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  • 1
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-06
    Beschreibung: Protected areas are fundamental for conservation, yet are constantly threatened by illegal activities, such as cattle encroachment and wildlife poaching, which reduce biodiversity. Law-enforcement is an essential component of reducing illegal activities. Although necessary, law-enforcement is costly and its effectiveness in the field is rarely monitored. Improving ranger patrol efficiency is likely to decrease illegal activity occurrence and benefit biodiversity conservation, without additional resource implications. Using ranger-collected data, we develop a method to improve ranger patrol allocation, targeting different combinations of conservation priorities, and predict that detections of illegal activities can be greatly improved. In a field test in Queen Elizabeth Protected Area, Uganda, we increased detections of illegal activities in some cases by over 250% without a change in ranger resources. This easily implemented method can be used in any protected area where data on the distribution of illegal activities are collected, and improve law-enforcement efficiency in resource-limited settings. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 2
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-03
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 3
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    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-05
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 4
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-24
    Beschreibung: The devolution of user rights of wildlife in southern Africa has led to a widespread land-use shift from livestock farming to game ranching. The economic advantages of game ranching over livestock farming are significant, but so too are the risks associated with breeding financially valuable game where free-ranging wildlife pose a credible threat. Here, we assessed whether the conservation potential of game ranching, and a decentralized approach to conservation more generally, may be undermined by an increase in human-wildlife conflict. We demonstrate that game rancher tolerance towards free-ranging wildlife has significantly decreased as the game ranching industry has evolved. Our findings reveal a conflict of interest between wealth and wildlife conservation resulting from local decision-making in the absence of adequate centralized governance and evidence-based best practice. As a fundamental pillar of devolution-based natural resource management, game ranching proves an important mechanism for economic growth, albeit at a significant cost to conservation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 5
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-27
    Beschreibung: After many years of effort, the US Fish and Wildlife Service recently suspended its red wolf recovery program. The reintroduced population in North Carolina has failed to thrive, leading to questions of whether red wolves are recoverable. In an effort to “…inform the ongoing program review and potential future direction of red wolf recovery” Murray et al. (2015) examined demographic data from the red wolf reintroduction program. They posited that for the reintroduced red wolf population to be viable it must have higher survival or productivity than that of coyotes and hybrids in the area. And red wolves must kill coyotes and hybrids as part of their territorial aggression. They found that red wolves, coyotes, and hybrids had similar demographic rates. They also found that while red wolf deaths due to gunshot did not increase in 2009–2014 relative to that in 1999 – 2007, other forms of illegal take did. Among coyotes and hybrids, they noted there were no deaths attributed to natural causes in the latter period suggesting red wolves appeared not to kill coyotes and hybrids as part of territorial interactions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 6
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-12
    Beschreibung: Worldwide many businesses have recently pledged to sourcing agricultural and timber products exclusively from deforestation and fire-free supply chains. Geo-investigations — monitoring the activities of plantation companies using satellites and concession maps — are now applied to identify which companies breach their commitments and regulations. We investigate the limitations of geo-investigations by analyzing land-use and fire in and around 163 Indonesian concessions of oil-palm and pulpwood, where recurring forest and peatland fires are a national and international concern. We reveal a mismatch between de-jure and de-facto land occupancy inside and outside concessions. Independent farmers are present in concessions while some companies expand outside concessions. Thus, both actors may be responsible for deforestation and fire inside and outside concessions. On peatland, fire can start outside and spread into concessions, while draining in concessions may promote fire outside. These dynamics make attribution of fire and deforestation in Indonesian concessions impossible without detailed field investigations. This study highlights the need to combine very-high-resolution satellite data with extensive field investigations of de-facto land ownership, claims and disputes inside and outside concessions. In Indonesia, such activities could fall under the One Map Policy, whose remit is to identify and resolve overlapping land claims. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 7
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-14
    Beschreibung: The decline of top carnivores has released large herbivore populations around the world, incurring socioeconomic costs such as increased animal-vehicle collisions. Attempts to control overabundant deer in the Eastern U.S. have largely failed, and deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) continue to rise at alarming rates. We present the first valuation of an ecosystem service provided by large carnivore recolonization, using DVC reduction by cougars as a case study. Our coupled deer population models and socioeconomic valuations revealed that cougars could reduce deer densities and DVCs by 22% in the Eastern US, preventing 21,400 human injuries, 155 fatalities, and $2.13 billion in avoided costs within 30 years of establishment. Recently established cougars in South Dakota prevent $1.1 million in collision costs annually. Large carnivore restoration could provide valuable ecosystem services through such socio-ecological cascades, and these benefits could offset the societal costs of coexistence. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 8
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-20
    Beschreibung: Recent debate within the conservation community about how to define our mission and delineate our objectives has highlighted frictions between conventional (biodiversity centered) conservation and “new” (socio-economically driven) conservation. It has also prompted calls for “inclusive conservation”, aimed at accommodating both conventional and new perspectives under one big tent, and quelling continued debate. In focusing on the compatibility between two well established perspectives, however, and constructing conservation as a universal agenda rooted in a common environmental ethic, inclusive conservation reinforces currently dominant thinking in the field. We argue here that, despite its name, inclusive conservation further suppresses marginal views within the conservation community by denying the very existence of margins. Drawing on the work of Nancy Fraser and Chantal Mouffe, we underscore the importance of conflict and agonistic pluralism in maintaining space for historically underrepresented points of view. In doing so, we stake out a position in the conservation debate for what we call social instrumentalism , which is an already marginalized perspective that is further suppressed by calls for inclusivity. Finally, we offer a positive alternative vision for the future of conservation, or more aptly, for a future characterized by many different conservations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 9
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-27
    Beschreibung: In conservation, as in most other subjects, there is a division of expenditure into problem identification, solution testing and practice. However, research concentrates on problem identification rather than solution testing. We calculate the return on the investment of research (a PhD thesis) examining the effectiveness of conservation interventions for birds of prey in three European countries. We show that the economic return from investing in a PhD thesis could be substantial, in the order of hundreds of thousands euros over ten years or a return on investment of between 292 and 326% over that period. We derived the values of return on investment by first setting a common biological target (the total number of raptor fledglings produced per year). We then compared overall costs in achieving such target via the wide implementation of the results from the thesis (i.e. allocating resources to the most effective intervention) versus a business as usual scenario. We identify other theses that also show considerable benefits in improving effectiveness. We suggest that further research examining effectiveness would be cost-effective in improving practice. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 10
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-27
    Beschreibung: The Convention on Biological Diversity's target of halting extinctions by 2020 is less than a handful of years away. Captive, or ex situ , management has long been cited as having a potential role to play in the recovery of species, although this remains the subject of debate. IUCN's Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) produced guidelines to assist in identifying when ex situ management may contribute to species recovery in 2002. Since then, there have been considerable developments in a range of areas that may influence the design of such programmes (e.g. understanding of constraints o breeding programmes, development of new techniques and approaches, and strategic planning approaches to species conservation). IUCN SSC has therefore revised its guidance and proposes a five step process: 1) Compile a status review; 2) Define the role(s) that ex situ management might play; 3) Determine the precise nature of the ex situ population in order to meet identified role(s); 4) Define resources and expertise, and appraise the feasibility and risks; and 5) Make a decision that is informed based on the above analysis and transparent. These guidelines offer an objective process for considering the role of ex situ management in species conservation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 11
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-27
    Beschreibung: Widespread, anecdotal reports of the use of bednets designed for malaria control ("mosquito nets") in artisanal fisheries has led to concern from health and natural resource management sectors. However mosquito net fishing may play an important role in the livelihoods of artisanal fishers, an aspect not yet investigated. At a coastal Kenyan site among Giriama fishers, nearly half of homesteads interviewed used mosquito nets as fishing gear, targeting juvenile fish and prawns for subsistence and sale. The majority of MN fishers here were men, suggesting that the assumption that MNF is a female activity is not valid in this case. However MN use for fishing at this site is unlikely to impact malaria protection as fishers used old or surplus nets. Respondents perceived both positive aspects of MNF (e.g. food, income), and negative aspects (e.g. impact on fishery). As mosquito nets are widely available they may enable new entrants to access fisheries. There is a critical need to review current management responses, which predominately focus on banning the practice, and instead promote integrated strategies for sustainable livelihoods. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 12
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-31
    Beschreibung: Population growth and increasing water-use pressures threaten California's freshwater ecosystems and have led many native fishes to the brink of extinction. To guide fish conservation efforts, we provide the first systematic prioritization of river catchments and identify those that disproportionately contribute to fish taxonomic diversity. Using high-resolution range maps of exceptional quality, we also assess the representation of fish taxa within the state's protected areas and examine the concordance of high-priority catchments with existing reserves and among distinct taxonomic groups. Although most of the state's native fishes are found within protected areas, only a small proportion of their ranges are represented. Few high-priority catchments occur within protected areas, suggesting that fish conservation will require active management and targeted river restoration outside of reserves. These results provide the foundation for systematic freshwater conservation planning in California and for prioritizing where limited resources are allocated for fish recovery and protection. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 13
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-02-09
    Beschreibung: Many environmental communication interventions are built on the assumption that increased knowledge will lead to changes in pro-environment behaviours. Our study probes the link between biodiversity-related knowledge and self-reported pro-conservation behaviour, based on the largest and most international study of zoo visitors ever conducted. In total, 6,357 visitors to 30 zoos from 19 countries around the globe participated in the study. Biodiversity understanding and knowledge of actions to help protect biodiversity were significantly related, but only 0.6% of the variation in knowledge of actions to help protect biodiversity could be explained by those same respondents’ biodiversity understanding. Biodiversity understanding was only the sixth most important variable in significantly predicting knowledge of actions to help protect biodiversity. Moreover, biodiversity understanding was the least important variable of those that were significantly related to self-reported pro-conservation behaviour. Our study indicates that knowledge is a real, but relatively minor, factor in predicting whether members of the public – zoo visitors in this case – will know about specific pro-environment behaviours they can take, let alone whether they will actually undertake such behaviours. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 14
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-02
    Beschreibung: The world is currently not on course to achieve most of the Convention on Biological Diversity's Aichi Targets to address biodiversity loss. One challenge for those implementing actions to achieve them may be the complexity and lack of clarity in the wording of the targets, which also make it difficult to stimulate and quantify progress. Drawing on experience in developing and measuring indicators to assess progress towards targets, we identify four key issues: ambiguity, quantifiability, complexity and redundancy. The magnitude of required commitments under some targets is rendered ambiguous by the use of imprecise terms (e.g. ‘substantially’), while many targets contain poorly defined operational terms (e.g. ‘essential services’). Seventy percent of targets lack quantifiable elements, meaning that there is no clear binary or numeric threshold to be met in order for the target to be achieved. Most targets are excessively complex, containing up to seven different elements, while one-third of them contain redundancies. In combination, these four issues make it difficult to operationalize the targets and to ensure consistent interpretation by signatories. For future policy commitments, we recommend the adoption of a smaller number of more focused headline targets (alongside subsidiary targets) that are specific, quantified, simple, succinct, and unambiguous. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 15
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-02
    Beschreibung: Community Forest Management (CFM) devolves forest management to local communities to achieve conservation and human well-being goals. Yet, the evidence for CFM's impacts is mixed and difficult to interpret because of inadequate attention to rival explanations for the observed empirical patterns. In a national-scale analysis in Madagascar that carefully considers these rival explanations, we estimate CFM impacts on household living standards, as measured by per capita consumption expenditures. The estimated impact is positive, but small and not statistically different from zero. However, we can statistically reject substantial negative impacts (which others have suggested may exist). The estimated impacts vary conditional on household education and proximity to forests: they are more positive and statistically significant for households closer to forest and with more education. To help improve CFM design, scholars and practitioners should anticipate heterogeneity in CFM impacts and work to better characterize them, theoretically and empirically.
