ALBERT

Description: Proficiency testing (PT) is one of the few ways for an analytical laboratory to assess data quality under routine operating conditions. Here we report the results of Round 1 of the G-Chron PT programme, which is sponsored by the International Association of Geoanalysts. G-Chron is the first PT scheme devoted to the U-Th-Pb dating of mineral phases, primarily zircon, in geological materials. In this first round of G-Chron a total of 72 geochronology laboratories received the test material “Rak-17”, which previously had been characterized by seven well-established isotope dilution TIMS laboratories. A total of 63 of the PT participating laboratories reported data by the 15 December 2019 deadline. Here we both report and assess the measurement results submitted to this round. Our analysis provides a means for participating laboratories to assess their individual performance in relation to the isotope ages assigned, the experimental fitness-for-purpose criteria proposed by the scheme’s organisers and the results of similar laboratories participating in this round.

Description: The Earth is rotating around its rotation axis in an irregular manner. The Earth rotation axis and its orientation in space vary with respect to the reference system (both the terrestrial and the celestial) due to the wide range of processes that contribute to the rotation excitation. Therefore, the study of the Earth rotation can provide essential information concerning the Earth system. Spaceborne geodetic sensors can determine Earth orientation parameters (EOP), which fully describe Earth’s behaviour in space. The EOP are needed for several fields and applications such as fundamental astronomical and geodetic reference systems, precise satellite orbit determination, space navigation, and disaster prevention.\\ Over the past three decades, climate change has caused undesirable alterations in living organisms, human activities, and socio-economic aspects. Climate change is fluctuating and alters weather patterns such as precipitation patterns and sea and ocean levels. It also threatens the biodiversity of ecosystems, food security, and human health, and exacerbates natural disasters. The intensity and frequency of natural hazards are increasing with erratic distribution due to changes in the climate. Also, the level of vulnerability and zonation of risk are changed. Analysis of natural hazards, such as atmospheric and hydrological events, can help improve crisis management. Therefore, satellite observation data and simulated data derived from different atmospheric models are needed in order to model different types of hazards and risks, which can help early warning and prediction systems. Even though continuous sensor measurements and archive data (historical data/climate) are used for weather forecasting in developed countries, deadly flooding happened close to Stuttgart in southern Germany in May 2016, which might be avoided by a precise weather warning system. Therefore, real-time space geodetic technique data estimation is necessary to use as input data in weather prediction models. For the analysis of space geodetic techniques in (near) real-time, predictions of the EOP are required. EOP are made available by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Rapid Service Prediction Centre at USNO, Washington D.C., with a delay of hours to days. Accordingly, in the past, several methods were developed and applied for the EOP prediction. However, the accuracy of EOP prediction is still unsatisfactory, even for prediction of just a few days in the future.\\ To improve the EOP prediction accuracy, this study investigates the consistency between Earth rotation’s theories and observations. Moreover, the potentials of different geophysical phenomena are examined to better understand the interaction of different processes that affect the Earth rotation excitation with the time. Most of the Earth’s rotation theories and solutions are based on the location of the Earth’s principal axes of inertia (PAI). That location is defined by the second-degree Stokes coefficients of the geopotential, which are accurately observed by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and satellite laser ranging (SLR). In this study, the evolution of the Earth’s axes of inertia is analyzed for the first time. The presented results are remarkable, as the inertia axes do not move around a mean position fixed to a given terrestrial reference frame in the study period, but drift away from their initial location in a non-negligible manner.\\ Moreover, this study proposes a novel hybrid approach to predict EOP. There is a well-introduced stochastic method called copula-based analysis, and I combined it with singular spectrum analysis (SSA) for EOP prediction. I analyzed the potential of copula-based methods for predicting Earth rotation parameters that are derived from the combination of different satellite geodetic sensors and from other geophysical parameters like effective angular momentums. The copula is a statistical method that exploits linear and non-linear relationships between two or more variables by fitting a theoretical copula function into an empirical bivariate or multivariate distribution function. I introduced a hybrid prediction method that can be applied to other geophysical parameters is introduced in this thesis.\\ In this study, the interconnection between the celestial pole motion (CPM) and geomagnetic field (GMF) is investigated to improve the current CPM prediction methods. During the last decade, several investigations have been conducted in order to discuss a possible interconnection of polar motion and geomagnetic jerks, which are rapid changes in GMF secular variations. However, less attention has been paid to the impact of the GMF changes on the CPM, e.g., the interrelation of the geomagnetic jerks, geomagnetic dipole moment, geomagnetic field elements, and CPM variations. In this study, I use the CPM time series obtained from very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations and the latest GMF data to explore the correlation between CPM and the GMF. Our preliminary results revealed some impressive common features in the CPM and GMF variations, which show the potential to improve our understanding of the GMF’s contribution to the Earth’s rotation. All in all, the results mathematically illustrate the coherency between the GMF parameters and CPM, which helps improve EOP products.

