ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: This volume was produced in response to the need for a comprehensive introduction to the continually evolving state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low-temperature geochemistry and environmental science. It owes much to the hard work and imagination of the devoted cadre of sleep-deprived individuals who blazed a trail that many others are beginning to follow. Synchrotron radiation methods have opened new scientific vistas in the earth and environmental sciences, and progress in this direction will undoubtedly continue. The organization of this volume is as follows. Chapter 1 (Brown and Sturchio) gives a fairly comprehensive overview of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science. The presentation is organized by synchrotron methods and scientific issues. It also has an extensive reference list that should prove valuable as a starting point for further research. Chapter 2 (Sham and Rivers) describes the ways that synchrotron radiation is generated, including a history of synchrotrons and a discussion of aspects of synchrotron radiation that are important to the experimentalist. The remaining chapters of the volume are organized into two groups. Chapters 3 through 6 describe specific synchrotron methods that are most useful for single-crystal surface and mineral-fluid interface studies. Chapters 7 through 9 describe methods that can be used more generally for investigating complex polyphase fine-grained or amorphous materials, including soils, rocks, and organic matter. Chapter 2 (Shearer) reviews the behavior of Be in the Solar System, with an emphasis on meteorites, the Moon and Mars, and the implications of this behavior for the evolution of the solar system. Chapter 3 (Ryan) is an overview of the terrestrial geochemistry of Be, and Chapter 7 (Vesely, Norton, Skrivan, Majer, Kr·m, Navr·til, and Kaste) discusses the contamination of the environment by this anthropogenic toxin. Chapter 3 (Fenter) presents the elementary theory of synchrotron X-ray reflectivity along with examples of recent applications, with emphasis on in situ studies of mineral-fluid interfaces. Chapter 4 (Bedzyk and Cheng) summarizes the theory of X-ray standing waves (XSW), the various methods for using XSW in surface and interfaces studies, and gives a brief review of recent applications in geochemistry and mineralogy. Chapter 5 (Waychunas) covers the theory and applications of grazing-incidence X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy, with recent examples of studies at mineral surfaces. Chapter 6 (Hirschmugl) describes the theory and applications of synchrotron infrared microspectroscopy. Chapter 7 (Manceau, Marcus, and Tamura) gives background and examples of the combined application of synchrotron X-ray microfluorescence, microdiffraction, and microabsorption spectroscopy in characterizing the distribution and speciation of metals in soils and sediments. Chapter 8 (Sutton, Newville, Rivers, Lanzirotti, Eng, and Bertsch) demonstrates a wide variety of applications of synchrotron X-ray microspectroscopy and microtomography in characterizing earth and environmental materials and processes. Finally, Chapter 9 (Myneni) presents a review of the principles and applications of soft X-ray microspectroscopic studies of natural organic materials. All of these chapters review the state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, and offer speculations on future developments. The reader of this volume will acquire an appreciation of the theory and applications of synchrotron radiation in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, as well as the significant advances that have been made in this area in the past two decades (especially since the advent of the third-generation synchrotron sources). We hope that this volume will inspire new users to "see the light" and pursue their research using the potent tool of synchrotron radiation.