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  • 16
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-05
    Beschreibung: Identifying species at risk of extinction is essential for effective conservation priority-setting in the face of accelerating biodiversity loss. However, the levels of risk that lead to endangered or threatened listing decisions under the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) are not well defined. We used a Bayesian population modeling approach to estimate levels of risk consistently for 14 marine species previously assessed under the ESA. For each species, we assessed the risks of declining below various abundance thresholds over various time horizons. We found that high risks of declining below 250 mature individuals within five generations matched well with ESA endangered status, while number of populations was useful for distinguishing between threatened and “not warranted” species. The risk assessment framework developed here could enable more consistent, predictable, and transparent ESA status assessments in the future.
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  • 17
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-17
    Beschreibung: Many metrics can be used to capture trends in biodiversity, and in turn these metrics inform biodiversity indicators. Sampling biases, genuine differences between metrics, or both, can often cause indicators to appear to be in conflict. This lack of congruence confuses policy makers and the general public, hindering effective responses to the biodiversity crisis. We show how different and seemingly incongruous metrics of biodiversity can in fact emerge from the same scenario of biodiversity change. We develop a simple, evidence-based narrative of biodiversity change and implement it in a simulation model. The model demonstrates how, for example, species richness can remain stable in a given landscape whereas other measures (e.g., compositional similarity) can be in sharp decline. We suggest that linking biodiversity metrics in a simple model will support more robust indicator development, enable stronger predictions of biodiversity change, and provide policy-relevant advice at a range of scales. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 18
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-17
    Beschreibung: Past shortfalls to meet global biodiversity targets have simultaneously prompted questions about the relevance of global environmental conventions, and sparked renewed ambition, for example in the form of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. While progress towards the Aichi Targets through the Convention on Biological Diversity is well-documented globally, less is known at the national level. We conducted a systematic content analysis of 154 documents to assess the nature and extent of national implementation of the Aichi Targets using Canada as a case study. Results indicate that most responses are aspirational, with only 28% of responses implemented. Implemented responses tend to be associated with targets with specified levels of ambition that emphasize biophysical values, or targets that are relatively straightforward to achieve in this context (e.g. knowledge capacity and awareness). In contrast, targets focused on equity, rights or policy reform were associated with fewer actions. Implementation of this latter class of targets is arguably stalled not solely because of a lack of effective target design, but because of lack of fit within existing institutional commitments. This suggests that solutions –in terms of improving implementation—lie not only in overcoming known dilemmas of quantifiability, but also in fostering institutional transformation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 19
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-20
    Beschreibung: Small-scale fisheries provide an essential source of food and employment for coastal communities, yet the availability of detailed information on the spatiotemporal distribution of fishing effort to support resource management at a country level is scarce. Here, using a national-scale study in the Republic of Congo, we engaged with fishers from 23 of 28 small-scale fisheries landing sites along the coast to demonstrate how combining community engagement and relatively low cost Global Positioning System (GPS) trackers can rapidly provide fine-scale information on: (1) the behavioural dynamics of the fishers and fleets that operate within this sector; and (2) the location, size and attributes of important fishing grounds upon which communities are dependent. This multi-disciplinary approach should be considered within a global context where uncertainty over the behaviour of marine and terrestrial resource-users can lead to management decisions that potentially compromise local livelihoods, conservation, and resource sustainability goals. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 20
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-26
    Beschreibung: Two recent papers (Polak et al. 2015, 2016) explore conservation planning for Australian threatened species and ecosystems, concluding that ‘to meet 100% of all species and ecosystem targets requires 24.4% of the total land area’. There is risk in such statements that policy-makers will assume that a reserve network of such extent will ensure conservation security for all threatened species, and be adequate to maintain environmental variation. It won't. The value of the conservation outcomes that such analyses deliver is largely contingent on the ecological sense of the targets used. Responding to Polak et al. (2016)’s invitation, that ‘there is a clear need for systematic thinking around targets for species and ecosystem representation’, I note some shortcomings in the targets applied in their analysis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 21
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-02
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 22
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-05
    Beschreibung: The United States and China have committed to enact “nearly complete bans” on the import and export of elephant ivory, including putting in place significant and timely restrictions on the import of ivory as hunting trophies, and taking swift steps to halt their domestic ivory trade. Unlike US, China has to move forward on its commitment to further restrict its domestic commercial trade. This is primarily due to China's existing certificated ivory manufacturers and retailers who own huge legal ivory stockpiles. We propose that the Chinese government use its eco-compensation funds to purchase back all legal ivory from the market. This “de-commodification” could help save the elephant population worldwide. Alternatively, China could enact a domestic ban with a short phase-in period (a similar approach has been adopted by several U.S. States) to allow legal ivory merchants to sell their stockpiles. A hybrid of these two approaches could also be considered. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 23
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-07-05
    Beschreibung: In this paper, we use a new game-based tool to evaluate the immediate and longer-term behavioral change potential of three different payment for environmental services (PES) delivery mechanisms: direct payments for individual performance, direct payments for group performance and insurance. Results from four rural shifting-cultivation dependent communities in Lao PDR suggest that easily understood group-oriented incentives yield the greatest immediate resource-use reduction and experience less free-riding. Group-based incentives may succeed because they motivate participants to communicate about strategies and coordinate their actions and are perceived as fair. No incentive had a lasting effect after it ceased, but neither did any crowd out the participants’ baseline behavior. Temporary reductions in resource dependence may provide a buffer for development of new livelihoods and longer-term change. Games like the one developed here can help policymakers appropriately target environmental incentive programs to local contexts and teach program participants how incentive schemes work. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 24
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-11
    Beschreibung: Due to revised phylogenies and newly discovered biogeographic distributions, scientific binomials are being amended continuously. Problematic is that wildlife protection legislation tends not to keep pace with these reappraisals, creating a wide range of legislative loopholes and potentially compromising ability to prosecute illegal wildlife trade (IWT). This serious and growing international problem proves particularly challenging in China because binomials used on China's national legislation have not been up-dated since 1989, alongside the enormous issues of IWT in this mega-diverse nation. Here we focus especially on mammals, because these support lucrative criminal markets and receive the greatest international policing efforts; however all protected taxa are vulnerable to this mis-naming ambiguity. To-date, the names of twenty-five threatened species, including eighteen mammals, have become incongruent with Chinese law. Additionally, two primate species, newly discovered within China, have not yet been incorporated into Chinese law. A further, six mammalian species are known by different synonyms between Chinese law and CITES, hindering international policing and compilation of data on IWT. Taxonomic revisions similarly undermine legislation in other mega-diverse countries; posing a critical risk to wildlife protection worldwide. We recommend that scientific binomials must be updated systematically across all 181 CITES signatory nations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 25
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-12
    Beschreibung: Maximizing the area under biodiversity-related conservation measures is a main target of the European Union (EU) Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. We analyzed whether agri-environmental schemes (AES) within EU common agricultural policy (CAP), special protected areas for birds (SPAs) and Annex I designation within EU Birds Directive had an effect on bird population changes using monitoring data from 39 farmland bird species from 1981 to 2012 at EU scale. Populations of resident and short-distance migrants were larger with increasing SPAs and AES coverage, while Annex I species had higher population growth rates with increasing SPAs, indicating that SPAs may contribute to the protection of mainly target species and species spending most of their life cycle in the EU. Because farmland birds are in decline, and the negative relationship of agricultural intensification with their population growth rates was evident during the implementation of AES and SPAs, EU policies seem to generally attenuate the declines of farmland bird populations, but not to reverse them. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 26
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-16
    Beschreibung: Community-based rangeland management (CBRM) has been promoted as a promising option for achieving both rangeland conservation and community well-being. However, research on its effectiveness is limited, and the reported outcomes are mixed, especially with regard to socioeconomic outcomes. We measured social outcomes of CBRM in Mongolia by comparing 77 formally organized pastoral groups with 65 traditional herder neighborhoods across four ecological zones. We used household surveys, focus groups, and interviews to measure livelihoods, social capital, and management behavior. Members of CBRM groups were significantly more proactive in addressing resource management issues and used more traditional and innovative rangeland management practices than non-CBRM herders. However, the group types did not differ in social capital or on most livelihood measures. Our results demonstrate that formal CBRM is strongly associated with herder behavior, but calls for consideration of how to reach livelihood outcomes, a key incentive for community-based conservation.