Description: Die Erde dreht sich um ihre Rotationsachse auf unregelmäßige Art und Weise. Die Erdrotationsachse und ihre Orientierung im Raum variieren in Bezug auf das Referenzsystem (sowohl im terrestrischen wie auch im zälestischen System) aufgrund des breiten Spektrums von Prozessen, die zur Rotationsanregung beitragen. Daher kann die Untersuchung der Erdrotation wesentliche Informationen über das Erdsystem liefern. Weltraumgestützte geodätische Sensoren liefern Informationen über erdgebundene Orientierungsparameter (EOP), die das Verhalten der Erde im Weltraum vollständig beschreiben. EOP werden für verschiedene Bereiche und Anwendungen, wie beispielsweise für grundlegende astronomische und geodätische Referenzsysteme, benötigt. Des Weiteren sind sie auch für die präzise Bestimmung von Satellitenorbits und die weltraumgestützten Navigation, bis hin zu Anwendungen im Katastrophenschutz von Bedeutung.\\ In den letzten drei Jahrzehnten zeigen sich bereits die negativen Auswirkungen des Klimawandels auf Biosphäre, menschliche Aktivitäten und sozioökonomische Aspekte. Der Klimawandel unterliegt Fluktuationen und verändert die Wettermuster, wie z.B. die Niederschlagsverteilung, sowie Meeres- und Ozeanspiegel. Er bedroht aber auch die biologische Vielfalt der Ökosysteme, die Ernährungssicherheit, die menschliche Gesundheit und verschlimmert Naturkatastrophen. Die Intensität und Häufigkeit von Naturgefahren werden zunehmen, hierbei ist ihre Verteilung aufgrund von Klimaveränderungen allerdings unregelmäßig; auch der Grad von Schadensanfälligkeiten und die Einteilung von Risikozonen werden sich zukünftig ändern.\\ Die Analyse von Naturgefahren, wie atmosphärische und hydrologische Ereignisse, kann zur Verbesserung des Krisenmanagements beitragen. Daher werden Satellitenbeobachtungen und simulierte Daten, die von verschiedenen atmosphärischen Modellen abgeleitet werden, für die Gefahr- und Risikomodellierung benötigt; dies kann Frühwarn- und Vorhersagesysteme unterstützen. Obwohl kontinuierliche Sensormessungen und Archivdaten (historische Daten/Klimadaten) für die Wettervorhersage in entwickelten Ländern zur Verfügung stehen, kamen es im Mai 2016 in der Nähe von Stuttgart in Süddeutschland bei einer katastrophalen Überschwemmung zu Verlusten von Menschenleben, die möglicherweise durch ein präzises Wetterwarnsystem vermeidbar gewesen wären. \\ Eine Echtzeitschätzung der geodätischen Weltraumtechnik wäre notwendig, um sie als Eingangsdaten in Wettervorhersagemodellen zu verwenden. Für die Analyse von raumgeodätischen Techniken in (nahezu) Echtzeit sind Vorhersagen der EOP unerlässlich. EOP werden durch das Rapid Service Prediction Centre des International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) am USNO, Washington D.C., mit einer Verzögerung von Stunden bis Tagen zur Verfügung gestellt. Demzufolge wurden in der Vergangenheit mehrere Methoden für die EOP-Vorhersage entwickelt und angewendet. Die Genauigkeit dieser EOP-Vorhersagen ist jedoch nach wie vor - selbst für einen Vorhersagezeitraum von nur wenigen Tagen - unbefriedigend.