of the allocated functional flows exist. The contribution of uncertainties due to fixing multi-functionality problems can be directly compared to the uncertainty contributions induced by uncertain process data or characterization factors. The presented method allows the computationally efficient study of uncertainties due to fixing multi-functionality problems and could be automated in software tools. Conclusions This work provides a systematic method for the sensitivity analysis required by the ISO standard in case choices between alternative allocation procedures exist. The resulting analytical approach includes contributions of uncertainties in process data, characterization factors, and—in extension to existing methods—uncertainties due to fixing multi-functionality problems in a unifying rigorous framework. Based on the uncertainty contributions, LCA practitioners can select fields for data refinement to decrease the overall uncertainty in LCA results.

Description: A highly precise determination of lattice parameters using higher-order Laue zone (HOLZ) reflections observed in nano-beam electron diffraction is presented. The introduction of more than 40 HOLZ reflections, whose positions are corrected by considering the aberration of the electron optics and are determined with an accuracy of 0.04 nm –1 , allows us to achieve a remarkable high precision of a 0.02% error, which is four times higher than the precision without HOLZ reflections.

Description: Purpose This paper addresses the application and potential of LCSA in the built environment with a focus on refurbishments of residential buildings. It specifically addresses the phenomenon of interchange of building technologies efficiencies under different life time assessments from economy, ecology and social fields. An approach of optimization rather than hard target numbers is proposed as win–win–win situations are unlikely. Methods A multidimensional Pareto optimization methodology, using LCC, LCA combined with first stages of a social assessment in a feasibility study but potentially later full SLCA, is proposed, which site-specifically visualizes the interchange between different options in building design or modification, and evaluates optimal overall concepts. LCA and LCC are used to analyze a case study from an EU project named BEEM-UP in which solutions for large-scale uptake of refurbishment strategies are developed. Social frame conditions are taken into account by identifying the driving technologies and feeding the consequences of their implementation for the residents into the tenant involvement part of the project. Results and discussion The calculations prove that the general assumptions leading to the methodology hold true at least for this case study. A clear Pareto-optimal curve is visible when assessing LCC and LCA. The example buildings results show certain systems to be dominating clusters on the figures while others clearly can be identified as not relevant. Several of the driving technologies however fail to be applicable because of social frame conditions, e.g., clear requests by the tenants. Based on the conclusions, the potential for including SLCA as a third dimension in the methodology and possible visualization options are discussed. Conclusions The development in the field of social indicators in the building sector has to be strengthened in order to come up with a holistic picture and respectively with appropriate responses to current challenges. While some solutions identified in the LCC/LCA assessment also have good social characteristics, several others have not and solutions identified as lacking might have social advantages that are currently left out of consideration The upcoming Standards EN 15643-5 and ISO 15686-x are a promising step in this direction as is the work to create a conceptual framework for impact assessment within SLCA by the scientific community.

Description: Purpose In the context of progress of sustainability science, life cycle thinking and, in particular, life cycle sustainability assessment may play a crucial role. Environmental, economic and social implications of the whole supply chain of products, both goods and services, their use and waste management, i.e. their entire life cycle from “cradle to grave” have to be considered to achieve more sustainable production and consumption patterns. Progress toward sustainability requires enhancing the methodologies for integrated assessment and mainstreaming of life cycle thinking from product development to strategic policy support. Life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle costing (LCC) and social LCA (sLCA) already attempt to cover sustainability pillars, notwithstanding different levels of methodological development. An increasing concern on how to deal with the complexity of sustainability has promoted the development of life cycle sustainability frameworks. As a contribution to the ongoing scientific debate after the Rio+20 conference, this paper aims to present and discuss the state of the art of life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA), giving recommendations for its further development in line with ontological, epistemological and methodological aspects of sustainability science. Methods Building on the review about the state of the art of sustainability science and sustainability assessment methods presented in part I, this paper discuss LCA, LCC, sLCA and LCSA against ontological, epistemological and methodological aspects of ongoing scientific debate on sustainability. Strengths and weaknesses of existing life cycle-based methodologies and methods are presented. Besides, existing frameworks for LCSA are evaluated against the criteria defined in part I in order to highlight coherence with sustainability science progress and to support better integration and mainstreaming of sustainability concepts. Conclusions and outlook LCSA represents a promising approach for developing a transparent, robust and comprehensive assessment. Nevertheless, the ongoing developments should be in line with the most advanced scientific discussion on sustainability science, attempting to bridge the gaps between the current methods and methodologies for sustainability assessment. LCSA should develop so as to be hierarchically different from LCA, LCC and sLCA. It should represent the holistic approach which integrates (and not substitutes) the reductionist approach of the single part of the analysis. This implies maintaining the balance between analytical and descriptive approaches towards a goal and solution-oriented decision support methodology.

Description: Purpose Sustainability assessment in life cycle assessment (LCA) addresses societal aspects of technologies or products to evaluate whether a technology/product helps to address important challenges faced by society or whether it causes problems to society or at least selected social groups. In this paper, we analyse how this has been, and can be addressed in the context of economic assessments. We discuss the need for systemic measures applicable in the macro-economic setting. Methods The modelling framework of life cycle costing (LCC) is analysed as a key component of the life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) framework. Supply chain analysis is applied to LCC in order to understand the relationships between societal concerns of value adding and the basic cost associated with a functional unit. Methods to link LCC as a foreground economic inventory to a background economy wide inventory such as an input–output table are shown. Other modelling frameworks designed to capture consequential effects in LCSA are discussed. Results LCC is a useful indicator in economic assessments, but it fails to capture the full dimension of economic sustainability. It has potential contradictions in system boundary to an environmental LCA, and includes normative judgements at the equivalent of the inventory level. Further, it has an inherent contradiction between user goals (minimisation of cost) and social goals (maximisation of value adding), and has no clear application in a consequential setting. LCC is focussed on the indicator of life cycle cost, to the exclusion of many relevant indicators that can be utilised in LCSA. As such, we propose the coverage of indicators in economic assessment to include the value adding to the economy by type of input, import dependency, indicators associated with the role of capital and labour, the innovation potential, linkages and the structural impact on economic sectors. Conclusions If the economic dimension of LCSA is to be equivalently addressed as the other pillars, formalisation of equivalent frameworks must be undertaken. Much can be advanced from other fields that could see LCSA to take a more central role in policy formation.