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  • 27
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    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-16
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  • 28
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-16
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  • 29
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-01
    Beschreibung: Growing demand for palm oil is driving its expansion into the African tropics, potentially leading to significant carbon emissions if tropical forest is converted to palm monoculture. In this first study of a Central African oil palm concession (31,800 ha), we predict the conversion of 11,500 ha of logged forest to a palm plantation in Gabon will release 1.50 Tg C (95% CI = [1.29, 1.76]). These emissions could be nearly offset over 25 years through sequestration in planned forest set-asides given a 2.6:1 ratio of logged to converted forest. Using an agricultural suitability model, we find that careful national land-use planning could largely avoid high carbon emissions while meeting goals for palm oil production. We recommend that Gabon adopts a national carbon threshold for land conversion and requires concession-level set-aside ratios that meet no-net emissions criteria as mechanisms for steering plantations away from high carbon forests. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 30
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-07
    Beschreibung: Australia's northern savannas are one of the few remaining large and mostly intact natural areas on Earth. However, their biodiversity and ecosystem values could be threatened if proposed agricultural development proceeds. Through land-use change scenarios, we explored trade-offs and synergies among biodiversity conservation, carbon farming and agriculture production in northern Australia. We found that if all suitable soils were converted to agriculture, habitat at unique recorded locations of three species would disappear and 40 species and vegetation communities could lose more than 50% of their current distributions. Yet, strategically considering agriculture and biodiversity outcomes leads to zoning options that could yield 〉56,000 km 2 of agricultural development with a significantly lower impact on biodiversity values and carbon farming. Our analysis provides a template for policy-makers and planners to identify areas of conflict between competing land-uses, places to protect in advance of impacts, and planning options that balance agricultural and conservation needs.
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  • 31
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-02
    Beschreibung: Balancing the representation of ecosystems and threatened species habitats is critical for optimizing protected area (PA) networks and achieving the Convention on Biological Diversity strategic goals. Here we provide a systematic approach for maximizing representativeness of ecosystems and threatened species within a constrained total PA network size, using Australia as a case study. We show that protection of 24.4% of Australia is needed to achieve 17% representation for each ecosystem and all threatened species habitat targets. When the size of the PA estate is constrained, trade-off curves between ecosystem and species targets are J-shaped, indicating potential “win-win” configurations. For example, optimally increasing the current PA network to 17% could protect 9% of each ecosystem and ensure that all threatened species achieve at least 78% of their targets. This method of integrating species and ecosystem targets in PA planning allows nations to maximize different PA goals under financial and geographical constraints. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 32
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-02
    Beschreibung: The global wildlife trade is a growing threat to biodiversity, species conservation and animal welfare. A major driver is consumer demand for exotic pets, and there have been calls for information campaigns to combat this. We created a novel, online survey to assess whether such campaigns could be effective. Our website ‘matched’ individuals with an exotic pet, and asked them to rate how likely they were to purchase one. We manipulated the information shown about each pet, giving either a ‘control’ statement, describing the species’ diet, or one of four types of ‘treatment’ statement describing zoonotic disease, animal welfare, legal or species conservation consequences. Respondents shown disease or legality information had a 39% reduced probability of selecting higher purchase likelihoods. Information on welfare and conservation impacts did not significantly lower purchase likelihoods. Information campaigns may reduce demand for exotic pets, particularly if focused on zoonotic disease and legal consequences. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 33
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-02
    Beschreibung: Augmentations are used frequently to restore populations of conservation concern. Carnivores, in particular, are often targeted for augmentations, yet quantitative assessments of these efforts are rare. In Wisconsin, USA, American martens were reintroduced and subsequently augmented, yet remain state endangered. To evaluate this restoration effort, we sampled martens before and after augmentation, used genetic mark-recapture and parentage analyses to quantify stage-specific vital rates for each step of the augmentation, and assessed demographic viability with and without augmentation. Surprisingly, augmentation provided minimal genetic and demographic contributions, and persistence was instead driven by intrinsic population attributes such as recruitment. Our findings question augmentation as a primary restoration strategy for carnivores, and we urge conservation practitioners to focus on identifying and enhancing limiting population processes such as immigration and juvenile survival prior to using costly and controversial measures like augmentation.
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  • 34
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-06-17
    Beschreibung: The research and policy landscape for biodiversity conservation is changing. Protected areas are now expected to meet a broad range of objectives including effective and equitable management. In this new landscape, organizations strive to find ways to ensure the rights of local and indigenous peoples are respected while conservation scientists have endorsed the need for platforms for international research and practice. For 40 years, a growing international network of sites support such research and practice, yet, it has been underutilized and largely ignored by scientists and decision-makers alike. To better understand this paradox, this paper explores the evolution of the World Network of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves internationally and its application in Canada. Analysis of archived materials, a national survey of practitioners, and interviews with past and present members of Canada's national committee reveals an expanded mandate for biosphere reserves beyond conservation science and biodiversity protection. The paper recommends that to support the expanded conservation agenda, biosphere reserves work with governments and conservation scientists to connect more effectively with global concerns and initiatives such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Development Goals; establish appropriate, reliable and active transdisciplinary partnerships; and meaningfully engage a broader range of knowledge holders. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 35
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-26
    Beschreibung: According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, by 2020 invasive alien species (IAS) should be identified and their impacts assessed, so that species can be prioritised for implementation of appropriate control strategies and measures put in place to manage invasion pathways. For one quarter of the IAS listed as the “100 of the world's worst”, environmental impacts are linked to diseases of wildlife, undomesticated plants and animals. Moreover, IAS are a significant source of ‘pathogen pollution’ defined as the human-mediated introduction, often unintentional, of a pathogen to a new host or region. Despite this, little is known about the biology of alien pathogens and their biodiversity impacts after introduction into new regions. We argue that the threats posed by alien pathogens to endangered species, ecosystems, and ecosystem services should receive greater attention through legislation, policy and management. We identify ten key areas for research and action, including those relevant to the processes of introduction and establishment of an alien pathogen and to prediction of the spread and associated impact of an alien pathogen on native biota and ecosystems. The development of interdisciplinary capacity, expertise and coordination to identify and manage threats was seen as critical to address knowledge gaps. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 36
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-27
    Beschreibung: With many conservation issues requiring urgent action, determining how much data are needed to inform good decisions is a common problem. We examine this problem in relation to the protection of critical habitat, the habitat required for species’ recovery and persistence. The protection of critical habitat is an essential step in the threatened species recovery process. It is also one of the most contentious and protracted decisions faced by environmental agencies. Uncertainty about what constitutes critical habitat, and the challenges of balancing competing societal objectives and of protecting critical habitat once identified are stalling the recovery process. We offer insight into this challenge by investigating how long we can afford to spend identifying critical habitat before opportunities to recover a species are lost. We illustrate our decision model using Canada's threatened northern abalone ( Haliotis kamtschatkana ). Our method delivers the stopping time at which habitat protection must begin, despite uncertainty, in order to avoid an unacceptable risk of extinction. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 37
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-01-23
    Beschreibung: Trend indicators are the primary approach used for reporting on biodiversity worldwide, but often poorly inform conservation policy and management. Here we show how the field of systematic conservation planning offers approaches for biodiversity reporting to foster better adaptation and accountability by estimating the difference made by conservation interventions; identifying how changes in biodiversity contribute to conservation goals, accounting for unequal and complementary contributions; and evaluating cost-effectiveness of interventions. By recognising that biodiversity reporting and conservation prioritisation must inform each other as an adaptive process, we show how they share data needs and methodologies, including distributions and abundances of features and pressures, predictions of future changes in features under different pressures, distributions of different interventions and their associated costs, and stepwise models aggregating contributions to an overall goal. Incorporating prioritisation-based approaches into biodiversity reporting will enable more robust conservation decisions than would be possible based on simple trend indicators. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 38
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-01-23
    Beschreibung: Community-based conservation (CBC) seeks to align various ecological, economic, and social goals. While a number of comparative analyses have examined the factors associated with successful outcomes in each of these domains, far fewer studies have explored joint success across domains. Understanding when and how CBC improves multiple outcomes can generate more sustainable and socially acceptable policies and programs. Here, I use a comparative database of 136 CBC projects identified from a systematic literature review to assess which aspects of national socio-economic and political context, community-characteristics, and project design features are associated with win-win outcomes. Using multivariate logistic regressions within a multi-level analysis and model-fitting framework, I show that capacity building, local participation, environmental education, and project age contribute to win-win outcomes. These results hold across various national and local contexts and resource domains and suggest that general project design features can contribute to joint success in CBC projects. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 39
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-01-29
    Beschreibung: Though the conservation community has long premised its moral foundations on consequentialist thinking, and has embraced a dualistic worldview severing reason from emotion, the conservation community has erred by failing to address – or even acknowledge – the limitations of these fundamental tenets. This failure reemerged in 2015 when a wealthy hunter killed an African Lion named Cecil for a trophy, in turn prompting a debate within the conservation community about the appropriateness of killing Cecil. A number of conservationists 1) defended such instances of trophy hunting on the basis that money generated by trophy hunting can support conservation, and 2) ridiculed as irrational those who oppose such instances of killing in the name of conservation. We suggest this response by the conservation community represents common, but problematic, ethical reasoning. We offer a critique of both the ethical underpinning of such reasoning and the assumptions about the relationship between reason and emotion. We urge ethical and social psychological maturation on behalf of the conservation community. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 40
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-01-23
    Beschreibung: Groupers are highly susceptible to human-induced impacts, making them one of the most threatened fish families globally. Extinction risk assessments are important in endangered species management, however the most comprehensive—the IUCN Red List—cannot classify approximately one third of grouper species due to data deficiency. We used an ordinal analytical approach to model relationships between species-level traits and extinction risk categories. We found that larger species and those with shallower maximum depths and smaller geographic ranges had higher extinction risk. Using our best fitting model, we classified Data Deficient grouper species into IUCN's extinction risk categories based on traits. Most of these species were predicted to be of least concern. However, twelve percent were predicted to be endangered or vulnerable, suggesting that they may be of conservation interest. Importantly, we provide a quantitative method for overcoming Data gaps that can be applied to conservation of other species. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 41
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-03