\\ Um die Genauigkeit der EOP-Vorhersage zu verbessern, beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Studie mit der Untersuchung von der Vereinbarkeit von Erdrotationstheorien mit Beobachtungen. Darüber hinaus wird das Potenzial verschiedener geophysikalischer Phänomene analysiert, um die Wechselwirkungen verschiedener Prozesse, die die zeitabhängige Anregung der Erdrotation beeinflussen, besser zu verstehen.\\ Die meisten Theorien und Lösungen zur Erdrotation basieren auf der Lage der Hauptträgheitsachsen der Erde (PAI). Diese Position wird durch die Stokes-Koeffizienten zweiten Grades des Geopotentials, das mit Hilfe der Satellitenmission Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) und der Satelliten-Laser-Entfernungsmessung (SLR) genau beobachtet wird, definiert. In dieser Studie wird zum ersten Mal die Entwicklung der Trägheitsachsen der Erde analysiert. Bemerkenswert an den vorgestellten Ergebnissen ist, daß sich die Trägheitsachsen während der Untersuchungsperiode nicht um eine mittlere Position, die in einem bestimmten terrestrischen Bezugsrahmen festgelegt ist, bewegen, sondern sich in nicht zu vernachlässigender Weise von ihrem ursprünglichen Position entfernen.\\ Darüber hinaus schlägt diese Studie einen neuartigen hybriden Ansatz zur EOP-Vorhersage vor. Es gibt eine gut eingeführte stochastische Methode, die “kopula-basierte Analyse”, die wir mit der “Singulär-Spektrum-Analyse” (SSA) für die EOP-Vorhersage kombiniert haben . Wir analysierten das Potenzial kopula-basierter Methoden zur Vorhersage von Erdrotationsparametern, die aus der Kombination verschiedener geodätischer Satellitensensoren und aus anderen geophysikalischen Parametern, wie z.B effektiven Drehimpulsen, abgeleitet werden. Die Kopula ist eine statistische Methode, die lineare und nicht-lineare Beziehungen zwischen zwei oder mehreren Variablen nutzt, indem eine theoretische Kopula-Funktion an eine empirische, bivariate oder multivariate Verteilungsfunktion angepasst wird. Wir haben eine hybride Vorhersagemethode entwickelt, die auch auf andere geophysikalische Parameter angewendet werden kann.\\ In dieser Studie wird der Zusammenhang zwischen der Bewegung des Himmelspols (CPM) und dem geomagnetischen Feld (GMF) untersucht, um die derzeitigen CPM-Vorhersagemethoden zu verbessern. Während des letzten Jahrzehnts wurden mehrere Untersuchungen durchgeführt, um eine mögliche Verbindung zwischen polaren Bewegungen und geomagnetischen Ausbrüten - hierbei handelt es sich um rasche Veränderungen der säkularen Variationen des GMF - zu erörtern. Weniger Aufmerksamkeit wurde jedoch den Auswirkungen der GMF-Änderungen auf die CPM, z.B. der Wechselbeziehung der geomagnetischen Ausbrüte, des geomagnetischen Dipolmoments, der geomagnetischen Feldelemente und der CPM-Variationen, gewidmet. In dieser Studie verwenden wir CPM-Zeitreihen, die aus Beobachtungen der Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) gewonnen wurden und aktuelle GMF-Daten, um die Korrelation zwischen CPM und GMF zu untersuchen. Unsere vorläufigen Ergebnisse zeigen einige auffallente Gemeinsamkeiten in den CPM- und GMF-Variationen, die das Potenzial besitzen, unser Verständnis des GMF-Beitrags zur Erdrotation zu verbessern. Alles in allem veranschaulichen die Ergebnisse mathematisch die Kohärenz zwischen den GMF-Parametern und der CPM und weisen damit perspektivisch den Weg für eine Verbesserung der EOP-Produkte.