Description: Purpose Sustainability of a material-based product mainly depends on the materials used for the product itself or during its lifetime. A material selection decision should not only capture the functional performance required but should also consider the economical, social, and environmental impacts originated during the product life cycle. There is a need to assess social impacts of materials along the full life cycle, not only to be able to address the “social dimension” in sustainable material selection but also for potentially improving the circumstances of affected stakeholders. This paper presents the method and a case study of social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) specialized for comparative studies. Although the authors’ focus is on material selection, the proposed methodology can be used for comparative assessment of products in general. Methods The method is based on UNEP/SETAC “guidelines for social life-cycle assessment of products” and includes four main phases: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment, and life cycle interpretation. However, some special features are presented to adjust the framework for materials comparison purpose. In life cycle inventory analysis phase, a hot spot assessment is carried out using material flow analysis and stakeholder and experts’ interviews. Based on the results of that, a pairwise comparison method is proposed for life cycle impact assessment applying analytic hierarchy process. A case study was conducted to perform a comparative assessment of the social and socio-economic impacts in life cycle of concrete and steel as building materials in Iran. For hot spot analysis, generic and national level data were gathered, and for impact assessment phase, site-specific data were used. Result and discussion The unique feature of the proposed method compared with other works in S-LCA is its specialty to materials and products comparison. This leads to some differences in methodological issues of S-LCA that are explained in the paper in detail. The case study results assert that “steel/iron” in the north of Iran generally has the better social performance than “concrete/cement.” However, steel is associated with many negative social effects in some subcategories, e.g., freedom of association, fair salary, and occupational health in extraction phase. Against, social profile of concrete and cement industry is damaged mainly due to the negative impact of cement production on safe and healthy living condition. The case study presented in this article shows that the evaluation of social impacts is possible, even if the assessment is always affected by subjective value systems. Conclusions Application of the UNEP/SETAC guidelines in comparative studies can be encouraged based on the results of this paper. It enables a hotspot assessment of the social and socio-economic impacts in life cycle of alternative materials. This research showed that the development of a specialized S-LCA approach for materials and products comparison is well underway although many challenges still persist. Particularly characterization method in life cycle impact assessment phase is challenging. The findings of this case study pointed out that social impacts are primarily connected to the conduct of companies and less with processes and materials in general. These findings confirm the results of Dreyer et al. (Int J Life Cycle Assess 11(2):88–97, 2006 ). The proposed approach aims not only to identify the best socially sustainable alternative but also to reveal product/process improvement potentials to facilitate companies to act socially compatible. It will be interesting to apply the UNEP/SETAC approach of S-LCA to other materials and products; materials with a more complex life cycle will be a special challenge. As with any new method, getting experience on data collection and evaluation, building a data base, integrating the method in software tools, and finding ways for effective communication of results are important steps until integrating S-LCA in routine decision support.

Description: Purpose Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Social Life Cycle Analysis (SLCA) are tools acknowledged to have a role to play in the transition towards Sustainable Production and Consumption patterns (SPC). However, the role they play in this transition is seldom discussed, especially for SLCA. In addition, although the importance of taking a life cycle thinking (LCT) in the progression towards SPC seems indisputable, its added value is seldom made explicit. This article wishes to highlight the role of SLCA in the transition towards more sustainable production and consumption patterns and questions the relevance of LCT in this role. Methods To answer this question, we first identify the applications of SLCA that correspond to actions that have to be taken in the transition towards SPC based on the SPC and SLCA literature. Then, the relevance of LCT in the context of the different applications identified previously is questioned through a qualitative discursive analysis approach. Results The social goal of SPC is poorly discussed, and the SLCA literature can be one source of inspiration to define what this goal could be. On the basis of the UNEP-SETAC ( 2009 ) Guidelines’ SLCA ultimate goal, SPC could be a means to improve stakeholders’ social conditions through the improvement of enterprises’ behaviours. The intended applications of SLCA for potentially supporting the improvement of enterprises’ behaviours are found to be the identification of hotspots in order to highlight areas of improvement inside the sphere of influence of the SLCA user and the guidance of purchasing and substitution choices on the basis of enterprises’ behaviours. In this article, it is suggested that, for SLCA to deserve the “LCT label”, it has to capture impact transfers along the products’ life cycle. Otherwise, an “ability-to-act-on” perspective is the proper angle to adopt in the identification of areas of improvement inside the sphere of influence and a “cradle-to-retailer”, the one to adopt when SLCA is used to guide buy/boycott. Conclusions Aside from revisiting the role of LCA and SLCA in SPC and the raison d’être of LCT, we discuss some considerations which we believe should be taken into account when developing SLCA in the context of SPC. In conclusion, this article points to the importance of framing the use of Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment tools in their context of use.

Description: The leaf surface features of the biomass plant Miscanthus sinensis were investigated by electron and ion beam microscopy. Fully developed leaves were collected from the plant, air-dried and examined by field emission scanning electron microscopy. Stomata and longitudinal stripes were present on both the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces. Longitudinally aggregated rodlets surrounded the stomata and formed hollow cylinders or chimney-like structures. With varying lengths up to ~10 μm, the rodlets were curved (〈1 μm in diameter) and almost occluded the stomata. As another type of epicuticular wax, platelets were observed in the vicinity of the stomata. The platelets were arranged into rather radially assembled clusters. As a novel approach for cross sectioning native epicuticular waxes, focused ion beam milling allowed precise in situ cutting of the stomata and epicuticular waxes. The longitudinally aggregated rodlets of the stomatal chimneys of M. sinensis were derived from the stomatal guard cells. These results suggest that the epicuticular waxes of M. sinensis can be categorized as stomatal chimneys ( Strelitzia type) and rosettes (Fabales type). Combined electron and ion beam microscopy can help unravel the ultrastructure and vertical profile of epicuticular waxes in a range of plant taxa.