    Beschreibung: Conservation on private land is a growing part of international efforts to stem the decline of biodiversity. In many countries, private land conservation policy often supports in-perpetuity covenants and easements, which are legally binding agreements used to protect biodiversity on private land by restricting activities that may negatively impact ecological values. With a view to understand the long-term security of these mechanisms, we examined release and breach data from all 13 major covenanting programs across Australia. We report that out of 6,818 multi-party covenants, only 8 had been released, contrasting with approximately 130 of 673 single-party covenants. Breach data was limited, with a minimum of 71 known cases where covenant obligations had not been met. With a focus on private land conservation policy, we use the results from this case study to argue that multi-party covenants appear an enduring conservation mechanism, highlight the important role that effective monitoring and reporting of the permanency of these agreements plays in contributing to their long-term effectiveness, and provide recommendations for organizations seeking to improve their monitoring programs. The collection of breach and release data is important for the continuing improvement of conservation policies and practices for private land. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 42
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-03
    Beschreibung: Private land conservation mechanisms are critical components employed by policy makers and conservation professionals to support the stewardship and protection of vital ecosystem services. While most research on voluntary conservation programs focuses on motives and barriers to participation, little is known about landowner activities and ecological status once property is enrolled in programs. Our mailed survey to landowners with property enrolled in the Indiana Classified Forest and Wildlands Program in U.S.A. revealed that 1) environmental motives, 2) residential motives like family life, and 3) having more land enrolled in the program were strong predictors of individuals who implemented conservation actions such as removal of invasive species and control of erosion. We also found that landowners witnessing environmental improvements on their land reported more conservation actions than those perceiving unchanged environmental conditions. A better understanding of landowner perceptions and conservation outcomes can help policy makers improve private land conservation programs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 43
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-03
    Beschreibung: Human reactions to conservation interventions can trigger unintended feedbacks resulting in poor conservation outcomes. Understanding unintended feedbacks is a necessary first step towards the diagnosis and solution of environmental problems, but existing anecdotal evidence cannot support decision-making. Using conservation examples, we present a conceptual framework and typology of unintended feedbacks based on a social-ecological systems (SES) approach. Three types of causal mechanisms for unintended feedbacks are distinguished: (1) flow unintended feedbacks when pre-existing feedbacks are enhanced or dampened; (2) deletion unintended feedbacks ; and (3) addition unintended feedbacks when interventions respectively remove or add actors or links to the SES structure. Application of this typology can improve conservation outcomes by enabling the inclusion of complex relationships into planning and evaluation. We show how widely used tools for conservation planning could produce misleading recommendations, and discuss future work to mitigate the effect of unintended feedbacks in conservation practice. There is an urgent need to collect evidence in a structured way in order to understand the mechanisms by which human decision-making feeds through to conservation outcomes at different scales, thereby minimizing negative unintended feedbacks. The framework presented in this paper can support the development of this evidence-base. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 44
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-03
    Beschreibung: Decision makers and land managers are increasingly required to manage landscapes for multiple purposes and benefits. However, despite progress in the development of frameworks linking natural capital to the provision of ecosystem services and human benefits there remains little guidance for how management interventions can improve ecosystem service provision. As ecosystem services cannot be directly influenced, interventions need to be directed towards natural capital stocks. We provide a framework that explicitly links natural capital stocks to ecosystem service provision and identify manageable attributes of natural capital stocks as the critical intervention point. A structured decision making process based on our framing of the ecosystem services concept can facilitate its application on the ground. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 45
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-02-25
    Beschreibung: Unconventional shale gas activity has presented both challenges and opportunities for conservation. The unique nature of horizontal drilling used in shale exploration allows for a reduction in the footprint of shale related activity in the landscape. However, existing policies regulating shale activity across the Northeast, particularly in Pennsylvania, largely miss an opportunity to encourage such consolidation, which would result in substantial ecosystem conservation. Using satellite land cover data for the years 2006 and 2011 combined with data on shale drilling activity in Pennsylvania, we show that a consolidation of wells to under-utilized well pads would have resulted in a forest conservation gain of over 112,838 acres between 2006 and 2015. While likely an overestimate, this suggests that small changes in policy such as moving towards a quantity based market mechanism to regulate the number of well pads would result in substantial conservation gains. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 46
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    Wiley
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-02-24
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  • 47
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-03
    Beschreibung: Rises in sea level can alter the distribution of coastal wetlands through migration landward and loss due to inundation. The expansion of coastal developments can prevent potential wetland migration, exacerbating loss as sea levels rise. Pre-emptive planning to set aside key coastal areas for wetland migration is therefore critical for the long term preservation of species habitat and ecosystem services, yet we have little understanding of the economic costs and benefits of doing so. Using data and simulations from Queensland, Australia, we show that the opportunity cost of preserving wetlands is likely to be much higher under sea level rise than under current sea levels. However, we find that payments for ecosystem services can alleviate these costs, and in many cases may make expanding the reserve network profitable in the long run. This highlights the need to develop markets and payment mechanisms for ecosystem services to support climate change adaptation policies for coastal wetlands. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 48
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-14
    Beschreibung: Through a review of published studies and new analyses of publicly available data, we assess how the European Union (EU) Nature Directives complements the CBD strategic goals for 2020 as set out in the twenty Aichi Targets, thereby addressing a question posed by the European Commission about the coherence of the Directives with other international biodiversity commitments. We find evidence that the Directives complement several Aichi Targets and other Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). For example, 92% of the EU's Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), many of them otherwise unprotected, are partly or wholly covered by the Natura 2000 network of protected areas (contributing to Aichi Target 11). Species listed on Annex I of the Birds Directive have fared better than other species (Aichi Target 12). As 65% of EU citizens live within 5 km of a Natura 2000 site, and 98% within 20 km, these sites have the potential to raise awareness of biodiversity (Aichi Target 1) and to deliver ecosystem services to a high proportion of the EU's population (Aichi Target 14). The Nature Directives provide a regulatory framework that, with fuller implementation, will help EU Member States to meet their obligations under the CBD and other MEAs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 49
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-17
    Beschreibung: Experimental demonstration of direct exploitative competition between foraging honey bees and native bees in wildlands has proven elusive, due to problems of experimental design, scale, and context-dependence. We propose a different approach that translates floral resources collected by a honey bee colony into progeny equivalents of an average solitary bee. Such a metric is needed by public land managers confronting migratory beekeeper demands for insecticide-free, convenient, resource-rich habitats for summering. We calculate that, from June-August, a strong colony gathers as much pollen as could produce 100,000 progeny of an average solitary bee. Analogous to the animal unit month (AUM) for livestock, a hive unit month (HUM) is therefore 33,000 native bee progeny. By this calculation, a 40-hive apiary residing on wildlands for three months collects the pollen equivalent of four million wild bees. We introduce a rapid assessment metric to gauge stocking of honey bees, and briefly highlight alternative strategies to provide quality pasture for honey bees with minimal impact on native bees. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 50
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-17
    Beschreibung: The pathways by which alien species are introduced to new regions fall into six broad classes: deliberate release ; escape from captivity; contaminant of a commodity; stowaway on a transport vector; via an infrastructure corridor (without which spread would not be possible) or unaided from other invaded regions (Hulme et al. 2008). However, Gilroy et al. (2016) argue that species dispersing naturally, through the infrastructure corridor or unaided pathway, should be classed as native rather than alien. We contend their proposal is not only unworkable but also unwise. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 51
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-17
    Beschreibung: Native pollinators and, particularly bees, are a critical component of agricultural systems. Unfortunately, many factors are leading to their declines, including habitat loss. Consequently, approaches have emerged that aim to restore pollinator habitat in managed landscapes. A widely-adopted technique in Europe and North America is the planting of flowering shrubs and forbs along field edges. These habitats usually include a variety of species, chosen because they are attractive to pollinators and because they flower continuously over those pollinators' flight seasons. Because there are many potential plant species with different flowering times and pollinator preferences, selecting a subset is challenging. Here we develop a tool that identifies a plant mix that optimizes some assessment criteria (e.g., pollinator visitation, richness, or phenology). We test our tool by showing that it identifies mixes that better satisfy these criteria than ones found using conventional expert-driven methods, when applied to a plant-pollinator data-set. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 52
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    Publikationsdatum: 2016-04-27
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  • 53
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-12
    Beschreibung: Tropical forests are crucial in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem services, but at the same time, they are major sources of revenue and provide livelihoods for forest-dependent people. Hopes for the simultaneous achievement of conservation goals and poverty alleviation are therefore increasingly placed on forests used for timber extraction. Most timber exploitation is carried out unsustainably, which causes forest degradation. Two important mechanisms have emerged to promote sustainable forest management: certification and community-based forest management (CFM). We synthesize the published information about how forest certification and CFM perform in terms of environmental, social, and economic variables. With the caveat that very few published studies meet the standards for formal impact evaluation, we found that certification has substantial environmental benefits, typically achieved at a cost of reduced short-term financial profit, and accompanied by some improvement to the welfare of neighboring communities. We found that the economic and environmental benefits of CFM are understudied, but that the social impacts are controversial, with both positive and negative changes reported. We identify the trade-offs that likely caused these conflicting results and that, if addressed, would help both CFM and certification deliver the hoped-for benefits. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 54
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-11
    Beschreibung: Decision-makers often rely on expert knowledge, especially in complex and data-poor social-ecological systems (SESs). However, expert knowledge and perceptions of SES structure and function vary; therefore, understanding how these perceptions differ is critical to building knowledge and developing sustainability solutions. Here, we quantify how scientific, local, and traditional knowledge experts vary in their perceptions of food webs centered on Pacific herring—a valuable ecological, economic, and cultural resource in Haida Gwaii, BC, Canada. Expert perceptions of the herring food web varied markedly in structure, and a simulated herring recovery with each of these unique mental models demonstrated wide variability in the perceived importance of herring to the surrounding food web. Using this general approach to determine the logical consequences of expert perceptions of SES structure in the context of potential future management actions, decision-makers can work explicitly toward filling knowledge gaps while embracing a diversity of perspectives. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 55
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-22
    Beschreibung: The EU has made significant conservation efforts in the last two decades, guided by the Birds and Habitats Directives, currently under evaluation. Despite these efforts a large proportion of priority species are still in unfavourable condition and continue declining. For this reason, a thoughtful review of the implementation of conservation efforts in Europe is needed to identify potential causes behind this poor effectiveness. We compiled information on the distribution of all conservation funds under the LIFE-Nature, the main financial tool for conservation in Europe. We found that LIFE-Nature has not adequately covered continental conservation needs. The majority of funds have been directed towards non-threatened species or regions of low conservation priority. Given the limited resources available, two key aspects are in urgent need for revision and improvement. Firstly, the distribution of funds should be guided by continental and global conservation needs and planned at the EU scale. Secondly, new mechanisms are required to set conservation priorities in a dynamic fashion, rather than relying on fixed lists (i.e. the Directives’ Annexes) that may rapidly become outdated. These improvements would require new mechanisms to set priorities and redistribution of conservation efforts, supported by adequate policy and a more effective top-down control on investment. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 56