Description / Table of Contents: This book has been several years in the making, under the experienced and careful oversight of Ed Grew (University of Maine), who edited (with Larry Anovitz) a similar, even larger volume in 1996: Boron: Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geochemistry (RiMG Vol. 33, reprinted with updates and corrections, 2002). Many of the same reasons for inviting investigators to contribute to a volume on B apply equally to a volume on Be. Like B, Be poses analytical difficulties, and it has been neglected in many studies. However, with recent improvements in analytical technology, interest in Be and its cosmogenic isotopes has increased greatly. Chapter 1 (Grew) is an overview of Be studies in the earth sciences backed by an extensive reference list, and an annotated list of the 110 mineral species reported to contain essential Be as of 2002, together with commentary on their status. A systematic classification of Be minerals based on their crystal structure is presented in Chapter 9 (Hawthorne and Huminicki), while analysis of these minerals by the secondary ion mass spectroscopy is the subject of Chapter 8 (Hervig). Chapter 13 (Franz and Morteani) reviews experimental studies of systems involving Be. Chapter 2 (Shearer) reviews the behavior of Be in the Solar System, with an emphasis on meteorites, the Moon and Mars, and the implications of this behavior for the evolution of the solar system. Chapter 3 (Ryan) is an overview of the terrestrial geochemistry of Be, and Chapter 7 (Vesely, Norton, Skrivan, Majer, Kr·m, Navr·til, and Kaste) discusses the contamination of the environment by this anthropogenic toxin. The cosmogenic isotopes Be-7 and Be-10 have found increasing applications in the Earth sciences. Chapter 4 (Bierman, Caffee, Davis, Marsella, Pavich, Colgan and Mickelson) reports use of the longer lived Be-10 to assess erosion rates and other surficial processes, while Chapter 5 (Morris, Gosse, Brachfeld and Tera) considers how this isotope can yield independent temporal records of geomagnetic field variations for comparison with records obtained by measuring natural remnant magnetization, be a chemical tracer for processes in convergent margins, and can date events in Cenozoic tectonics. Chapter 6 (Kaste, Norton and Hess) reviews applications of the shorter lived isotope Be-7 in environmental studies. Beryllium is a lithophile element concentrated in the residual phases of magmatic systems. Residual phases include acidic plutonic and volcanic rocks, whose geochemistry and evolution are covered, respectively, in Chapters 11 (London and Evensen) and 14 (Barton and Young), while granitic pegmatites, which are well-known for their remarkable, if localized, Be enrichments and a wide variety of Be mineral assemblages, are reviewed in Chapter 10 (Cerny). Not all Be concentrations have obvious magmatic affinities; for example, one class of emerald deposits results from Be being introduced by heated brines (Chapters 13; 14). Pelitic rocks are an important reservoir of Be in the Earth's crust and their metamorphism plays a critical role in recycling of Be in subduction zones (Chapter 3), eventually, anatectic processes complete the cycle, providing a source of Be for granitic rocks (Chapters 11 and 12).

Description / Table of Contents: Since the dawn of life on earth, organisms have played roles in mineral formation in processes broadly known as biomineralization. This biologically-mediated organization of aqueous ions into amorphous and crystalline materials results in materials that are as simple as adventitious precipitates or as complex as exquisitely fabricated structures that meet specialized functionalities. The purpose of this volume of Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry is to provide students and professionals in the earth sciences with a review that focuses upon the various processes by which organisms direct the formation of minerals. Our framework of examining biominerals from the viewpoints of major mineralization strategies distinguishes this volume from most previous reviews. The review begins by introducing the reader to over-arching principles that are needed to investigate biomineralization phenomena and shows the current state of knowledge regarding the major approaches to mineralization that organisms have developed over the course of Earth history. By exploring the complexities that underlie the "synthesis" of biogenic materials, and therefore the basis for how compositions and structures of biominerals are mediated (or not), we believe this volume will be instrumental in propelling studies of biomineralization to a new level of research questions that are grounded in an understanding of the underlying biological phenomena.