Description: Purpose A major task concerning the greening of freight transportation is to influence the process of choosing an appropriate transport solution for a shipment. This paper presents the results of a detailed environmental benchmark study of freight transport chains recorded during a shipper survey administered in Switzerland in 2008. Materials and methods For the environmental evaluation, life cycle assessment was applied and enhanced with a new method for integrating damage to human health caused by traffic accidents based on the disability adjusted life year concept. Results and discussion The results show that in land-based transport, road generally has a lower environmental performance compared to intermodal and rail-only transport. Exceptions exist, e.g. for long pre- and post-haulage distances in intermodal transport or for very low train-load factors. The most relevant environmental interventions to pay attention to are, according to the methods applied, emissions of CO 2 , NO x and particulates as well as accident damages. Conclusions Rail transport is often, but not always, environmentally preferable than truck transport. Accident damages to human health should be included in each benchmark study. For practical application, a simplified benchmark methodology is proposed requiring a reduced level of detail for the input data.

Description: Purpose In the European Union project New Energy Externalities Development for Sustainability (NEEDS), power generation technologies were ranked by means of two sustainability assessment approaches. The total costs approach, adding private and external costs, and a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) were used, integrating social, economic and environmental criteria. Both approaches relied on environmental indicators based on life cycle assessment. This study aims to analyse the extent to which the development of life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) can draw on these ranking methods. Methods The approaches to rank technologies in the NEEDS project are reviewed in terms of similarities and differences in concept, quantification and scope. Identified issues are discussed and set into perspective for the development of a potential future LCSA framework. Results and discussion The NEEDS MCDA and total costs considerably overlap regarding issues covered, except for several social aspects. Beyond total costs being limited to private and external costs, most notable conceptual differences concern the coverage of pecuniary (i.e. price change-induced) external effects, and potential double-counting for instance of resource depletion or specific cost components. External costs take account of the specific utility changes of those affected, requiring a rather high level of spatial and temporal detail. This allows addressing intra- and inter-generational aspects. Differences between both ranking methods and current LCSA methods concern the way weighting is performed, the social aspects covered and the classification of indicators according to the three sustainability dimensions. The methods differ in the way waste, accidents or intended impacts are taken into account. An issue regarding the definition of truly comparable products has also been identified (e.g. power plants). Conclusions For the development of LCSA, the study suggests that taking a consequential approach allows assessing pecuniary effects and repercussions of adaptation measures, relevant for a sustainability context, and that developing a life cycle impact assessment for life cycle costing would provide valuable information. The study concludes with raising a few questions and providing some suggestions regarding the development of a consistent framework for LCSA: whether the analyses in LCSA shall be distinguished into the three dimensions of sustainable development at the inventory or the impact level also with the aim to avoid double-counting, whether or not LCSA will address exceptional events, whether or not benefits shall be accounted for and how to deal with methodological and value choices (e.g. through sensitivity analyses).

Description: Purpose From a management perspective, there are two main issues in the life cycle sustainability assessment framework which require further work: (1) the approaches to quicken the resource-consuming inventory and assessment process and (2) the easy-to-understand communication of the results. This study aims at contributing to these needs for quicker and cost-efficient ways to draft strategies that include the life cycle perspective and encompasses all three dimensions of sustainability in an easily communicable way. The focus of the study is on a streamlined, rapid assessment the tool proposed by Pesonen ( 2007 ) called the Sustainability SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) and on the empirical testing of whether or not it is understood in the corporate world and if it leads to concrete changes in either strategic- or operative-level activities. Methods The data for the research were empirically collected from a survey targeted to representatives of organizations having used the Sustainability SWOT within the last 5 years. The primary findings, i.e., the generated changes or improvements, were reflected in the various levels of cooperation in a network (along the value chain, in end users, in the institutional framework). Results and discussion The results of the analyses of both the usability of the Sustainability SWOT in business as well as the suggested assessment framework leading to any actual changes were promising. It is encouraging that the streamlined approach tailored according to the logic of business decision-makers (i.e., inclusion of the SWOT) is able to find the acceptance and understanding of that vital group. Remarkably, many changes were initiated—not only at an operative level but also at a strategic level and in the entire value chain—by carrying out an exercise such as the Sustainability SWOT. Conclusions The Sustainability SWOT has proven to be usable and able to generate changes and improvements along the value chain and, in some cases, in the institutional context as well.

Description: Purpose Sustainability Science (SS) is considered an emerging discipline, applicative and solution-oriented whose aim is to handle environmental, social and economic issues in light of cultural, historic and institutional perspectives. The challenges of the discipline are not only related to better identifying the problems affecting sustainability but to the actual transition towards solutions adopting an integrated, comprehensive and participatory approach. This requires the definition of a common scientific paradigm in which integration and interaction amongst sectorial disciplines is of paramount relevance. In this context, life cycle thinking (LCT) and, in particular, life cycle-based methodologies and life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) may play a crucial role. The paper illustrates the main challenges posed to sustainability assessment methodologies and related methods in terms of ontology, epistemology and methodology of SS. The aims of the analysis are twofold: (1) to identify the main features of methodologies for sustainability assessment and (2) to present key aspects for the development of robust and comprehensive sustainability assessment. Methods The current debate on SS addressing ontological, epistemological and methodological aspects has been reviewed, leading to the proposal of a conceptual framework for SS. In addition, a meta-review of recent studies on sustainability assessment methodologies and methods, focusing those life cycle based, supports the discussion on the main challenges for a comprehensive and robust approach to sustainability assessment. Starting from the results of the meta-review, we identified specific features of sustainable development-oriented methods: firstly, highlighting key issues towards robust methods for SS and, secondly, capitalising on the findings of each review’s paper. For each issue, a recommendation towards a robust sustainability assessment method is given. Existing limitations of sectorial academic inquiries and proposal for better integration and mainstreaming of SS are the key points under discussion. Discussion In the reviewed papers, LCT and its basic principles are acknowledged as relevant for sustainability assessment. Nevertheless, LCT is not considered as a reference approach in which other methods could also find a place. This aspect has to be further explored, addressing the lack of multi-disciplinary exchange and putting the mainstreaming of LCT as a priority on the agenda of both life cycle assessment and sustainability assessment experts. Crucial issues for further developing sustainability assessment methodologies and methods have been identified and can be summarised as follows: holistic and system wide approaches, shift from multi- towards trans-disciplinarity; multi-scale (temporal and geographical) perspectives; and better involvement and participation of stakeholders. Conclusions Those are also the main challenges posed to LCSA in terms of progress of ontology, epistemology and methodology in line with the progress of SS. The life cycle-based methodologies should be broadened from comparing alternatives and avoiding negative impacts, to also proactively enhancing positive impacts, and towards the achievement of sustainability goals.