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-22
    Beschreibung: The UN's globally adopted Convention on Biological Diversity coverage target for marine protected areas (MPAs) is ≥10% by 2020. In 2014 the World Parks Congress recommended increasing this to ≥30%. We reviewed 144 studies to assess whether the UN target is adequate to achieve, maximise or optimise six environmental and/or socio-economic objectives. Results consistently indicate that protecting several tens-of-percent of the sea is required to meet goals (average 37%, median 35%, modal group 21–30%), greatly exceeding the 2.18% currently protected and the 10% target. The objectives we examined were met in 3% of studies with ≤10% MPA coverage, 44% with ≤30% coverage and 81% with more than half the sea protected. The UN's 10% target appears insufficient to protect biodiversity, preserve ecosystem services and achieve socio-economic priorities. As MPA coverages generated from theoretical studies inherently depend on scenario(s) considered, our findings do not represent explicit recommendations but rather provide perspective on policy goals. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 57
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-03-15
    Beschreibung: The management of harmful non-native species is a priority for governments worldwide. However, confusion concerning what constitutes a ‘native’ species has led to ambiguous or even contradictory wording in adopted legislation. A key issue concerns the treatment of species dispersing beyond their normal ranges in response to global change. Range-expanding species can have negative impacts on the ecosystems they colonize, prompting some authorities to class them as ‘non-natives’. However, range-shifts are becoming increasingly necessary for species persistence in response to climate and habitat change. Distinguishing these ‘desirable’ range-shifts from other human-driven introductions is therefore a core requirement of legislation. Here, we propose a simplified framework that can be applied unambiguously across the policy arena. We suggest that the ‘non-native’ moniker should apply exclusively to species transported outside their native range by direct transport (defined herein), leaving species moving via unassisted dispersal as ‘natives’, even if they are responding indirectly to anthropogenic change. We believe that widespread adoption of this simplified approach will facilitate more consistent multinational policies to target problematic invasive species. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 58
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-03
    Beschreibung: Effective conservation requires value judgements as well as science (Dickman et al. 2015). The furore over the killing of ‘Cecil’ the lion highlighted the complexities of such judgements. It demonstrated that some people view trophy hunting as morally wrong, and revealed public ignorance that it is a legal, widespread component of African wildlife management, protecting more land than National Parks (Di Minin et al. 2016). Open toleration of trophy hunting by conservationists on these grounds provoked further outrage. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 59
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-14
    Beschreibung: Biodiversity impact assessments under threatened species legislation often focus on individual development proposals at a single location, usually for a single species, leading to inadequate assessments of multiple impacts that accumulate over large spatial scales for multiple species. Regulations requiring ad-hoc assessments can lead to ‘death by a thousand cuts’, where biodiversity is degraded by many small impacts that individually do not appear to threaten species’ persistence. Spatial prioritization methods can improve the efficiency of decision-making by explicitly considering cumulative impacts of multiple proposed developments on multiple species over large spatial scales. We present an assessment approach and a unique case study in spatial prioritization tools were used to support strategic assessment of a large development plan in Western Australia. The application of the approach helped identify relatively minor alterations to development plans that resulted in significant reductions in predicted biodiversity impacts and directly influenced a proposal to expand the protected area network. Using these tools to assess tradeoffs between conservation and development will help identify planning footprints that minimize biodiversity losses. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 60
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-20
    Beschreibung: A key premise underlying discussions about deforestation in Amazonian Peru is that small-scale or so-called migratory agriculture is the main driver of deforestation. This premise has been expressed in government documents and public outreach events. How Peru understands drivers of deforestation in the Amazon has critical implications for how it will confront the problem. It is therefore important to critically revisit assumptions underlying this narrative. We find that the narrative is based on remote sensing of deforestation patch sizes but not on field data, potentially conflating distinct drivers of deforestation under the umbrella of “migratory,” “small-scale,” or “subsistence” agriculture. In fact, small patches of deforested land may indicate any number of processes, including sustainable fallow management and agroforestry. Moreover, the data underlying the narrative tells us little about the actors driving these processes or their motivations. Different processes have distinct implications for environmental sustainability and require targeted policy responses. We unpack these diverse actors, geographies, and motivations of small-patch deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon and argue that differentiating among these drivers is necessary to develop appropriate policy responses. We call for renewed study to revisit assumptions and critically assess the motivations of observed deforestation to appropriately target policy action. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 61
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-11
    Beschreibung: Behavioral sciences can advance conservation by systematically identifying behavioral barriers to conservation and how to best overcome them. Behavioral sciences have informed policy in many other realms (e.g., health, savings), but they are a largely untapped resource for conservation. We propose a set of guiding questions for applying behavioral insights to conservation policy. These questions help define the conservation problem as a behavior change problem, understand behavioral mechanisms and identify appropriate approaches for behavior change (awareness, incentives, nudges), and evaluate and adapt approaches based on new behavioral insights. We provide a foundation for the questions by synthesizing a wide range of behavior change models and evidence related to littering, water and energy conservation, and land management. We also discuss the methodology and data needed to answer these questions. We illustrate how these questions have been answered in practice to inform efforts to promote conservation for climate risk reduction. Although more comprehensive research programs to answer these questions are needed, some insights are emerging. Integrating two or more behavior change approaches that target multiple, context-dependent factors may be most successful; however, caution must be taken to avoid approaches that could undermine one another (e.g., economic incentives crowding out intrinsic incentives). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 62
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-05-11
    Beschreibung: Rising rates of extinction create an urgent need to identify the mechanisms and drivers of endangerment. One critical question is whether major phylogenetic lineages are equally at risk to the same threats. We used the IUCN Red List classification to explore the effect of four major threatening processes (habitat alteration, invasive species, climate change and overexploitation) on 7,441 species in four terrestrial vertebrate Classes. As expected, species rated as vulnerable to a higher number of threats were also at greater risk of extinction. However, this pattern differed strongly among Classes. Notably, invasive species and climate change were strongly associated with increased risk of extinction in birds but not mammals. These large-scale differences might be artefacts of differing methodologies used by Class specialists to classify species vulnerability; or might reflect biological differences. That ambiguity needs to be resolved, because it has strong implications for the assessment and amelioration of threatening processes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 63
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-04-14
    Beschreibung: Understanding social-ecological systems (SES) is critical for effective sustainability and biodiversity conservation initiatives. We systematically reviewed SES research to examine whether and how it integrates ecological and social domains and generates decision-relevant recommendations. We aim to inform SES research methods and improve the relevance of SES research. Of 120 SES papers, two-thirds included an ecological variable while all but one included a social variable. Biodiversity was a less common ecological variable than resource productivity, land cover, and abiotic measures. We found six diverse social-ecological linking methods: modeling (9%), causal loop diagrams (18%), quantitative correlations (8%), separate quantitative measures (13%), indicators (14%), and rich description (37%). Policy recommendations addressing social-ecological dynamics were more likely in papers including both ecological and social variables, suggesting the importance of research approach for policy and practice application. Further integration of ecology and biodiversity is needed to support governance, policy, and management for SES sustainability. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 64
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-04-15
    Beschreibung: Invasive mammalian predators are major drivers of species extinctions globally. To protect native prey, lethal control is often used with the aim of reducing or exterminating invasive predator populations. The efficacy of this practice however is often not considered despite multiple practical and ecological factors that can limit success. Here, we summarise contemporary knowledge regarding the use and challenges of lethal control and alternative approaches for reducing invasive predator impacts. As the prevailing management approach, we outline four key issues that can compromise the effectiveness of lethal control: release of herbivore and mesopredator populations; disruption of predator social systems; compensatory predator immigration; and ethical concerns. We then discuss the relative merits and limitations of four alternative approaches that may enhance conservation practitioner's ability to effectively manage invasive predators: top-predator conservation or reintroduction; maintaining habitat complexity; exclusion fencing; and behavioural and evolutionary ecology. Considerable uncertainty remains regarding the effectiveness of management approaches in different environmental contexts. We propose that the deficiencies and uncertainties outlined here can be addressed through a combination of adaptive management, expert elicitation, and cost-benefit analyses. Improved management of invasive predators requires greater consideration and assessment of the full range of management approaches available. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 65
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    Publikationsdatum: 2016-02-10
    Beschreibung: Is using economics to value nature inherently unethical? From our perspective as policy scholars, economic methods are valuable if not essential tools of conservation. So it both perplexes and concerns us that this question continues to be debated in the conservation literature (see Spash 2015 for a recent example). Opponents of economic valuation have made broad critiques of capitalism, claimed that neoclassical economics has failed to value nature, and attacked organizations that consider economic values of ecosystem services. Many have presented a caricature of economics that has divided and stifled any opportunities for meaningful debate about the merits and limits of economic valuation of nature. But the language of modern economics does not require such a crude cost-benefit approach. Economic methods show the value of conserving nature beyond purely moral arguments without canceling them out. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 66
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-02-17
    Beschreibung: Determining how to cost-effectively allocate resources for managing invasive species is a notoriously difficult problem. Invasive species control problems are always spatiotemporal, but much of the current theory about control strategies is either spatial or temporal. This paper uses a deterministic spatiotemporal model of invasive species dynamics and identifies the optimal management strategy across a range of situations. The optimal solution points a principle of targeting the source of the population, which in many cases is the region of the landscape where the invader is most abundant. The analysis presented here is the first capable of solving for optimal strategies for invasive species over large and irregular environments. Thus, it is an important step forward for both the understanding of control strategies and the application to management scenarios. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 67
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-17
    Beschreibung: Shoreline armoring can impact a variety of ecosystem functions, goods and services provided by beaches. Shoreline managers struggle to balance genuine need for armoring to protect infrastructure versus unacceptable losses of ecosystem functions––whether these be in beaches, sand dunes, or marshes. We use our recent research effort in the Salish Sea, Washington, as a case study to illustrate how highlighting the negative consequences of shoreline armoring to publicly important ecosystem functions may help to strengthen implementation of policy and prioritize restoration actions. We focus on two distinct mechanisms of armoring impact that link strongly to key beach functions, and recommend: (1) where armoring is clearly necessary, place or move it as high on the beach as possible. Armoring emplaced relatively low on the shore is more likely to affect a variety of ecosystem functions from forage fish spawning to beach recreation; (2) prioritize protection or restoration (armor removal) of feeder bluffs that are critical for sediment supply to the beach; this sediment is essential to the maintenance of beach functions. In addition, we recommend that nature-based alternatives to armoring be given preferential regulatory consideration and that outreach efforts clarify the advantages of these engineering methods.
