ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: A commercial deep-freeze unit was modified to serve as a laboratory for growing single crystals, cutting specimens of a given orientation, testing these specimens in compressive creep, and studying thin-sections of the results on a universal stage. A method of growing single crystals of adequate size was developed by adapting the Bridgman method. Fortyone creep tests were made at temperatures ranging from -1° to -18°C. These gave an unexpected form of creep-curve in which the rate of strain continuously increases with time. The mechanism of deformation is dominantly basal translation—consistent with earlier work. The dependence on temperature and stress is expressed empirically.

Description / Table of Contents: This monograph presents a comprehensive synthesis of our current state of knowledge concerning the climate of the Arctic, using the latest meteorological data. All meteorological elements are described in detail for the first time and an up-to-date review of the available literature for each element is given. Climatic regions are distinguished and described. The monograph also provides an account of the present state of research on climate change and variability in the Arctic for three time scales: the Holocene, the last Millennium, and the 20th century. The book concludes with a presentation of the scenarios of the Arctic climate in the 21st century. This monograph is intended for all those with a general interest in the fields of meteorology, climatology, and with a knowledge of the application of statistics in these areas.

Description / Table of Contents: This book has been several years in the making, under the experienced and careful oversight of Ed Grew (University of Maine), who edited (with Larry Anovitz) a similar, even larger volume in 1996: Boron: Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geochemistry (RiMG Vol. 33, reprinted with updates and corrections, 2002). Many of the same reasons for inviting investigators to contribute to a volume on B apply equally to a volume on Be. Like B, Be poses analytical difficulties, and it has been neglected in many studies. However, with recent improvements in analytical technology, interest in Be and its cosmogenic isotopes has increased greatly. Chapter 1 (Grew) is an overview of Be studies in the earth sciences backed by an extensive reference list, and an annotated list of the 110 mineral species reported to contain essential Be as of 2002, together with commentary on their status. A systematic classification of Be minerals based on their crystal structure is presented in Chapter 9 (Hawthorne and Huminicki), while analysis of these minerals by the secondary ion mass spectroscopy is the subject of Chapter 8 (Hervig). Chapter 13 (Franz and Morteani) reviews experimental studies of systems involving Be. Chapter 2 (Shearer) reviews the behavior of Be in the Solar System, with an emphasis on meteorites, the Moon and Mars, and the implications of this behavior for the evolution of the solar system. Chapter 3 (Ryan) is an overview of the terrestrial geochemistry of Be, and Chapter 7 (Vesely, Norton, Skrivan, Majer, Kr·m, Navr·til, and Kaste) discusses the contamination of the environment by this anthropogenic toxin. The cosmogenic isotopes Be-7 and Be-10 have found increasing applications in the Earth sciences. Chapter 4 (Bierman, Caffee, Davis, Marsella, Pavich, Colgan and Mickelson) reports use of the longer lived Be-10 to assess erosion rates and other surficial processes, while Chapter 5 (Morris, Gosse, Brachfeld and Tera) considers how this isotope can yield independent temporal records of geomagnetic field variations for comparison with records obtained by measuring natural remnant magnetization, be a chemical tracer for processes in convergent margins, and can date events in Cenozoic tectonics. Chapter 6 (Kaste, Norton and Hess) reviews applications of the shorter lived isotope Be-7 in environmental studies. Beryllium is a lithophile element concentrated in the residual phases of magmatic systems. Residual phases include acidic plutonic and volcanic rocks, whose geochemistry and evolution are covered, respectively, in Chapters 11 (London and Evensen) and 14 (Barton and Young), while granitic pegmatites, which are well-known for their remarkable, if localized, Be enrichments and a wide variety of Be mineral assemblages, are reviewed in Chapter 10 (Cerny). Not all Be concentrations have obvious magmatic affinities; for example, one class of emerald deposits results from Be being introduced by heated brines (Chapters 13; 14). Pelitic rocks are an important reservoir of Be in the Earth's crust and their metamorphism plays a critical role in recycling of Be in subduction zones (Chapter 3), eventually, anatectic processes complete the cycle, providing a source of Be for granitic rocks (Chapters 11 and 12).

Description / Table of Contents: This book offers a comprehensive introduction to GPS: the system, signals, receivers, measurements, and algorithms for estimation of position, velocity, and time. It is intended both as a textbook for a senior- or graduate-level engineering course and a self-study guide for science majors. The book is divided into three parts. Part I introduces radionavigation and the basic framework for a global positioning system, including coordinate frames, time references, and satellite orbits. Part II takes the student to the fruits of GPS: estimation of position, velocity, and time. Part III discusses the ingenious structure of the GPS signals, and the signal processing steps required to extract the necessary measurements from these signals. To give the student a hands-on experience with GPS, this book includes a CD with a number of GPS data sets from several sites. A set of homework problems requires the student to write simple MATLAB code to analyze these data.