Description: Purpose To contribute to the upcoming United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in 2012 by introducing a life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) and showing how it can play a crucial role in moving towards sustainable consumption and production. The publication, titled Towards a Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment , and published by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative aims to show how three life cycle techniques—(environmental) LCA, S-LCA and LCC—can be combined as part of an over-arching LCSA. Methods The method was demonstrated by evaluating the characteristics of each phase for each life cycle technique. In defining the goal and scope of an LCSA, for example, different aspects should be taken into account to establish the aim of the study as well as the functional unit, system boundaries, impact category and allocation. Then, the data to be collected for the life cycle sustainability inventory can be either in a unit process or on an organisational level. They can also be quantitative or qualitative. Life cycle sustainability impact assessment should consider the relevance of the impacts as well as the perspective of stakeholders. The interpretation should not add up the results, but rather evaluate them jointly. In order to clarify the approach, a case study is presented to evaluate three types of marble according to the proposed method. Results and discussion The authors have identified that while LCSA is feasible, following areas need more development: data production and acquisition, methodological development, discussion about LCSA criteria (e.g. cutoff rules), definitions and formats of communication and dissemination of LCSA results and the expansion of research and applications combining (environmental) LCA, LCC and S-LCA. The authors also indicate that it is necessary to develop more examples and cases to improve user capacity to analyse the larger picture and therefore address the three dimensions or pillars of sustainability in a systematic way. Software and database providers are called for in order to facilitate user-friendly and accessible tools to promote LCSAs. Conclusions The application demonstrated that, although methodological improvements are still needed, important steps towards an overarching sustainability assessment have been accomplished. LCSA is possible and should be pursued; however, more efforts should be made to improve the technique and facilitate the studies in order to contribute to a greener economy.

Description: Purpose A widely used theory of the computational structure of life cycle assessment (LCA) has been available for more than a decade. The case of environmental life cycle cost (LCC) is still less clear: even the recent Code of Practice does not specify any formula to use. Methods This paper does not aim to resolve all the issues at stake. But it aims to provide an explicit and transparent description of how to calculate the life cycle cost (in whatever way defined), and the value added across the life cycle. Results and discussion The expressions obtained can be fed into the formulas for eco-efficiency, so that an explicit and reproducible eco-efficiency indicator can be calculated. Conclusions The results are useful for developing life cycle sustainability analysis, combining LCA, LCC, and social LCA.

Description: Purpose Achieving sustainability by rethinking products, services and strategies is an enormous challenge currently laid upon the economic sector, in which materials selection plays a critical role. In this context, the present work describes an environmental and economic life cycle analysis of a structural product, comparing two possible material alternatives. The product chosen is a storage tank, presently manufactured in stainless steel (SST) or in a glass fibre reinforced polymer composite (CST). The overall goal of the study is to identify environmental and economic strong and weak points related to the life cycle of the two material alternatives. The consequential win–win or trade-off situations will be identified via a life cycle assessment/life cycle costing (LCA/LCC) integrated model. Methods The LCA/LCC integrated model used consists in applying the LCA methodology to the product system, incorporating, in parallel, its results into the LCC study, namely those of the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment. Results and discussion In both the SST and CST systems, the most significant life cycle phase is the raw materials production, in which the most significant environmental burdens correspond to the Fossil fuels and Respiratory inorganics categories. The LCA/LCC integrated analysis shows that the CST has globally a preferable environmental and economic profile, as its impacts are lower than those of the SST in all life cycle stages. Both the internal and external costs are lower, the former resulting mainly from the composite material being significantly less expensive than stainless steel. This therefore represents a full win–win situation. As a consequence, the study clearly indicates that using a thermoset composite material to manufacture storage tanks is environmentally and economically desirable. However, it was also evident that the environmental performance of the CST could be improved by altering its end-of-life stage. Conclusions The results of the present work provide enlightening insights into the synergies between the environmental and the economic performance of a structural product made with alternative materials. Furthermore, they provide conclusive evidence to support the integration of environmental and economic life cycle analysis in the product development processes of a manufacturing company or, in some cases, even in its procurement practices.

Description: Three-dimensional (3D) protein structures facilitate the understanding of their biological functions and provide valuable information for developing medicines. Single-particle analysis (SPA) from electron microscopy (EM) is a structure determination method suitable for macromolecules. To achieve a high resolution using combinations of several SPA software packages, ‘workflow’ optimization and comparative evaluation by scoring results are essential. Two-dimensional (2D) averaging is a key step for 3D reconstruction. The integrated convergence-evaluation oriented system (IC-EOS) proposed here provides an effective tool for customizing 2D averaging. This assesses the behavior and characteristics of workflows and evaluates the convergence of iteration steps without human intervention. We chose five base measurements for quantifying convergence: resolution, variance, similarity, shift-distance and rotation-angle. Curve fitting to history graphs scored their stability. We call this score ‘fluctuation’. The number of particle images discarded from the library and the number of classification groups were examined to see their effects on optimization levels and fluctuation of measurements, allowing the IC-EOS to select the most appropriate workflow for the target. A case study using a bacterial sodium channel and a simulation study using GroEL showed that resolution of 2D averaging improved with relatively stricter particle selection. With fewer groups, resolutions of class averages improved, but similarities between class-averages and their constituent particle images degraded. Fluctuation was useful for selecting adequate conditions, even when achieved values alone were not conclusive. The vote method, using fluctuation, was robust against noise and enabled a decision without exhaustive search trials. Thus, the IC-EOS is a step toward full automation of SPA.

Description: We quantitatively analyzed the contrast degradation and blur of 20-nm gold nanoparticles adsorbed on the top of amorphous silicon films of thicknesses of 0.54, 1.09, 1.63 and 2.2 μm in bright-field transmission electron microscope (TEM) images taken at accelerating voltages of 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 MeV. The thickness dependence of the transmission was well explained and consistent with our calculations. The blur function, derived by assuming that the TEM image of a thick specimen can be reproduced by convolving the TEM image of a very thin specimen with it, was found to be expressed by a two-dimensional Lorentzian function. Considering the two characteristics of the Lorentzian function, a sharp peak around the center and a long tail, we concluded that, for TEM observations of thick specimens, the image contrast is degraded predominantly by inelastic scattering and the image is blurred predominantly by multiple elastic scattering.