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  • 68
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: Voluntary sustainability standards have increased in uptake over the last decade, here we explore their potential contribution to biodiversity conservation and other aspects of agricultural sustainability. We reviewed the content of twelve major crop standards and quantified their global coverage. All standards included some provisions for the protection of biodiversity, but we only identified two with criteria that prohibited all deforestation. We found records of certified cropland in 133 countries, and estimated that certified crop area increased by 11% (range 8.8% -13.5%) per year from 2000 to 2012, but still only covered 1.1% (range 1.0%-1.2%) of global cropland. The crops with the highest levels of certification were heavily-traded commodities: coffee, cocoa, tea and palm oil each had 10% or more of their total global production area certified. Coverage was lower for other crops, including the world's most important staple foods (maize, rice, wheat). Sustainability standards have considerable potential to contribute to conservation, but there is an ongoing need for better evaluation of how effectively they are implemented. We present examples of ways in which governments, companies, financial institutions and civil society can work together to scale up and target certification to places where it can have the greatest positive impact. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 69
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-02
    Beschreibung: Protected areas are a cornerstone strategy for terrestrial and increasingly marine biodiversity conservation, but their use for conserving inland waters has received comparatively scant attention. In 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) included a target of 17% protection for inland waters, yet there has been no meaningful way of measuring progress toward that target. Defining and evaluating ‘protection’ is especially complicated for rivers because their integrity is intimately linked to impacts in their upstream catchments. A new generation of global hydrographic data now enables a high-resolution, standardized assessment of how upland activities may be propagated downstream. Here we develop and apply, globally, a river protection metric that integrates both local and upstream catchment protection. We found that ‘integrated’ river protection is highly variable across geographies and river size classes and in most basins falls short of the 17% CBD target. Around the world about 70% of river reaches (by length) have no protected areas in their upstream catchments, and only 11.1% (by length) achieve full integrated protection. The average level of integrated protection is 13.5% globally, yet the majority of the world's largest basins show averages below 10%. Within basins, gaps are particularly severe for larger rivers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 70
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-02
    Beschreibung: The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) regulates trade in over 35,000 species, over 70% of which are orchids. To investigate rule-breaking behavior among traders and buyers in a specific international wildlife trading community, we used direct questions (DQs) and the unmatched count technique (UCT) to survey the orchid growing community about CITES compliance and their knowledge and opinions of the rules. In DQ, 9.9% had smuggled, 4.8% had laundered, and 10.8% had been sent orchids from online purchases without paperwork; UCT estimates did not differ significantly. Growers with greater knowledge of CITES rules were more likely to break them, and there were widespread negative views of CITES among respondents. We recommend targeted enforcement focusing on both online trade and at the point of import, coupled with efforts to encourage traders and end-consumers to engage with discussions on CITES rule implementation
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  • 71
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-08
    Beschreibung: Biodiversity indicators are widely-used tools to help determine rates of biodiversity change and the success or failure of efforts to conserve it. However, their sufficiency and suitability in providing information for decision-makers is unclear. Here, we review the indicators brought together under the Biodiversity Indicator Partnership to monitor progress towards the Aichi Targets to determine where there are gaps. Of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets, Targets 2, 3 and 15 are missing indicators entirely. Scoring the indicators in relation to their alignment, temporal relevance and spatial scale shows additional gaps under Targets 1, 13 and 16–20. Predominately, gaps were found to be socio-economic in nature (i.e. benefits, pressures and responses) rather than status-related (i.e. states), principally due to a poor alignment between the indicator and the text of the Aichi Target. Hence, it is critical that existing indicators are properly resourced and maintained and new indicators developed to be able to effectively monitor biodiversity and its influencing factors to 2020 and beyond. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 72
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-08
    Beschreibung: The European Habitat Directive encompasses a conservation policy devoted to conserve habitats rather than single species. This ambition has strong ecological justifications, and inspires other initiatives such as the IUCN red list of ecosystems. Evaluating this policy is therefore pivotal to identify and reproduce best practices. However, the habitat aspect of this policy has so far not been systematically assessed. To make up for this lacuna, we take advantage of decision-aiding methodologies to introduce a new normative framework. According to this framework a conservation policy is positively evaluated if it contributes to conservation, is science-based, operational and legitimate. Based on an exploration of the published literature and unpublished reports and databases, we identify knowledge gaps plaguing the European habitat conservation policy. We argue that, due to these knowledge gaps, the contribution of this policy to the conservation of habitats is unproven, it is not science-based, not operational and not legitimate. Our study draws heavily on the French implementation. Analyzing this example, we highlight knowledge gaps that carry lessons for European conservation policies as a whole, but also for conservation initiatives focused on habitats in a broader geographical and political context. We then identify concrete means to strengthen habitats conservation policies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 73
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-22
    Beschreibung: Project prioritisation protocols are an important tool for allocating conservation resources efficiently, and have been applied to a range of species and ecosystems. Current approaches are inadequate when applied to species with distinct threats impacting different and/or multiple life history stages, such as sea turtles. We develop a model that integrates the benefit of any management project on a population by way of its expected population growth rate, including projects targeting different and/or multiple life history stages. To illustrate its utility, we prioritise projects for investment relevant to Australia's eastern population of Flatback turtle ( Natator depressus ). We rely upon expert-elicitation to estimate individual benefit parameters, feasibility, and cost, and calculate the cost-effectiveness of each project. The most cost-effective project was not the most feasible, cheapest, or most beneficial. Our approach will help managers make efficient decisions that account for the full range of threats operating on a population. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 74
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-29
    Beschreibung: Pokémon Go, an augmented reality (AR) smartphone game, replicates many aspects of real-world wildlife watching and natural history by allowing players to find, capture, and collect Pokémon, which are effectively virtual animals. In this paper, we consider how the unprecedented success of Pokémon Go as a smartphone game might create opportunities and challenges for the conservation movement. By encouraging players to go outside and consider various aspects of virtual species’ biology, the game could increase awareness and engagement with real-world nature. However, interacting with Pokémon could alternatively encourage exploitation of wildlife or replace players’ desire to interact with real-world nature. We suggest a number of ways in which Pokémon Go could be adapted to increase its conservation impact, and how new conservation-orientated AR games could be created. We conclude that Pokémon Go sets a precedent for well-implemented AR games from which the conservation movement could borrow a number of ideas. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 75
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-01
    Beschreibung: If efforts to conserve endangered species lack long-term visions and neglect the human dimensions, conservation success will be questionable. Exclusion of stakeholders in decisions can lead to mistrust and polarization of groups. The story of the vaquita marina ( Phocoena sinus ) in the Upper Gulf of California provides a unique opportunity to discuss this paradigm. A proposed gear-switch in the local fisheries addresses the bycatch that threatens the vaquita but neglects local livelihoods, the traditions and heritage of the community, the ecological integrity of the area and increases dependence on fishing subsidies. We estimate it will cost an additional US $8.5 million (2/3 of the net revenue produced by gillnets and 30% more in fuel consumption) if local revenues are to be maintained at pre-gear-switch levels. In addition, suggested new trawl gears caught 2.7 times more unusable (therefore discarded) bycatch than gillnets, which included invertebrates and small juvenile fishes of economically valuable species. Our results show that the proposed gear switch intervention can be considered another “quick-fix” intervention in the history of the vaquita conservation agenda that urgently needs long-term goals that incorporate ecological, economic, and human wellbeing.