Description: This study presents an enhancement to the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) by integrating low Earth orbiters (LEOs) to a joint precise orbit determination (POD) processing. The Global Position System (GPS) operated by the United States is studied as a representative of all GNSS. The LEOs equipped with GNSS receivers supplement the receivers of the ground stations, especially for regions with a limited number of employed stations, which can be caused by various reasons. Due to the altitude and high velocity of LEOs, they not only contribute with additional observations, but also with a rapidly-changing observation geometry. Moreover, space-based observations have additional advantages over ground-based observations, e.g., signals are received without the impact of the troposphere. LEOs not only act as kinematic stations for GNSS satellites, but also bring additional orbit dynamics to the integrated system. The constraints caused by these orbit dynamics have an important impact on the determination of the orbits of the GNSS satellites and other parameters beyond that. In this thesis, the following topics are presented: 1) Background information and the basic principles related to the POD of GNSS satellites and LEOs, 2) the separated POD of GNSS satellites and LEOs, 3) the integrated POD, 4) the determination of the antenna phase center offsets (PCOs) of the GPS satellites and other geodetic parameters in the integrated POD. The orbit modeling and processing configuration used in this study for GNSS satellites and LEOs are verified to be compatible with state-of-the-art studies by the separated POD. The orbits of the GNSS satellites and LEOs reach an accuracy of a few centimeters and are comparable with the state-of-art studies. A more efficient outlier detection method has been developed to improve the position determined by using pseudo-range observations. In the study about the enhancement of the GPS orbits by integrating LEOs, a 26-station ground network in a global and sparse distribution is supplemented by different subsets of seven LEOs including GRACE-A/B, OSTM/Jason-2, Jason-3 and, Swarm-A/B/C. A 34% improvement of the GPS orbit in 1D-mean RMS (from 37.5 mm to 23.9 mm) is achieved by including the seven LEOs. Both the number of space-based observations and the LEOs' orbital geometry affect the GPS orbits where the orbital geometry is shown to be more important. The estimated GPS PCOs are also improved by including LEOs. For the x- and y-components of the GPS PCOs, the formal error is reduced significantly due to the additional observations and expanded nadir angle coverage brought by the LEOs during the periods of large solar-elevation angle. The z-component of the GPS PCOs (z-PCO) are strongly correlated with the scale of the terrestrial reference frame. By introducing the orbit dynamics of the seven LEOs to the processing without applying a no-net-scale constraint, the correlation coefficients between the GPS z-PCOs and the scale are reduced from 0.85 to 0.30. Consequently, the GPS z-PCOs can be estimated independently from the a-priori scale and a purely GNSS-based scale can be determined as well. A system-specific -25.5 cm offset of the GPS z-PCOs relative to the values offered by the International GNSS Service (IGS) is computed based on the seven-LEO-integrated solution. Another approach based on Galileo also solves this problem. The GPS satellites, multi-GNSS stations, and Galileo satellites with ground calibrated PCOs are processed jointly to calibrate the GPS z-PCOs and simultaneously determine a Galileo-based scale simultaneously. Based on the comparison and cross-check, a good agreement is shown between the LEO-based and Galileo-based methods. There is a slight improvement in the geocenter when including three Swarm satellites to the processing with about 80 ground stations over a half year. Based on the analysis in theory and the results derived from real data, an obvious enhancement to various aspects of GNSS by the integrated processing with LEOs is shown. More LEOs equipped with GNSS receivers and carefully calibrated PCOs are expected for further missions or even the next generation of GNSS.