Description / Table of Contents: Several years ago, John Rakovan and John Hughes (colleagues at Miami of Ohio), and later Matt Kohn (at South Carolina), separately proposed short courses on phosphate minerals to the Council of the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA). Council suggested that they join forces. Thus this volume, Phosphates: Geochemical, Geobiological, and Materials Importance, was organized. It was prepared in advance of a short course of the same title, sponsored by MSA and presented at Golden, Colorado, October 25-27. We are pleased to present this volume entitled Phosphates: Geochemical, Geobiological and Materials Importance. Phosphate minerals are an integral component of geological and biological systems. They are found in virtually all rocks, are the major structural component of vertebrates, and when dissolved are critical for biological activity. This volume represents the work of many authors whose research illustrates how the unique chemical and physical behavior of phosphate minerals permits a wide range of applications that encompasses phosphate mineralogy, petrology, biomineralization, geochronology, and materials science. While diverse, these fields are all linked structurally, crystal-chemically and geochemically. As geoscientists turn their attention to the intersection of the biological, geological, and material science realms, there is no group of compounds more germane than the phosphates. The chapters of this book are grouped into five topics: Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry, Petrology, Biomineralization, Geochronology, and Materials Applications. In the first section, three chapters are devoted to mineralogical aspects of apatite, a phase with both inorganic and organic origins, the most abundant phosphate mineral on earth, and the main mineral phase in the human body. Monazite and xenotime are highlighted in a fourth chapter, which includes their potential use as solid-state radioactive waste repositories. The Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry section concludes with a detailed examination of the crystal chemistry of 244 other naturally-occurring phosphate phases and a listing of an additional 126 minerals. In the Petrology section, three chapters detail the igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary aspects of phosphate minerals. A fourth chapter provides a close look at analyzing phosphates for major, minor, and trace elements using the electron microprobe. A final chapter treats the global geochemical cycling of phosphate, a topic of intense, current geochemical interest. The Biomineralization section begins with a summary of the current state of research on bone, dentin and enamel phosphates, a topic that crosses disciplines that include mineralogical, medical, and dental research. The following two chapters treat the stable isotope and trace element compositions of modern and fossil biogenic phosphates, with applications to paleontology, paleoclimatology, and paleoecology. The Geochronology section focuses principally on apatite and monazite for U-ThPb, (U- Th)/He, and fission-track age determinations; it covers both classical geochronologic techniques as well as recent developments. The final section-Materials Applications-highlights how phosphate phases play key roles in fields such as optics, luminescence, medical engineering and prosthetics, and engineering of radionuclide repositories. These chapters provide a glimpse of the use of natural phases in engineering and biomedical applications and illustrate fruitful areas of future research in geochemical, geobiological and materials science. We hope all chapters in this volume encourage researchers to expand their work on all aspects of natural and synthetic phosphate compounds.

Description / Table of Contents: Polar motion data is available from the mid-19th century to the present. Based on time series with a variety of sampling intervals (monthly, 0.05-year, 5-day and daily), we have separated the low-frequency terms by low-pass filtering and the Chandler and annual terms by recursive band-pass filtering of the pole coordinates. Using a simple unweighted least-squares fit to the filtered low-frequency terms, the linear trends of the rotation pole were estimated. Assessing the estimates based on intercomparisons, the most reliable trend estimate was found. Using a Fast Fourier Transform, we have computed the prograde, retrograde and total amplitude spectra of the low-frequency part of polar motion in order to reveal the long-periodic signals. The characteristics and time evolution of the Chandler and annual wobbles are described by changes in their parameters (radii, directions and period lengths) over one century.