Description: Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful method to diagnose viral diseases and to study the distribution of the viral agent within plant cells and tissues. Nevertheless, current protocols for the immunological detection of viral diseases with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in plants take between 3 and 6 days and are therefore not suited for rapid diagnosis of virus diseases in plants. In this study, we describe a method that allows rapid cytohistochemical detection of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in leaves of tobacco plants. With the help of microwave irradiation, sample preparation of the leaves was reduced to 90 min. After sample sectioning, virus particles were stained on the sections by immunogold labelling of the viral coat protein, which took 100 min. After investigation with the TEM, a clear visualization of TMV in tobacco cells was achieved altogether in about half a day. Comparison of gold particle density by image analysis revealed that samples prepared with the help of microwave irradiation yielded significantly higher gold particle density as samples prepared conventionally at room temperature. This study clearly demonstrates that microwave-assisted plant sample preparation in combination with cytohistochemical localization of viral coat protein is well suited for rapid diagnosis of plant virus diseases in altogether about half a day by TEM.

Description: An accurate method using image sharpness to determine the best focusing is proposed for ultra-high-voltage electron microscopy. This method maximizes image sharpness for adjusting the focus. Five images with different defocus values are used to calculate the image sharpness. To obtain the best focus value that produces greatest image sharpness, fitting the quasi-Gaussian function to five image sharpness is a suitable alternative. This method, which maximizes image sharpness, gives better accuracy than the wobbler method for the ultra-high-voltage electron microscope. The focusing area can be selected without moving the field of view, because the focusing area can be selected at almost any area in the image.

Description: Purpose The development of product category rules (PCRs) is inconsistent among the program operators using ISO 14025 as the basis. Furthermore, the existence of several other product claim standards and specifications that require analogous rules for making product claims has the potential to reduce any consistency in PCRs present in the ISO 14025 domain and result in unnecessary duplication of PCRs. These inconsistencies and duplications can be attributed to (a) insufficient specificity in related standards, (b) the presence of several standards and specifications, (c) lack of/limited coordination among program operators, and (d) lack of a single global database for PCRs. As a result, current PCR development threatens the legitimacy of life cycle assessment-based product claims. Process Through discussions over the past few years, in multistakeholder organizations, it has become clear that more guidance on the development of PCRs is necessary. In response to this need, the Product Category Rule Guidance Development Initiative ( www.pcrguidance.org ) was launched as an independent multistakeholder effort in early 2012. The premise for the Initiative was that the Guidance would be created by a voluntary group of international stakeholders that would share ownership of the outputs. Outcome The Guidance is now published, along with supplementary materials, on the Initiative website. The guidance document specifies requirements, recommendations, and options on (1) steps to be taken before PCR creation; (2) elements of a PCR; (3) review, publication, and use of PCRs; and (4) best practices for PCR development and management. Supplementary materials include a PCR template, a conformity assessment form, and a list of program operators from around the world. Conclusions The Guidance will help reduce cost and time to develop a PCR by supporting the adaptation of an existing PCR or by building on elements from existing PCRs. It will help reduce confusion and frustration when creating PCRs that are based on one or more standards and programs. Overall, the Guidance is a robust handbook for consistency and clarity in the development of PCRs.

Description: Purpose This paper considers the variabilities that exist in the exploitation of a complex industrial system. Our scenario-based LCA model ensures the reliability of results in situations where the system life cycle is very uncertain, where there is substantial lack of data, and/or where time and resources available are limited. It is also an effective tool to generate exploitation recommendations for clients. Methods Existing quantitative uncertainty methods in LCA require a huge amount of accurate data. These data are rarely available in simplified and upstream LCA for complex industrial systems. A scenario-based approach is the best compromise between acceptable quality of results and resources required. However, such methods have not yet been proposed to improve the environmental knowledge of the system in the case of exploitation scenarios. The method proposed here considers a limited number of scenarios (three or four) that are defined using the Stanford Research Institute matrix. Using results from past projects, relevant parts of the system are listed, and expert knowledge and parameters are associated with these parts and quantified. A classical LCA process then provides the results for the different scenarios. Results and discussion The method was applied to an Alstom Grid AC/DC conversion substation for the primary aluminum industry. A previous study had limited scope, as the life cycle was poorly understood. Relevant parts were, thus, clearly identified as follows: spare parts program, transport failures, preventive and corrective maintenance, updates and revampings, lifetime modulation, and end-of-life. Four scenarios were considered as follows: best case, worst case, baseline (expected future), and a highly different alternative. Results show the pertinence of considering several exploitation scenarios when the life cycle is not predictable, as the environmental impacts may vary widely from one case to another. A sensitivity analysis also shows that some relevant parts such as updates and revampings will need to be carefully considered in futures studies. Conclusions The consideration of three exploitation scenarios (best case, baseline, and worst case) appears to be extremely pertinent when considering simplified LCA of industrial systems with high uncertainties and limited time and resources. This model is also very useful to generate good practice and recommendations towards clients, thus initiating a dialog centered on eco-design and continuous improvement.

Description: Introduction In this series of papers, we present a design of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) recycling system considering environmental impacts, chemical hazards, and resource availability. We applied life cycle assessment (LCA), environment, health, and safety (EHS) assessment as well as material flow analysis to the evaluation of the recycling system. Purpose Recycling systems for highly functional plastics such as PMMA have not been studied sufficiently. Along with the popularization of PMMA-containing products such as liquid crystal displays (LCDs), the use of PMMA is steadily increasing, which will result in more waste of PMMA in the next decades. In this study, pyrolysis process for recycling waste PMMA into methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer was examined, considering not only general environmental impacts quantified by life cycle assessment but also local environment, health, and safety hazards, and raw material availability. Methods Process EHS hazards assessment was applied to quantify the local effects of the PMMA monomer recycling process. Process hazards are strongly connected with the hazardous properties of chemical substances and stream conditions within the process. Two alternative cooling methods exist, and their difference was analyzed by LCA and EHS assessment. Besides the process hazard, the availability of waste PMMA must be an important point for the feasibility of implementing the PMMA monomer recycling process. The available amount can be quantified by analyzing the material flow of PMMA-containing products. PMMA contained in LCDs as light guide panels was selected as a feasible source of waste PMMA, and the quantity of PMMA flows in the society was evaluated. Results and discussion In the case of PMMA, monomer recycling has less process hazard than the production of fresh MMA from crude oil. The implementation of circulated cooling water could significantly decrease the process hazard in PMMA pyrolysis attributable to chemical hazards. Material flow analysis revealed that the availability of waste PMMA shows a fluctuating trend in the next 20 years because of the sharp peak demand for LCD television sets. The fluctuation is strongly dependent on the lifetime of LCD television sets. Conclusions PMMA monomer recycling has a potential to reduce environmental impacts with a less process hazards than fresh MMA production from crude oil. The availability of waste PMMA has a strong relationship with the lifetime of LCD television sets. The multiple and comprehensive assessments can reveal various aspects of a process technology.