Description: In dieser Arbeit wird eine Verbesserung der globalen Satellitennavigationssysteme (GNSS) durch die Einbindung von Satelliten in niedrigen Erdumlaufbahnen (LEOs) in eine gemeinsame präzise Bahnbestimmung (POD) vorgestellt. Das von den Vereinigten Staaten betriebene Global Positioning System (GPS) wird stellvertretend für alle GNSS untersucht. Die mit GNSS-Empfängern ausgestatteten LEOs ergänzen die Empfänger der Bodenstationen, vor allem in Regionen, in denen aus verschiedenen Gründen nur wenige Stationen verfügbar sind. Aufgrund der Orbithöhe und schnellen Bewegung der LEOs tragen diese nicht nur mit zusätzlichen Beobachtungen bei, sondern auch mit einer sich schnell verändernden Beobachtungsgeometrie. Darüber hinaus haben weltraumgestützte Beobachtungen zusätzliche Vorteile gegenüber bodengestützten Beobachtungen, z. B. werden Signale ohne den Einfluss der Troposphäre empfangen. LEOs stellen nicht nur kinematische Stationen für die GNSS-Satelliten dar, sondern bringen auch eine zusätzliche Bahndynamik in das integrierte System ein. Die durch diese Bahndynamik gegebenen Beschränkungen sind sowohl für die Bahnbestimmung der GNSS Satelliten als auch für weitere Parameter äußerst relevant. In dieser Arbeit werden die folgenden Themen behandelt: 1) Hintergrundinformationen und Grundprinzipien der POD von GNSS-Satelliten und LEOs, 2) eine separate POD von GNSS-Satelliten und LEOs, 3) eine integrierte POD, 4) die Schätzung der Antennen-Phasenzentrumsversätze (PCOs) der GPS-Satelliten und anderer geodätischer Parameter in der integrierten POD. Die separaten PODs bestätigen, dass die in dieser Studie verwendete Bahnmodellierungs- und Prozessierungskonfiguration der GNSS-Satelliten und LEOs mit dem aktuellen Stand der Forschung kompatibel ist. Die Bahnen der GNSS-Satelliten und LEOs erreichen eine Genauigkeit von wenigen Zentimetern. Es wurde eine effizientere Methode zur Erkennung von Ausreißern entwickelt, um die mit Hilfe von Pseudo-Range-Beobachtungen ermittelte Position zu verbessern. Ein Bodennetz mit 26 global dünn verteilten Stationen wird verwendet, um die Verbesserung der GPS-Bahnen durch die Integration von verschiedenen Teilgruppen der sieben LEOs GRACE-A/B, OSTM/Jason-2, Jason-3 und Swarm-A/B/C zu untersuchen. Bei der Einbeziehung aller sieben LEOs ergibt sich eine Verbesserung des 1D RMS Mittelwertes der GPS-Orbits von 34 % (von 37,5 mm auf 23,9 mm). Sowohl die Anzahl der weltraumgestützten Beobachtungen als auch die Geometrie der Bahnen der LEOs beeinflussen die GPS-Bahnen, wobei die Orbitgeometrie sich als der wichtigere Faktor erweist. Die geschätzten GPS PCOs werden durch die Einbeziehung von LEOs ebenfalls verbessert. Der formale Fehler der x- und y-Komponenten der GPS PCOs wird durch die zusätzlichen Beobachtungen und die größere Abdeckung des Nadirwinkels, den die LEOs während Perioden eines großen Sonnenstandswinkels mit sich bringen, erheblich reduziert. Die z-Komponente der GPS PCOs (z-PCO) ist mit dem Maßstabsfaktor des terrestrischen Referenzrahmens stark korreliert. Durch die Berücksichtigung der Bahndynamik der sieben LEOs in der Prozessierung werden ohne Fixierung des Maßstabes (d.h. ohne eine No-Net-Scale Bedingung) die Korrelationskoeffizienten zwischen den GPS z-PCOs und dem Maßstabsfaktor von 0,85 auf 0,30 reduziert. Folglich können zum einen die GPS z-PCOs unabhängig von einem externen Maßstab geschätzt werden und zum anderen kann ein rein GNSS-basierter Maßstabsfaktor bestimmt werden. Mit der integrierten Lösung mit sieben LEOs ergibt sich ein systemspezifischer Versatz der GPS z-PCOs von -25,5 cm relativ zu den vom International GNSS Service (IGS) veröffentlichten Werten. Ein anderer Ansatz basierend auf Galileo löst dieses Problem ebenfalls. Die GPS Satelliten, Multi-GNSS Bodenstationen und Galileo Satelliten mit bodenkalibrierten PCOs werden gemeinsam prozessiert, um die GPS z-PCOs zu kalibrieren und gleichzeitig einen Galileo-basierten Maßstabsfaktor zu bestimmen. Ein Vergleich zur Überprüfung zeigt eine hohe Übereinstimmung der LEO- und Galileo-basierten Methoden. Die Einbeziehung von drei Swarm Satelliten in eine Prozessierung mit etwa 80 Bodenstationen über ein halbes Jahr hinweg zeigt eine leichte Verbesserung des Geozentrums. Auf der Grundlage der theoretischen Analyse und der aus realen Daten abgeleiteten Ergebnisse zeigt sich eine deutliche Verbesserung verschiedener Aspekte der GNSS durch die Integration von LEOs. Es ist zu erwarten, dass mehr LEOs, ausgestattet mit GNSS-Empfängern und sorgfältig kalibrierten PCOs, für künftige Missionen oder sogar die nächste GNSS Generation eingesetzt werden.