Description / Table of Contents: This volume was produced in response to the need for a comprehensive introduction to the continually evolving state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low-temperature geochemistry and environmental science. It owes much to the hard work and imagination of the devoted cadre of sleep-deprived individuals who blazed a trail that many others are beginning to follow. Synchrotron radiation methods have opened new scientific vistas in the earth and environmental sciences, and progress in this direction will undoubtedly continue. The organization of this volume is as follows. Chapter 1 (Brown and Sturchio) gives a fairly comprehensive overview of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science. The presentation is organized by synchrotron methods and scientific issues. It also has an extensive reference list that should prove valuable as a starting point for further research. Chapter 2 (Sham and Rivers) describes the ways that synchrotron radiation is generated, including a history of synchrotrons and a discussion of aspects of synchrotron radiation that are important to the experimentalist. The remaining chapters of the volume are organized into two groups. Chapters 3 through 6 describe specific synchrotron methods that are most useful for single-crystal surface and mineral-fluid interface studies. Chapters 7 through 9 describe methods that can be used more generally for investigating complex polyphase fine-grained or amorphous materials, including soils, rocks, and organic matter. Chapter 2 (Shearer) reviews the behavior of Be in the Solar System, with an emphasis on meteorites, the Moon and Mars, and the implications of this behavior for the evolution of the solar system. Chapter 3 (Ryan) is an overview of the terrestrial geochemistry of Be, and Chapter 7 (Vesely, Norton, Skrivan, Majer, Kr·m, Navr·til, and Kaste) discusses the contamination of the environment by this anthropogenic toxin. Chapter 3 (Fenter) presents the elementary theory of synchrotron X-ray reflectivity along with examples of recent applications, with emphasis on in situ studies of mineral-fluid interfaces. Chapter 4 (Bedzyk and Cheng) summarizes the theory of X-ray standing waves (XSW), the various methods for using XSW in surface and interfaces studies, and gives a brief review of recent applications in geochemistry and mineralogy. Chapter 5 (Waychunas) covers the theory and applications of grazing-incidence X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy, with recent examples of studies at mineral surfaces. Chapter 6 (Hirschmugl) describes the theory and applications of synchrotron infrared microspectroscopy. Chapter 7 (Manceau, Marcus, and Tamura) gives background and examples of the combined application of synchrotron X-ray microfluorescence, microdiffraction, and microabsorption spectroscopy in characterizing the distribution and speciation of metals in soils and sediments. Chapter 8 (Sutton, Newville, Rivers, Lanzirotti, Eng, and Bertsch) demonstrates a wide variety of applications of synchrotron X-ray microspectroscopy and microtomography in characterizing earth and environmental materials and processes. Finally, Chapter 9 (Myneni) presents a review of the principles and applications of soft X-ray microspectroscopic studies of natural organic materials. All of these chapters review the state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, and offer speculations on future developments. The reader of this volume will acquire an appreciation of the theory and applications of synchrotron radiation in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, as well as the significant advances that have been made in this area in the past two decades (especially since the advent of the third-generation synchrotron sources). We hope that this volume will inspire new users to "see the light" and pursue their research using the potent tool of synchrotron radiation.