Description: Purpose Blended cements use waste products to replace Portland cement, the main contributor to CO 2 emissions in concrete manufacture. Using blended cements reduces the embodied greenhouse gas emissions; however, little attention has been paid to the reduction in CO 2 capture (carbonation) and durability. The aim of this study is to determine if the reduction in production emissions of blended cements compensates for the reduced durability and CO 2 capture. Methods This study evaluates CO 2 emissions and CO 2 capture for a reinforced concrete column during its service life and after demolition and reuse as gravel filling material. Concrete depletion, due to carbonation and the unavoidable steel embedded corrosion, is studied, as this process consequently ends the concrete service life. Carbonation deepens progressively during service life and captures CO 2 even after demolition due to the greater exposed surface area. In this study, results are presented as a function of cement replaced by fly ash (FA) and blast furnace slag (BFS). Results and discussion Concrete made with Portland cement, FA (35 % FA), and BFS blended cements (80 % BFS) captures 47, 41, and 20 % of CO 2 emissions, respectively. The service life of blended cements with high amounts of cement replacement, like CEM III/A (50 % BFS), CEM III/B (80 % BFS), and CEM II/B-V (35 % FA), was about 10 % shorter, given the higher carbonation rate coefficient. Compared to Portland cement and despite the reduced CO 2 capture and service life, CEM III/B emitted 20 % less CO 2 per year. Conclusions To obtain reliable results in a life cycle assessment, it is crucial to consider carbonation during use and after demolition. Replacing Portland cement with FA, instead of BFS, leads to a lower material emission factor, since FA needs less processing after being collected, and transport distances are usually shorter. However, greater reductions were achieved using BFS, since a larger amount of cement can be replaced. Blended cements emit less CO 2 per year during the life cycle of a structure, although a high cement replacement reduces the service life notably. If the demolished concrete is crushed and recycled as gravel filling material, carbonation can cut CO 2 emissions by half. A case study is presented in this paper demonstrating how the results may be utilized.

Description: Purpose In Portugal, the management of end-of-life vehicles (ELV) is set out in targets of the European Union policy for the year 2015, including 85 % recycling, 95 % recovery, and maximum of 5 % landfilling. These goals will be attained only through more efficient technologies for waste separation and recycling of shredder residues or higher rates of dismantling components. Focusing on this last alternative, a field experiment was carried out. There is potential for additional recycling/recovery of 10 %. Methods Three scenarios were proposed for the management of ELV wastes: (1) scenario 1 corresponds to the baseline and refers to the current management, i.e., the 10 % of ELV wastes are shredded whereby some ferrous and non-ferrous metals are recovered and the remaining fraction, called automotive shredder residues (ASR), is landfilled, (2) scenario 2 wherein the ASR fraction is incinerated with energy recovery, and (3) scenario 3 includes the additional dismantling of components for recycling and for energy recovery through solid recovered fuel, to be used as a fuel substitute in the cement industry. The environmental performance of these scenarios was quantified by using the life cycle assessment methodology. Five impact categories were assessed: abiotic resource depletion, climate change, photochemical oxidant creation, acidification, and eutrophication. Results and discussion Compared to the other scenarios, in scenario 1 no benefits for the impact categories of climate change and eutrophication were observed. Scenario 2 has environmental credits due to the recycling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and benefits from energy recovery. However, this scenario has a significant impact on climate change due to emissions from thermal oxidation of polymeric materials present in the ASR fraction. A net environmental performance upgrading seems to be ensured by scenario 3, mainly due to replacing fossil fuel by solid recovered fuel. Conclusions The proposed additional dismantling of ELV (scenario 3) not only brings environmental benefits but also meets the European recovery and recycling targets. The associated increase of dismantling costs can be compensated by the additional recycling material revenues as well as social benefits by a rise in employment.

Description: While conventional mechanical and chemical polishing results in stress, deformation and polishing particles embedded on the surface, flat milling with Ar + ions erodes the material with no mechanical artefacts. This flat milling process is presented as an alternative method to prepare a Pb–Ag alloy cross-section for scanning electron microscopy. The resulting surface is free of scratches with very little to no stress induced, so that electron diffraction and channelling contrast are possible. The results have shown that energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) mapping, electron channelling contrast imaging and electron backscatter diffraction can be conducted with only one sample preparation step. Electron diffraction patterns acquired at 5 keV possessed very good pattern quality, highlighting an excellent surface condition. An orientation map was acquired at 20 keV with an indexing rate of 90.1%. An EDS map was performed at 5 keV, and Pb–Ag precipitates of sizes lower than 100 nm were observed. However, the drawback of the method is the generation of a noticeable surface topography resulting from the interaction of the ion beam with a polycrystalline and biphasic sample.

Description: The subcellular behavior of several mineral elements was studied using modern techniques of observation like transmission electron microscopy and analysis like electron probe microanalysis and secondary ion mass spectrometry. In the present ultrastructural and analytical investigations, we undertake to compare the intracellular behavior of a heavy metal, gold, and a III-A group element, indium, on rat testicular tissues after their parenteral administrations. Our ultrastructural results showed that while gold was found only in the lysosomes of Leydig cells under electron dense needles, indium was observed as electron-dense deposits in the lysosomes of both Leydig and Sertoli cells. No ultrastructural modifications were observed in the testicular tissues of the control rats. The microanalytical study showed that gold was concentrated in lysosomes with sulfur as a sulfate crystalline structure whereas indium was concentrated in the same organelle as insoluble phosphate salt. These results demonstrated that testicular Leydig and Sertoli cells have the ability to selectively concentrate indium but gold was concentrated only in the first kind of cells. The mechanism implicated in this concentration phenomenon is a biochemical one involving intralysosomal hydrolytic enzymes, the acid phosphatase and the arylsulfatase. This mechanism occurs in order to protect the organism and to avoid the presence of toxic metals under soluble and free form.