Description: This report summarises the webinars organised in the REFLECT project between 2021 and 2022, in the framework of the WP6 Dissemination and exploitation, Task 6.2 – Ensure transferability and exploitation of project results. The Task 6.2 planned to inform the stakeholders identified in the matrix developed under Task 6.1 about the project activities and main outcomes. For this purpose, periodic webinars have been organised between 2021 and 2022 presenting these results and information.

Description: This report presents the stakeholder workshops organised in the REFLECT project, in the framework of the WP6 Dissemination and exploitation, Task 6.2 – Ensure transferability and exploitation of project results. The Task 6.2 planned to inform the stakeholders identified in the matrix developed under Task 6.1 about the project activities and main outcomes. For this purpose, two physical stakeholder workshops were organised during the project. The first workshop, at the start of the project, was dedicated to a first communication of the project’s objectives and expected outcomes. It also had the aim to receive feedback from geothermal operators on their most significant operational problems related to geothermal fluid properties. This first workshop was, therefore, limited to the Advisory Board members in order to build on their specific experience. The second stakeholder workshop presented the project’s results most relevant to geothermal operators or service companies/consultants. The objective of the second stakeholder workshop was to share projects results with a broad group of stakeholders. Therefore, it was widely promoted and the registration was open to all and free of charge. Both workshops received positive feedback from stakeholders and project partners.

Description: This deliverable summarises the methodology and results of the data collection for the European Fluid Atlas by the REFLECT project partners.

Description: The main objective of the work package 2 of the REFLECT project is to characterise relevant fluid properties and their reactions for saline fluids (type C). One of the specific goals was to collect fluid samples from several saline fluids from geothermal sites across Europe, determine their properties, and thus contribute to the Fluid Atlas (WP3). Additionally, the REFLECT team will compare those field data with data from lab experiments performed at near natural conditions. Samples of type C fluids were taken from several sites in Germany, Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands. The samples were analysed for major and minor ions, dissolved gases and isotopes.

Description: Global growth of industry and population leads to increasing demand of industrial and consumer goods. This necessitates an increase in mining activities and resource extraction. Resulting mine waste, and tailings serve as a repository for unused overburden and for the accumulation of processed waste-products. It is typical for so-called secondary iron minerals (SIMs) to be formed during the weathering of these materials under different pH-value conditions. Acid mine drainage (AMD) can result from rainwater infiltration and chemical processes within the deposited mass. Therefore, mine tailings must be spatially separated from their surroundings and monitored. The emergence of remote sensing methods provides new opportunities to survey large areas. In this work a remote sensing approach was used to discriminate SIMs from surrounding material and minerals and subsequently classify different SIMs on the surface. This allows to reconstruct (/comprehend the former) the acidic environments that prevailed during the formation of these minerals and gives indication of the occurrence of AMD. Various SIMs have pH-values ranging from strongly acidic (〈1.5, i.e., Schwertmannite and Copiapite) to neutral (〉7, i.e., Hematite). Classifying these SIMs, leads to the identification of contaminated areas. This method was developed based on a laboratory dataset with different minerals and vegetation samples. The datasets were originally acquired with hyperspectral HySpex cameras in the laboratory and were resampled to WorldView-3 (WV3) and Sentinel-2 (S2) band characteristics for analysis. A combination of different filter methods made pixel-based separation of SIMs possible. The results were subsequently classified using a RF-model to distinguish between different SIMs. In this training dataset, the RF model achieved an overall accuracy of 94.44% for the WV3 and S2 datasets (the area-adjusted overall accuracy was 93.45% and 93.62%, respectively). Subsequently, a second laboratory dataset with field samples was analysed using the same technique and the classification results were compared with XRD analyses of the samples. Satellite images from WV3 and S2 sensors were then analysed using this methodology. The results for the study area of volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits in the Republic of Cyprus, namely Skouriotissa and Apliki, were then compared. The results for the Skouriotissa mine region showed a potential area of 17.22 to 45.58 ha of strongly acidic environment (by classification of Jarosite, pH~2.4) and 8.86 to 26 ha of moderately acidic environment/ contamination (by classification of Goethite/Limonite, pH~5) based on the WV3 satellite image. 27.32 to 87.04 ha and 6.12 to 38.24 ha for the S2 image, respectively.