Description / Table of Contents: This volume highlights some of the frontiers in the study of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. The research into the plastic properties of minerals and rocks had a major peak in late 1960s to early 1970s, largely stimulated by research in the laboratory of D. T. Griggs and his students and associates. It is the same time when the theory of plate tectonics was established and provided a first quantitative theoretical framework for understanding geological processes. The theory of plate tectonics stimulated the study of deformation properties of Earth materials, both in the brittle and the ductile regimes. Many of the foundations of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks were established during this period. Also, new experimental techniques were developed, including deformation apparatus for high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, electron micros-copy study of defects in minerals, and the X-ray technique of deformation fabric analysis. The field benefited greatly from materials science concepts of deformation that were introduced, including the models of point defects and their interaction with dislocations. A summary of progress is given by the volume Flow and Fracture of Rocks: The Griggs Volume, published in 1972 by the American Geophysical Union. Since then, the scope of Earth sciences has greatly expanded. Geodynamics became concerned with the Earth's deep interior where seismologists discovered heterogeneities and anisotropy at all scales that were previously thought to be typical of the crust and the upper mantle. Investigations of the solar system documented new mineral phases and rocks far beyond the Earth. Both domains have received a lot of attention from mineralogists (e.g., summarized in MSA's Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 36, Planetary Materials and Volume 37, Ultra-High Pressure Mineralogy). Most attention was directed towards crystal chemistry and phase relations, yet an understanding of the deformation behavior is essential for interpreting the dynamic geological processes from geological and geophysical observations. This was largely the reason for a rebirth of the study of rock plasticity, leading to new approaches that include experiments at extreme conditions and modeling of deformation behavior based on physical principles. A wide spectrum of communities emerged that need to use information about mineral plasticity, including mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, seismology, geodynamics and engineering. This was the motivation to organize a workshop, in December 2002 in Emeryville, California, to bridge the very diverse disciplines and facilitate communication. This volume written for this workshop should help one to become familiar with a notoriously difficult subject, and the various contributions represent some of the important progress that has been achieved. The spectrum is broad. High-resolution tomographic images of Earth's interior obtained from seismology need to be interpreted on the bases of materials properties to understand their geodynamic significance. Key issues include the influence of deformation on seismic signatures, such as attenuation and anisotropy, and a new generation of experimental and theoretical studies on rock plasticity has contributed to a better understanding. Extensive space exploration has revealed a variety of tectonic styles on planets and their satellites, underlining the uniqueness of the Earth. To understand why plate tectonics is unique to Earth, one needs to understand the physical mechanisms of localization of deformation at various scales and under different physical conditions. Also here important theoretical and experimental studies have been conducted. In both fields, studies on anisotropy and shear localization, large-strain deformation experiments and quantitative modeling are critical, and these have become available only recently. Complicated interplay among chemical reactions (including partial melting) is a key to understand the evolution of Earth. This book contains two chapters on the developments of new techniques of experimental studies: one is large-strain shear deformation (Chapter 1 by Mackwell and Paterson) and another is deformation experiments under ultrahigh pressures (Chapter 2 by Durham et al.). Both technical developments are the results of years of efforts that are opening up new avenues of research along which rich new results are expected to be obtained. Details of physical and chemical processes of deformation in the crust and the upper mantle are much better understood through the combination of well controlled laboratory experiments with observations on "real" rocks deformed in Earth. Chapter 3 by Tullis and Chapter 4 by Hirth address the issues of deformation of crustal rocks and the upper mantle, respectively. In Chapter 5 Kohlstedt reviews the interplay of partial melting and deformation, an important subject in understanding the chemical evolution of Earth. Cordier presents in Chapter 6 an overview of the new results of ultrahigh pressure deformation of deep mantle minerals and discusses microscopic mechanisms controlling the variation of deformation mechanisms with minerals in the deep mantle. Green and Marone review in Chapter 7 the stability of deformation under deep mantle conditions with special reference to phase transformations and their relationship to the origin of intermediate depth and deep-focus earthquakes. In Chapter 8 Schulson provides a detailed description of fracture mechanisms of ice, including the critical brittle-ductile transition that is relevant not only for glaciology, planetology and engineering, but for structural geology as well. In Chapter 9 Cooper provides a review of experimental and theoretical studies on seismic wave attenuation, which is a critical element in interpreting distribution of seismic wave velocities and attenuation. Chapter 10 by Wenk reviews the relationship between crystal preferred orientation and macroscopic anisotropy, illustrating it with case studies. In Chapter 11 Dawson presents recent progress in poly-crystal plasticity to model the development of anisotropic fabrics both at the microscopic and macroscopic scale. Such studies form the basis for geodynamic interpretation of seismic anisotropy. Finally, in Chapter 12 Montagner and Guillot present a thorough review of seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle covering the vast regions of geodynamic interests, using a global surface wave data set. In Chapter 13 Bercovici and Karato summarize the theoretical aspects of shear localization. All chapters contain extensive reference lists to guide readers to the more specialized literature. Obviously this book does not cover all the areas related to plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. Important topics that are not fully covered in this book include mechanisms of semi-brittle deformation and the interplay between microstructure evolution and deformation at different levels, such as dislocation substructures and grain-size evolution ("self-organization"). However, we hope that this volume provides a good introduction for graduate students in Earth science or materials science as well as the researchers in these areas to enter this multidisciplinary field.

Description / Table of Contents: A Databank was created using data from 25 local catalogues and 30 special studiesof earthquakes in central, northern and northwestern Europe. Event types werediscriminated, fake events and duplets eliminated, and different magnitudes andintensities converted to Mw. The conversions require the establishment of regressionequations. The Catalogue contains tectonic events from the Databank within the area44°N-72°N, 25°W-32°E and the time period 1300-1993 which have Mw magnitudesof 3.50 and larger. The area is covered by different polygons. Within each polygononly data from one or a small number of the local catalogues, supplemented by datafrom special studies, enter the Catalogue. If there are two or more such catalogues orstudies providing a solution for an event, a priority algorithm selects one entry forthe Catalogue. Then Mw is calculated from one of the magnitude types, or frommacroseismic data, given by the selected entry according to another priority scheme.The origin time, location, Mw magnitude and reference are specified for each entryof the Catalogue. So is the epicentral intensity, I0, if provided by the original source.Following these criteria, a total of about 5,000 earthquakes constitute the Catalogue.Although originally derived for the purpose of seismic hazard calculation withinGSHAP, the Catalogue provides a data base for many types of seismicity andseismic hazard studies.