Description / Table of Contents: Exactly 100 years before the publication of this volume, the first paper which calculated the half-life for the newly discovered radioactive substance U-X (now called 234Th), was published. Now, in this volume, the editors Bernard Bourdon, Gideon Henderson, Craig Lundstrom and Simon Turner have integrated a group of contributors who update our knowledge of U-series geochemistry, offer an opportunity for non-specialists to understand its basic principles, and give us a view of the future of this active field of research. In this volume, for the first time, all the methods for determining the uranium and thorium decay chain nuclides in Earth materials are discussed. It was prepared in advance of a two-day short course (April 3-4, 2003) on U-series geochemistry, jointly sponsored by GS and MSA and presented in Paris, France prior to the joint EGS/AGU/EUG meeting in Nice. The discovery of the 238U decay chain, of course, started with the seminal work of Marie Curie in identifying and separating 226Ra. Through the work of the Curies and others, all the members of the 238U decay chain were identified. An important milestone for geochronometrists was the discovery of 230Th (called Ionium) by Bertram Boltwood, the Yale scientist who also made the first age determinations on minerals using the U-Pb dating method (Boltwood in 1906 established the antiquity of rocks and even identified a mineral from Sri Lanka-then Ceylon as having an age of 2.1 billion years!) The application of the 238U decay chain to the dating of deep sea sediments was by Piggott and Urry in 1942 using the "Ionium" method of dating. Actually they measured 222Ra (itself through 222Rn) assuming secular equilibrium had been established between 230Th and 226Ra. Although 230Th was measured in deep sea sediments by Picciotto and Gilvain in 1954 using photographic emulsions, it was not until alpha spectrometry was developed in the late 1950's that 20Th was routinely measured in marine deposits. Alpha spectrometry and gamma spectrometry became the work horses for the study of the uranium and thorium decay chains in a variety of Earth materials. These ranged from 222Rn and its daughters in the atmosphere, to the uranium decay chain nuclides in the oceanic water column, and volcanic rocks and many other systems in which either chronometry or element partitioning, were explored. Much of what we learned about the 238U, 235U and 232Th decay chain nuclides as chronometers and process indicators we owe to these seminal studies based on the measurement of radioactivity. The discovery that mass spectrometry would soon usurp many of the tasks performed by radioactive counting was in itself serendipitous. It came about because a fundamental issue in cosmochemistry was at stake. Although variation in 235U/238U had been reported for meteorites the results were easily discredited as due to analytical difficulties. One set of results, however, was published by a credible laboratory long involved in quality measurements of high mass isotopes such as the lead isotopes. The purported discovery of 235U/238U variations in meteorites, if true, would have consequences in defining the early history of the formation of the elements and the development of inhomogeneity of uranium isotopes in the accumulation of the protoplanetary materials of the Solar System. Clearly the result was too important to escape the scrutiny of falsification implicit in the way we do science. The Lunatic Asylum at Caltech under the leadership of Jerry Wasserburg took on that task. Jerry Wasserburg and Jim Chen clearly established the constancy and Earth-likeness of 235U/238U in the samplable universe. In the hands of another member of the Lunatic Asylum, Larry Edwards, the methodology was transformed into a tool for the study of the 238U decay chain in marine systems. Thus the mass spectrometric techniques developed provided an approach to measuring the U and Th isotopes in geological materials as well as cosmic materials with the same refinement and accommodation for small sample size. Soon after this discovery the harnessing of the technique to the measurement of all the U isotopes and all the Th isotopes with great precision immediately opened up the entire field of uranium and thorium decay chain studies. This area of study was formerly the poaching ground for radioactive measurements alone but now became part of the wonderful world of mass spectrometric measurements. (The same transformation took place for radiocarbon from the various radioactive counting schemes to 'accelerator mass spectrometry.) No Earth material was protected from this assault. The refinement of dating corals, analyzing volcanic rocks for partitioning and chronometer studies and extensions far and wide into ground waters and ocean bottom dwelling organisms has been the consequence of this innovation. Although Ra isotopes, 210Pb and 210Po remain an active pursuit of those doing radioactive measurements, many of these nuclides have also become subject to the mass spectrometric approach. In this volume, for the first time, all the methods for determining the uranium and thorium decay chain nuclides in Earth materials are discussed. The range of problems solvable with this approach is remarkable-a fitting, tribute to the Curies and the early workers who discovered them for us to use.