Description: Das Wachstum von Industrie und Bevölkerungszahl weltweit sowie technologische Fortschritte und Entwicklungen führen zu einer steigenden Nachfrage von Industrie- und Konsumgütern. Als Folge entstehen eine erhöhte Rohstoffnachfrage und ein Ausbau der Ressourcengewinnung sowie des Bergbaus. Abfallprodukte des Bergbaus und nicht genutztes Material (Abraum) werden meist in oder um den Abbaustandort aufgeschüttet. Diese sind natürlichen Degradationsprozessen ausgesetzt, bei denen saure Abwässer entstehen können. Dies geschieht durch die Verwitterung des Pyrit Minerals infolge der Infiltration von Regenwasser durch das Material. In unterschiedlichen pH-Wertumgebungen bilden sich unterschiedliche Minerale aus. Typisch sind die sogenannten sekundären Eisenminerale (SIMs – secondary iron minerals). Ein Auftreten dieser kann daher zu einer pH-Wert Abschätzung genutzt werden und mögliche saure Grubenwässer aufzeigen. Fernerkundungsmethoden bieten die Möglichkeit große Areale oberflächlich zu erfassen und abzubilden, was zu einer weitreichenden Überwachung genutzt werden kann. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine Methode auf Grundlage von multispektralen Fernerkundungsdaten (Satellitenbilder von WorldView-3 und Sentinel-2) entwickelt, welche sekundäre Eisenminerale identifiziert und klassifiziert. Die Identifikation wurde durch den Einsatz von Masken erreicht. So fand eine Unterscheidung zwischen Pixeln statt, die und die keine typische spektrale Signale von SIMs aufweisen. Die Klassifikation wurde mit Hilfe eines RF-Modells durchgeführt. Dieses wurde anhand synthetischer Labordatensätze entwickelt und validiert. Im Trainingsdatensatz erreichte das RF-Modell eine Gesamtgenauigkeit von 94,44 % für die WorldView-3 und Sentinel-2 Datensätze. Es wurden drei Klassen mit verschiedenen pH-Wert-Identifikationen unterschieden: Hämatit (pH〉7), Goethit/ Limonit (pH~5) und Jarosit (pH~2.4). Die Methodik wurde anschließend auf Satellitenbilder aus der Republik Zypern angewendet. Dabei standen die Minengebiete Skouriotissa und Apliki im Fokus, welche zu den vulkanogenen Massivsulfid-Lagerstätten (VMS-type) zählen. Die Ergebnisse für das Skouriotissa-Minengebiet ergaben auf der Grundlage des WV3-Satellitenbildes eine potenzielle Fläche von 17,22 bis 45,58 ha in stark saurem Milieu (Jarosit) und 8,86 bis 26 ha in mäßig saurem Milieu (Goethit/ Limonit) bzw. 27,32 bis 87,04 ha und 6,12 bis 38,24 ha für das Sentinel-2 Satellitenbild.

Description: The evaluation of the effect of organic compounds and microorganisms in formation and precipitation of colloids using artificial brines was performed by TNO using selected organic compounds based on the analysis of sampled fluids corresponding to the information gathered on the sites by GFZ. The same was done with biofilms prepared with microorganisms (Thermaerobacter sp., Penicilium citrinum) isolated from geothermal stations by UNINE. All carboxylic acids tested had an inhibiting effect on the precipitation of calcium carbonate. The biofilm components seem to develop intense interaction with the ions, nuclei and/or crystals formed during the executed experiments. In the presence of biofilms, the transformation of the intrinsically formed vaterite morphology to equilibrium calcite morphologies is delayed or hindered and scaling was inhibited.