Description: Cross-sectional observation of molybdenum carbide nanocrystals inside carbon nanotubes was successfully conducted in this study. The nanocrystals were generated by irradiating as-synthesized encapsulated molybdenum oxide crystals with an intense electron beam; the most probable composition of the crystals was determined to be α-MoC 1– x by electron diffraction, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Thinning processes using a focused ion beam and an Ar-ion mill enabled cross-sectional observations along the tube axis. As a result, it became clear that the molybdenum carbide crystals show translational symmetry with a parallelogram configuration having preferred {111} facets when observed from the [110] direction, despite the sub-nanometer order of the crystals.

Description: Teleosts account for more than half of the vertebrate species. A key feature of the evolutionary success of teleosts is their reproductive systems, which are efficient and functional under all aquatic environmental conditions. The zona radiata (ZR) is a non- cellular envelope over oolemma of teleost fish oocytes. The morphology of the ZR varies in different ovarian developmental stages and also among various fish species, which reflects adaptation to ecological conditions. In this research the structure of the ZR in the oocytes of zebrafish in different stages of ovarian development and oocyte growth were studied. The fish ovary was fixed in Bouin's solution. Histological sections were studied by light and scanning electron microscope after subjecting them to tissue preparation stages. In immature and primary growth stages (I and II), the ZR was not observed. In stage III, the ZR was observed as a thin layer around the oocyte. It increased in thickness at stage IV (vitellogenesis) but reduced in stage V (maturation). In early stage III, the ZR striations started to appear and in stage IV (vitellogenesis) fence-like striations were completely formed. SEM micrographs showed stria to be deep with crenelated margin. In late stage IV fence-like striations disappeared gradually and in matured egg (V) the stria turned into pit-like remnants. In zebrafish no adhesive filaments were observed and the ZR surface was smooth.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) of chemicals is usually developed using a process-based approach. In this paper, we develop a tiered hybrid LCA of water treatment chemicals combining the specificity of process data with the holistic nature of input–output analysis (IOA). We compare these results with process and input–output models for the most commonly used chemicals in the Australian water industry to identify the direct and indirect environmental impacts associated with the manufacturing of these materials. Methods We have improved a previous Australian hybrid LCA model by updating the environmental indicators and expanding the number of included industry sectors of the economy. We also present an alternative way to estimate the expenditure vectors to the service sectors of the economy when financial data are not available. Process-based, input–output and hybrid results were calculated for caustic soda, sodium hypochlorite, ferric chloride, aluminium sulphate, fluorosilicic acid, calcium oxide and chlorine gas. The functional unit is the same for each chemical: the production of 1 tonne in the year 2008. Results and discussion We have provided results for seven impact categories: global warming potential; primary energy; water use; marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecotoxicity potentials and human toxicity potential. Results are compared with previous IOA and hybrid studies. A sensitivity analysis of the results to assumed wholesale prices is included. We also present insights regarding how hybrid modelling helps to overcome the limitations of using IO- or process-based modelling individually. Conclusions and recommendations The advantages of using hybrid modelling have been demonstrated for water treatment chemicals by expanding the boundaries of process-based modelling and also by reducing the sensitivity of IOA to fluctuations in prices of raw materials used for the production of these industrial commodities. The development of robust hybrid life cycle inventory databases is paramount if hybrid modelling is to become a standard practice in attributional LCA.

Description: Purpose The environmentally friendly construction of agricultural infrastructure is much needed for sustainable development because construction is recognized as a cause of environmental degradation. The objective of this study was to estimate and characterize carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions during construction of agricultural reservoir embankments for the quantitative environmental assessment and management of CO 2 emissions using life cycle assessment method. Methods Two reservoirs with different foundation treatment and construction components were selected in this study and their characteristics in CO 2 emissions were compared. And CO 2 emissions were calculated separately for each of the following major components: construction materials, equipment, and transport. The basic unit of CO 2 emissions for construction materials was calculated using the 2009 input–output tables in Korea and the basic unit of CO 2 emissions for equipment of transport and construction was also calculated based on the amount of fuel used in a unit time. Results and discussion According to the study results, the construction of a water supply process appeared to generate the most emissions among all processes for the two sites. Emissions due to equipment were the highest in site A, while materials generated the most emissions in site B. Differences in emissions are due to differences in the construction process. While the operation time of the equipment in site A increased due to the cofferdam process and a large amount of cement was used in the foundation process in site B. Conclusions Characteristic of CO 2 emissions differs with different construction processes and thus construction processes need to be optimized for environmental friendly development of agricultural infrastructure through estimation and characterization of CO 2 emissions.

Description: Purpose Bananas are one of the highest selling fruits worldwide, and for several countries, bananas are an important export commodity. However, very little is known about banana’s contribution to global warming. The aims of this work were to study the greenhouse gas emissions of bananas from cradle to retail and cradle to grave and to assess the potential of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions along the value chain. Methods Carbon footprint methodology based on ISO-DIS 14067 was used to assess GHG emissions from 1 kg of bananas produced at two plantations in Costa Rica including transport by cargo ship to Norway. Several methodological issues are not clearly addressed in ISO 14067 or the LCA standards 14040 and ISO 14044 underpinning 14067. Examples are allocation, allocation in recycling, representativity and system borders. Methodological choices in this study have been made based on other standards, such as the GHG Protocol Products Standard. Results and discussion The results indicate that bananas had a carbon footprint (CF) on the same level as other tropical fruits and that the contribution from the primary production stage was low. However, the methodology used in this study and the other comparative studies was not necessarily identical; hence, no definitive conclusions can be drawn. Overseas transport and primary production were the main contributors to the total GHG emissions. Including the consumer stage resulted in a 34 % rise in CF, mainly due to high wastage. The main potential reductions of GHG emissions were identified at the primary production, within the overseas transport stage and at the consumer. Conclusions The carbon footprint of bananas from cradle to retail was 1.37 kg CO 2 per kilogram banana. GHG emissions from transport and primary production could be significantly reduced, which could theoretically give a reduction of as much as 44 % of the total cradle-to-retail CF. The methodology was important for the end result. The choice of system boundaries gives very different results depending on which life cycle stages and which unit processes are included. Allocation issues were also important, both in recycling and in other processes such as transport and storage. The main uncertainties of the CF result are connected to N 2 O emissions from agriculture, methane emissions from landfills, use of secondary data and variability in the primary production data. Thus, there is a need for an internationally agreed calculation method for bananas and other food products if CFs are to be used for comparative purposes.