Description / Table of Contents: This volume highlights some of the frontiers in the study of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. The research into the plastic properties of minerals and rocks had a major peak in late 1960s to early 1970s, largely stimulated by research in the laboratory of D. T. Griggs and his students and associates. It is the same time when the theory of plate tectonics was established and provided a first quantitative theoretical framework for understanding geological processes. The theory of plate tectonics stimulated the study of deformation properties of Earth materials, both in the brittle and the ductile regimes. Many of the foundations of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks were established during this period. Also, new experimental techniques were developed, including deformation apparatus for high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, electron micros-copy study of defects in minerals, and the X-ray technique of deformation fabric analysis. The field benefited greatly from materials science concepts of deformation that were introduced, including the models of point defects and their interaction with dislocations. A summary of progress is given by the volume Flow and Fracture of Rocks: The Griggs Volume, published in 1972 by the American Geophysical Union. Since then, the scope of Earth sciences has greatly expanded. Geodynamics became concerned with the Earth's deep interior where seismologists discovered heterogeneities and anisotropy at all scales that were previously thought to be typical of the crust and the upper mantle. Investigations of the solar system documented new mineral phases and rocks far beyond the Earth. Both domains have received a lot of attention from mineralogists (e.g., summarized in MSA's Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 36, Planetary Materials and Volume 37, Ultra-High Pressure Mineralogy). Most attention was directed towards crystal chemistry and phase relations, yet an understanding of the deformation behavior is essential for interpreting the dynamic geological processes from geological and geophysical observations. This was largely the reason for a rebirth of the study of rock plasticity, leading to new approaches that include experiments at extreme conditions and modeling of deformation behavior based on physical principles. A wide spectrum of communities emerged that need to use information about mineral plasticity, including mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, seismology, geodynamics and engineering. This was the motivation to organize a workshop, in December 2002 in Emeryville, California, to bridge the very diverse disciplines and facilitate communication. This volume written for this workshop should help one to become familiar with a notoriously difficult subject, and the various contributions represent some of the important progress that has been achieved. The spectrum is broad. High-resolution tomographic images of Earth's interior obtained from seismology need to be interpreted on the bases of materials properties to understand their geodynamic significance. Key issues include the influence of deformation on seismic signatures, such as attenuation and anisotropy, and a new generation of experimental and theoretical studies on rock plasticity has contributed to a better understanding. Extensive space exploration has revealed a variety of tectonic styles on planets and their satellites, underlining the uniqueness of the Earth. To understand why plate tectonics is unique to Earth, one needs to understand the physical mechanisms of localization of deformation at various scales and under different physical conditions. Also here important theoretical and experimental studies have been conducted. In both fields, studies on anisotropy and shear localization, large-strain deformation experiments and quantitative modeling are critical, and these have become available only recently. Complicated interplay among chemical reactions (including partial melting) is a key to understand the evolution of Earth. This book contains two chapters on the developments of new techniques of experimental studies: one is large-strain shear deformation (Chapter 1 by Mackwell and Paterson) and another is deformation experiments under ultrahigh pressures (Chapter 2 by Durham et al.). Both technical developments are the results of years of efforts that are opening up new avenues of research along which rich new results are expected to be obtained. Details of physical and chemical processes of deformation in the crust and the upper mantle are much better understood through the combination of well controlled laboratory experiments with observations on "real" rocks deformed in Earth. Chapter 3 by Tullis and Chapter 4 by Hirth address the issues of deformation of crustal rocks and the upper mantle, respectively. In Chapter 5 Kohlstedt reviews the interplay of partial melting and deformation, an important subject in understanding the chemical evolution of Earth. Cordier presents in Chapter 6 an overview of the new results of ultrahigh pressure deformation of deep mantle minerals and discusses microscopic mechanisms controlling the variation of deformation mechanisms with minerals in the deep mantle. Green and Marone review in Chapter 7 the stability of deformation under deep mantle conditions with special reference to phase transformations and their relationship to the origin of intermediate depth and deep-focus earthquakes. In Chapter 8 Schulson provides a detailed description of fracture mechanisms of ice, including the critical brittle-ductile transition that is relevant not only for glaciology, planetology and engineering, but for structural geology as well. In Chapter 9 Cooper provides a review of experimental and theoretical studies on seismic wave attenuation, which is a critical element in interpreting distribution of seismic wave velocities and attenuation. Chapter 10 by Wenk reviews the relationship between crystal preferred orientation and macroscopic anisotropy, illustrating it with case studies. In Chapter 11 Dawson presents recent progress in poly-crystal plasticity to model the development of anisotropic fabrics both at the microscopic and macroscopic scale. Such studies form the basis for geodynamic interpretation of seismic anisotropy. Finally, in Chapter 12 Montagner and Guillot present a thorough review of seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle covering the vast regions of geodynamic interests, using a global surface wave data set. In Chapter 13 Bercovici and Karato summarize the theoretical aspects of shear localization. All chapters contain extensive reference lists to guide readers to the more specialized literature. Obviously this book does not cover all the areas related to plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. Important topics that are not fully covered in this book include mechanisms of semi-brittle deformation and the interplay between microstructure evolution and deformation at different levels, such as dislocation substructures and grain-size evolution ("self-organization"). However, we hope that this volume provides a good introduction for graduate students in Earth science or materials science as well as the researchers in these areas to enter this multidisciplinary field.