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  • 76
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-03
    Beschreibung: Ecosystem restoration requires choosing among potential interventions which differ in cost, and the time required to achieve outcomes of varying quality. Managers have different preferences for timeframes, certainty, and quality of outcomes, which can influence the choice of investment strategy. Here we develop a probabilistic approach to quantify expected restoration outcomes from alternative investment strategies, given operational constraints or alternative preferences. We apply the approach to a tropical forest restoration case study in which managers seek to allocate future resources between active planting and self-organized regrowth. We find that the best strategy depends on the desired forest attributes and the time required for outcomes to be achieved. We quantify the trade-off for three key forest attributes between restoring large areas of vegetation to low quality and restoring smaller areas to a higher quality. Explicit consideration of preferences and trade-offs will enhance the likelihood that projects deliver desired outcomes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 77
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-03
    Beschreibung: Consumers and regulators influence conservation of marine finfish by controlling harvest demand and availability. Consumer power to choose sustainably-harvested species is threatened by seafood mislabeling, which may be a product of fraud or human error. Here we examined the prevalence of mislabeling, and its financial and ecological implications, by compiling and analyzing an international dataset of DNA barcoding studies of marine finfish (n = 43). On average, DNA-identified species sold were less expensive (-2.98% ex-vessel price) and more sustainable (+9.51% IUCN status) than species listed on their label; thus mislabeling had a net positive impact on the conservation status of sold species. However, ecological impacts of some frequently mislabeled taxa were potentially severe, suggesting eco-conscious consumers may want to avoid certain genera. Mislabeling may be reduced by increasing traceability and identification of seafoods, particularly at points in the chain-of-custody beyond ports, where the majority of mislabeling occurred. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 78
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-28
    Beschreibung: The illegal wildlife trade is driving biodiversity declines worldwide, yet its role in transporting alien species with a high likelihood of establishment is seldom considered. We demonstrate the threat posed by the illegal reptile trade in Australia. We modeled the establishment success of alien reptiles in Australia, revealing the importance of both minimum number of release events and the body length of the species. Using our model, we screened 28 alien reptiles illegally traded in Victoria, Australia. Establishment risk varied widely across species, and a whole-pathway analysis revealed that 5 out of the 28 species (17.9%) are likely to become established if released. The global dimension of the illegal wildlife trade calls for a tight transnational collaboration, via multilateral cooperation agreements arranging the share of resources. Complementary to this, we encourage conducting campaigns to raise public awareness about the risk and legal consequences of participating in the wildlife black market.
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  • 79
    facet.materialart.
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    Wiley
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-29
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    Thema: Biologie
    Publiziert von Wiley im Namen von The Society for Conservation Biology.
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  • 80
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-09
    Beschreibung: Under rapid landscape change, there is a significant need to expand and connect protected areas (PAs) to prevent further loss of biodiversity and preserve ecological functions across broad geographies. We used a model of landscape resistance and electronic circuit theory to estimate patterns of ecological flow among existing PAs in the western United States. We applied these results to areas previously identified as having high conservation value to distinguish those best positioned to maintain and enhance ecological connectivity and integrity. We found that current flow centrality was highest and effective resistance lowest in areas that spanned the border between southern Oregon and Idaho, and in northern Arizona and central Utah. Compared to other federal jurisdictions, Bureau of Land Management lands contributed most to ecological connectivity, forming “connective tissue” among existing PAs. Our models and maps can inform new conservation strategies and critical land allocation decisions, within or among jurisdictions.
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 81
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-20
    Beschreibung: Combating the surge of illegal wildlife trade (IWT) devastating wildlife populations is an urgent global priority for conservation. There are increasing policy commitments to take action at the local community level as part of effective responses. However, there is scarce evidence that in practice such interventions are being pursued and there is scant understanding regarding how they can help. Here we set out a conceptual framework to guide efforts to effectively combat IWT through actions at community level. This framework is based on articulating the net costs and benefits involved in supporting conservation vs supporting IWT, and how these incentives are shaped by anti-IWT interventions. Using this framework highlights the limitations of an exclusive focus on "top-down", enforcement-led responses to IWT. These responses can distract from a range of other approaches that shift incentives for local people toward supporting conservation rather than IWT, as well as in some cases actually decrease the net incentives in favour of wildlife conservation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 82
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-08-26
    Beschreibung: Anthropogenic conversion of natural habitats is the greatest threat to biodiversity and one of the primary reasons for establishing protected areas (PAs). Here we show that PA establishment outpaced habitat conversion between 1993 and 2009 across all biomes and the majority (n = 567, 71.4%) of ecoregions globally. However, high historic rates of conversion meant that 447 (56.2%) ecoregions still exhibit a high ratio of conversion to protection, and of these, 127 (15.9%) experienced further increases in this ratio between 1993–2009. We identify 41 ‘crisis ecoregions’ in 45 countries where recent habitat conversion is severe and PA coverage remains extremely low. While the recent growth in PAs is a notable conservation achievement, international conventions and associated finance mechanisms should prioritise areas where habitat is being lost rapidly relative to protection, such as the crisis ecoregions identified here. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 83
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-22
    Beschreibung: Conservation interventions are being implemented at various spatial scales to reduce the impacts of rising global population and affluence on biodiversity and ecosystems. While the direct impacts of these conservation efforts are considered, the unintended consequences brought about by market feedback effects are often overlooked. Perverse market outcomes could result in reduced or even reversed net impacts of conservation efforts. We develop an economic framework to describe how the intended impacts of conservation interventions could be compromised due to unanticipated reactions to regulations in the market: policies aimed at restricting supply could potentially result in leakage effects through external or unregulated markets. Using this framework, we review how various intervention methods could result in negative feedback impacts on biodiversity, including legal restrictions like protected areas, market-based approaches, and agricultural intensification. Finally, we discuss how conservation management and planning can be designed to ensure the risks of perverse market outcomes are detected, if not overcome, and we address some knowledge gaps that affect our understanding of how market feedback varies across spatial and temporal scales, especially with teleconnectedness and increased international trade. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 84
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-30
    Beschreibung: The Convention on Biological Diversity uses six indicators to assess progress toward Aichi Biodiversity Target 14 (ecosystem services), leaving many elements of the target untracked. We identify 13 ecosystem services as directly essential for human well-being, and select a set of 21 datasets as indicators of the state of natural capital underpinning those services, the benefits derived from them, and distribution of access to those benefits. Analysis of these indicators supports previous conclusions that there is no overall progress toward Target 14. Sixty percent of our “benefit” indicators have positive trends, whereas 86% of our “state” indicators show a decline in natural capital. This suggests that well-being is increasing in the near-term despite environmental degradation, and that unsustainable use of natural capital may fuel human development. As regulating services such as “soil fertility” continue to decline, however, it seems unlikely that this trend can continue without future negative impacts on humanity.
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  • 85
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-12-21
    Beschreibung: Despite decades of awareness about the biodiversity crisis, it remains a wicked problem. Besides preservation and restoration strategies, one approach has focused on increasing public concern about biodiversity issues by emphasizing opportunities for people to experience natural environments. In this essay, we endeavor to complicate the understanding of these experiences of nature (EoN). Because EoN are embedded in social and cultural contexts, transformative or new EoN are emerging in combination with societal changes in work, home, and technology. Policies that acknowledge and accept a diversity of culturally-situated EoN, including negative EoN, could help people reconnect with the complexity and dynamics of biodiversity. A new conceptualization of EoN that encompasses diverse experiences and reflects the sociocultural context could help to stimulate a broader transformation in the relationship between society and nature, one that better integrates the two spheres. Such a transformation is necessary to more effectively address the biodiversity crisis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 86
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-12-25
    Beschreibung: Conservation projects increasingly aim to deliver both environmental and social benefits. To monitor the success of these projects, it is important to pick indicators for which there is a reasonable expectation of change as a result of the project, and which resonate with project stakeholders. Results chains are widely used in conservation to describe the hypothesized pathways of causal linkages between conservation interventions and desired outcomes. We illustrate how, with limited additional information, results chains can be turned into fuzzy models of socio-ecological systems, and how these models can be used to explore the predicted social and environmental impacts of conservation actions. These predictions can then be compared with the interests of stakeholders in order to identify good indicators of project success. We illustrate this approach by using it to select indicators for a water fund; an increasingly popular and multi-objective conservation strategy. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 87
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-12-28
    Beschreibung: All pangolin species globally are now listed under Appendix I of CITES due to escalating demand for their meat and scales, often for use in traditional medicine. While China has introduced pangolin trade restrictions, the country continues to represent the largest market and destination for pangolin products. We summarize pangolin seizure data reported in public media from 2008 to 2016, incorporating often neglected small seizures reported in Chinese. During that period, the equivalent of 65,849 pangolin individuals (23,109 individuals and 21,377 kg of scales) were recorded in 206 seizures in China. Using social network analysis, Guangzhou, Fangchenggang and Kunming were identified as key nodes of the illegal pangolin market. Our work highlights the scale and scope of pangolin trade in China, applies novel methods for analyzing trade patterns, and offers guidance for future law enforcement and policy interventions for combatting wildlife trade internationally. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 88
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-10
    Beschreibung: Resource managers often need scientific information to match their decisions (typically short-term and local) to complex, long-term, large-scale challenges such as adaptation to climate change. In such situations, the most reliable route to actionable science is coproduction, whereby managers, policy makers, scientists, and other stakeholders first identify specific decisions to be informed by science, and then jointly define the scope and context of the problem, research questions, methods, and outputs, make scientific inferences, and develop strategies for the appropriate use of science. Here, we present seven recommended practices intended to help scientists, managers, funders and other stakeholders carry out a coproduction project, one recommended practice to ensure that partners learn from attempts at coproduction, and two practices to promote coproduction at a programmatic level. The recommended practices focus research on decisions that need to be made, give priority to processes and outcomes over stand-alone products, and allocate resources to organizations and individuals that engage in coproduction. Although this article focuses on the coproduction of actionable science for climate change adaptation and natural resource management, the approach is relevant to other complex natural-human systems.