Description: Purpose The framework of life cycle sustainability analysis (LCSA) has been developed within the CALCAS project but the procedure on how an LCSA should be carried out is still far from standardized. The purpose of this article is to propose an approach to put the LCSA framework into practice. This approach is illustrated with an on-going case study on concrete recycling. Methods In the context of an EC-FP7 project on technology innovation for concrete recycling, five operational steps to implement the LCSA framework are proposed: (1) broad system definition, (2) making scenarios, (3) defining sub-questions for individual tools, (4) application of the tools and (5) interpreting the results in an LCSA framework. Focus has been put on the goal and scope definition (steps 1–3) to illustrate how to define a doable and meaningful LCSA. Steps 4–5 are not complete in the case study and are elaborated theoretically in this paper. Results and discussion The experience from the case study shows that the operational steps are especially useful at the stage of defining the goal and scope. Breaking down the sustainability questions into different scales and different aspects gives the possibility to define the sub-questions suitable to be assessed by the individual analytical tools (e.g., LCA, LCC, SLCA, MFA, etc.). The C2CA-LCSA shows a practical approach to model the life cycle impacts of the broad system is to start by modelling the technological system at the micro level and then scale it up with the realistic scenario settings that are generated with the knowledge gained from the MFA studies at the meso-level and from the policy/economic studies at the macro level. The combined application of LCA, LCC and SLCA at the project level shows not all the cost items and only one social impact indicator can be modelled in the process-based LCA structure. Thus it is important to address the left out information at the interpretation step. Conclusions Defining sub-questions on three different levels seems most useful to frame an LCSA study at the early stage of goal and scope definition. Although this study provides some useful steps for the operationlisation of the LCSA concept, it is clear that additional case studies are needed to move LCSA into a practical framework for the analysis of complex sustainability problems.

Description: Purpose A critical evaluation of the life cycle assessment (LCA) studies was performed in the main scientific bibliographic databases (online and free access) of Brazil where the LCA methodology could be considered. Methods This has been an exploratory study with a qualitative evaluation of quantitative LCA studies with regard to International Organization of Standardization (ISO) 14040 standards. Firstly, the selected papers were those which used the LCA methodology in case studies (quantitative LCA studies). This survey was based on previously chosen keywords which were directly and/or indirectly related to LCA in Portuguese, English, and Spanish. Results and discussion One hundred and twenty papers related to LCA were found, among which 21 have been effectively used the LCA methodology applied to case studies. The study has indicated agriculture and livestock as some promising areas for the use of LCA methodology in Brazil. As for the scope of LCA, it has been found that nine papers have adopted the cradle-to-grave approach, whereas 12 papers have limited the study to some life cycle stage (cradle-to-gate, gate-to-gate, or gate-to-grave). This behavior can be justified by the difficulty in obtaining data from raw material, supply chain, inputs, or about the disposal, reuse, and recycling of products/systems. The criteria set out in the ISO 14040 standard was carried out in 17 out of the 21 selected papers. Conclusions The LCA of Brazilian studies could be improved. For instance, when considering the requirements and guidelines of ISO standards, at the goal phase, the papers have clearly mentioned their target audience. The scope phase requires more explanation about the allocation procedures, once the process/product is not isolated, and for most processes, it may generate more than one product. As regards the Life Cycle Inventory, these studies could improve their data sources, once few papers used primary sources. According to our understanding, the best phase performed by the papers was life cycle impact assessment. Hopefully, LCA will become a known research area and will be adopted by most of the Brazilian scientific community. It is further expected that LCA might have a regular publication in scientific journals (perhaps an own journal).

Description: Purpose This study aimed to investigate the environmental consequences (on climate change and land use) of an increase in preference for grass-based milk in France using a consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) approach. This increase in preference was assumed to be satisfied domestically, by converting maize silage-based dairy farms (MS farm) to grass-based dairy farms (G farm) while keeping on-farm usable agricultural area and total milk production of farm constant. Methods The possible consequences of an increase in preference for grass-based milk were identified based on cause and effect relationships. The conversion from MS to G farm reduced the use of soybean meal, changed the on-farm cropping pattern and produced more animals but less wheat and no rapeseed. Effects on on-farm soil C were predicted with the RothC model and on global land use change (LUC) with models of global agricultural markets (Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) and Landbouw Economisch Instituut Trade Analysis Project (LEITAP)). System expansion using animals from a suckler beef production system was applied to estimate the impacts of milk and animal co-products from the dairy system. Land occupation and climate change impacts were estimated. The consequences of farm conversion were attributed only to the milk, as preference for grass-based milk drove the conversion process. Results and discussion The conversion from the MS to G farm increases land occupation and climate change impacts for the G farm, respectively, by 9 and 7 % according to GTAP and 14 and 51 % according to LEITAP. Land occupation and climate change impacts of milk produced by the G farm after conversion increased, respectively, by 82 and 13 % with GTAP and 123 and 97 % with LEITAP relative to those for the MS farm (before conversion). The production of additional wheat and rapeseed outside the G farm increased impacts of the G farm (by 29–69 % depending on impacts and model used). Results indicate that the farm conversion would probably have consequences on global LUC and that it is important to account for this in a LCA approach. Conclusions Land use and land use change (LULUC) contributed to the impacts of grass-based milk, and results were highly sensitive to the LULUC model used. The many possible chain-of-event pathways that follow a change in preference for a given product yield high uncertainty in CLCA results. This study only assessed one possible way to meet the increase in preference for grass-based milk; it is necessary to perform a sensitivity analysis to investigate other possible scenarios resulting from this increase in preference.