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 89
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-10
    Beschreibung: Although most conservation efforts address the direct, local causes of biodiversity loss, effective long-term conservation will require complementary efforts to reduce the upstream economic pressures, such as demands for food and forest products, which ultimately drive these downstream losses. Here, we present a wildlife footprint analysis that links global losses of wild birds to consumer purchases across 57 economic sectors in 129 regions. The United States, India, China, and Brazil have the largest regional wildlife footprints, while per-person footprints are highest in Mongolia, Australia, Botswana, and the United Arab Emirates. A US$100 purchase of bovine meat or rice products occupies approximately 0.1 km 2 of wild bird ranges, displacing 1–2 individual birds, for 1 year. Globally significant importer regions, including Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, and France, have large footprints that drive wildlife losses elsewhere in the world and represent important targets for consumption-focused conservation attention.
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  • 90
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-17
    Beschreibung: To support fishing communities, reserves should ensure the persistence of meta-populations while boosting fisheries yield. However, so far their design from the onset has rarely considered both objectives simultaneously. Here we overcome this barrier in designing a network of reserves for the Caribbean spiny lobster, a species with long larval duration for which local management is considered pointless because the benefits of protection are believed to be accrued elsewhere. Our reserve design approach uses spatially explicit population models and considers ontogenetic migration, larval and adult movement. We show that yield and persistence are negatively related, but that both objectives can be maximized simultaneously during planning. Importantly, we also show that local efforts to manage spiny lobster, the most economically valuable marine resource in the Caribbean, can result in locally accrued benefits, overcoming a major barrier to investing effort in the appropriate management of this species.
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 91
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-11-22
    Beschreibung: Ecological Focus Areas (EFAs) are one of the three new greening measures of the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). We used an interdisciplinary and European-scale approach to evaluate ecological effectiveness and farmers’ perception of the different EFA options. We assessed potential benefits of EFA options for biodiversity using a survey among 88 ecologists from 17 European countries. We further analyzed data on EFA uptake at the EU level and in eight EU Member States, and reviewed socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ decisions. We then identified possible ways to improve EFAs. Ecologists scored field margins, buffer strips, fallow land, and landscape features as most beneficial whereas farmers mostly implemented ‘catch crops and green cover’, nitrogen-fixing crops, and fallow land. Based on the expert inputs and a review of the factors influencing farmers’ decisions, we suggest that EFA implementation could be improved by a) prioritizing EFA options that promote biodiversity (e.g. reducing the weight or even excluding ineffective options); b) reducing administrative constraints; c) setting stricter management requirements (e.g. limiting agrochemical use); and d) offering further incentives for expanding options like landscape features and buffer strips. We finally propose further improvements at the next CAP reform, to improve ecological effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 92
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-12-10
    Beschreibung: Emerging policies worldwide require biodiversity gains as compensation for losses associated with economic development, seeking to achieve ‘no net loss’ (NNL). Multipliers – factors by which gains are larger than associated losses – can be crucial for true NNL. Here, we review the theoretical literature on multipliers. Then, we collate data on multipliers implemented in practice, representing the most complete such assessment to date. Finally, we explore remaining design gaps relating to social, ethical and governance considerations. Multiplier values should theoretically be tens or hundreds when considering, for example, ecological uncertainties. We propose even larger multipliers required to satisfy previously ignored considerations – including prospect theory, taboo trades, and power relationships. Conversely, our data analyses show that multipliers are smaller in practice, regularly 〈 10.0, and have not changed significantly in magnitude over time. We recommend that NNL policymakers provide explicit multiplier guidelines, require larger multipliers where appropriate, and ensure transparent reporting of multipliers used. Further research is necessary to determine reasons for the implementation gap we have identified. At the same time, there is a need to explore when and where the social, ethical and governance requirements for NNL reviewed here can be met through approaches other than multipliers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 93
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-12-11
    Beschreibung: Tropical rivers are experiencing an unprecedented boom in dam construction. Despite rapid dam expansion, knowledge about the ecology of tropical rivers and the implications of existing and planned dams on freshwater-dependent species remains limited. Here we evaluate fragmentation of fish species ranges, considering current and planned dams of the Magdalena River basin, Colombia. We quantify the relationship between species range and body size and use a vulnerability limit set by this relationship to explore the influence that fragmentation of species ranges has on extinction risk. We find that both existing and planned dams fragment most fish species ranges splitting, them into more vulnerable populations. Importantly, we find that migratory species, and those that support fisheries, are most affected by fragmentation. Our results highlight the dramatic impact that dams can have on freshwater fishes and offer insights into species extinction risk for data-limited regions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 94
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: Protected areas spearhead global conservation efforts, but it has been repeatedly demonstrated that narrowly distributed species are more likely to be unrepresented in protected areas. This means that where local extinctions are more likely outside protected areas, a positive feedback loop could render protected areas largely ineffective in decelerating extinctions, even where protected areas effectively abate threats. Here we empirically test the elements of this feedback loop using distribution data for 1572 threatened plants in Japan. Narrowly distributed species were indeed less likely to overlap protected areas than widespread species, and local extinction rates for unprotected populations over 15 years were 1.5 times higher than inside protected areas. A simulation model showed that new protected areas will substantially reduce extinction risk for widespread species, but not for narrowly distributed species, unless they are placed very precisely in the landscape. Our results suggest that a representation-extinction feedback will limit the effectiveness of protected areas in preventing extinctions unless protected area placement is carefully targeted. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 95
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: In some parts of the world, proprietorship, price incentives and devolved responsibility for management, accompanied by effective regulation, have increased wildlife and protected habitats, particularly for iconic and valuable species. Elsewhere, market incentives are constrained by policies and laws, and in some places virtually prohibited. In Australia and New Zealand, micro economic reform has enhanced innovation and improved outcomes in many areas of the economy, but economic liberalism and competition is rarely applied to the management of wildlife. This policy perspective examines if commercial value and markets could attract private sector investment to compensate for Government underspend on biodiversity conservation. It proposes trials in which landholders, community groups, and investors would have a form of wildlife ownership by leasing animals on land outside protected areas. They would be able to acquire threatened species from locally overabundant populations, breed them, innovate and assist further colonization/range expansion while making a profit from the increase. The role of government would be to regulate, as is appropriate in a mixed economy, rather than be the (sole) owner and manager of wildlife. Wide application of the trials would not answer all biodiversity-loss problems, but it could assist in the restoration of degraded habitat and connectivity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 96
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: Resource management and conservation increasingly focus on ecosystem service provisioning and potential tradeoffs among services under different management actions. Application of bioeconomic approaches to tradeoffs assessment is touted as a way to find win-win outcomes or avoid unnecessary stakeholder conflict. Yet nearly all assessments to date have ignored inherent uncertainties in the provision and valuation of services. We incorporate uncertainty into the ecosystem services analytical framework and show how such inclusion improves optimal decision making. In particular, we show: 1) ‘sub-optimal’ solutions can become optimal when uncertainties are accounted for; 2) uncertainty paradoxically makes stakeholders value conservation despite their lack of preference for it; and 3) substantial losses or missed gains in ecosystem service provisioning can be incurred when uncertainty is ignored. Our results highlight the urgency of accounting for uncertainties in ecosystem services in tradeoff assessments given the widespread use of this approach by government agencies and conservation organizations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 97
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: Invasive species management depends not only on biological and economic issues but also on how governance institutions influence cooperation from networks of stakeholders. We use the “contingency” framework for network governance to analyze why eradication of invasive Spartina in San Francisco Bay has been more successful than many other eradication efforts. The core argument is that invasive Spartina features antecedent conditions that favor a centralized network as the best governance approach, as demonstrated by a quantitative survey of Spartina stakeholders. This centralized policy network, with a clearly defined core of actors with the expertise, authority, and resources, produces effective cooperation. The contingency framework has implications for invasive species management more generally, as well as other conservation issues featuring dynamic spatial ecological processes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 98
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: Representing all ecosystem types in protected areas (PAs) is central to international conservation agreements (i.e. Aichi Target 11) and ensuring the persistence of biodiversity. In response to these agreements we have seen rapid growth of PA networks but we do not know how this affects ecosystem representation. We explored this question by investigating drivers and trends of representation during periods of rapid land acquisition using the Protection Equality metric. We found that 90.9% of studied countries have improved protection equality through time. Periods of rapid area expansion resulted in greater increases in protection equality, particularly through multiple, smaller PAs as opposed to fewer, larger PAs. However, observed increases may not be due to strategic planning as protection equality from random PA allocation was statistically similar to observed values within six country-level simulations. Future international agreements should hold countries accountable to meeting multiple objectives and prioritize conservation outcomes over individual targets. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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  • 99
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-10-09
    Beschreibung: The concept of ecosystem services (ES) provides a potentially useful tool for decision-making in natural area management. Provisioning and regulating ES often occur in 'bundles' that are cohesive because of co-provisioning or co-dependence. We asked whether individual preferences for cultural benefits also define service bundles. Data from a large survey of visitor preferences (n = 3131 respondents) from all 19 South African National Parks indicated five bundles of cultural ecosystem services (CES): (1) "natural history"; (2) "recreation"; (3) "sense of place"; (4) "safari experiences"; and (5) "outdoor lifestyle". Trade-offs and synergies between bundles of services depended on the ecosystem providing them and on alignment between demand for services and the supply of particular service bundles in specific ecosystems. Our results show that identifying demand for multiple services can both help us to understand why people visit and value protected areas, and better inform the management choices that influence service provision. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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    Thema: Biologie
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  • 100
    Publikationsdatum: 2016-09-29
    Beschreibung: With the adoption of the 2011–2020 Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 196 nations agreed to achieve ambitious biodiversity related targets. These targets encompass conservation inputs, for example increasing the amount of financial resources invested in biodiversity conservation (Target 20), conservation outputs, for example protecting areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services (Target 11), and conservation outcomes, for example preventing the extinction of threatened species (Target 12). The evidence to date reveals limited progresses in achieving these targets, especially those related to conservation outcomes, and an alarming disparity between the rate of biodiversity decline and the rate at which conservation actions take place (Tittensor et al. 2014). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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