Description: The Global Geodetic Reference Frame (GGRF) plays a fundamental role in geodesy and related Positioning, Navigation, and Timing applications, and allows to quantify the Earth’s change in space and time. The ITRF and ICRF are the two most important components to realize GGRF, while the determination of these two reference frames relies on the combination of several space geodetic techniques, mainly, VLBI, SLR, GNSS, and DORIS. The combination is currently done on either the parameter level, or the normal equation level. However, the combination on the observation level, or the so-called integrated processing of multi-technique on the observation level, provides the results of best consistency, robustness, and accuracy. This thesis focuses on the investigation of the integrated processing of GNSS and VLBI on the observation level. The benefits of integrated processing are demonstrated in terms of TRF, CRF, and EOP, while the impact of global ties (EOP), tropospheric ties, and local ties are underlined. Several issues in integrated processing are addressed, including the systematic bias in ties (for instance, LOD and tropospheric ties), the relative weighting. An automatic reweighting strategy based on the normalized residuals is developed, which can properly handle the uncertainty of the ties without losing too much constraint. A software with state-of-the-art modules is the prerequisite to perform integrated processing. Based on the GNSS data processing software: Positioning And Navigation Data Analyst (PANDA), the VLBI and SLR modules are implemented in the common least-squares estimator. Therefore, the best consistency can be guaranteed. The software capability is demonstrated with the single-technique solutions. The station coordinate precision is at millimeter level for both GNSS and VLBI, while the EOP estimates are comparable to other Analysis Centers and the IERS products. It is also demonstrated that the SLR station coordinate precision is improved by 20% to 30% with additional GLONASS and GRACE satellites to contributing to the LAGEOS and ETALON constellation. Focusing on the tropospheric ties in GNSS and VLBI integrated processing, its contribution is demonstrated for the first time comprehensively. Applying tropospheric ties improves the VLBI station coordinate precision by 12% on the horizontal components and up to 30% on the vertical component. The network scale repeatability is reduced by up to 33%. The EOP estimates are also improved significantly, for instance, 10% to 30% for polar motion, and up to 10% for other components. Furthermore, applying the gradient ties in the VLBI intensive sessions reduces the systematic bias in UT1-UTC estimates. The consistent TRF, CRF, and EOP are achieved in the integrated VLBI and GNSS solution. Applying the global ties, tropospheric ties, and local ties stables the reference frame. The ERP estimates in the integrated solution are dominated by the GNSS technique, and the VLBI technique introduces additional 10% improvement on the y-pole component in terms of the day-boundary-discontinuity. The UT1-UTC and celestial pole offsets are also slightly improved in the integrated solution. It is also demonstrated that applying the LTs inappropriately distorts the network and introduces systematic biases to the ERP estimates, addressing the necessity of updating the local surveys. Moreover, the coordinates of AGN are also enhanced by up to 20% in the integrated solutions, especially the southern ones. This study reveals the importance of integrated processing of multi-technique on the observation level, as the best consistency can be achieved, and the applied ties improve the solutions significantly. It is strongly recommended that for the future realization of celestial and terrestrial reference frames, the concept of integrated processing on the observation level should be implemented, and all the possible ties should be applied, including the global ties (EOP), local ties, space ties, and tropospheric ties. Such kind of integrated solution of all the four techniques can provide robust estimates of the reference frames and EOP, with the advantage of each technique exploited to its full extend.

Description: Der Globale Geodätische Referenzrahmen (Global Geodetic Reference Frame, GGRF) spielt eine fundamentale Rolle in der Geodäsie und den damit verbundenen Positionierungs-, Navigations- und Zeitmessungsanwendungen (Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, PNT) und ermöglicht die Quantifizierung der Veränderung der Erde in Raum und Zeit. Der ITRF und der ICRF sind die beiden wichtigsten Komponenten zur Realisierung des GGRF, wobei die Bestimmung dieser beiden Referenzrahmen auf der Kombination verschiedener raumgeodätischer Techniken beruht, hauptsächlich VLBI, SLR, GNSS und DORIS. Die Kombination wird derzeit entweder auf der Parameterebene oder auf der Normalgleichungsebene durchgeführt. Die Kombination auf der Beobachtungsebene oder die sogenannte integrierte Daten-Verarbeitung von Multi-Techniken auf der Beobachtungsebene, bietet jedoch eine Lösung mit der besten Konsistenz, Robustheit und Genauigkeit. Diese Arbeit konzentriert sich auf die Untersuchung der integrierten Daten-Verarbeitung von GNSS und VLBI auf der Beobachtungsebene. Die Vorteile der integrierten Lösung werden in Bezug auf TRF, CRF, und EOP aufgezeigt, während die Auswirkungen von „Global Ties (EOP), Tropospheric Ties, and Local Ties“ hervorgehoben werden. Einige Punkte der integrierten Verarbeitung werden in dieser Arbeit untersucht, einschließlich der systematischen Abweichungen von „Ties“ (z.B. LOD und Tropospheric Ties), der relativen Gewichtung usw. Anhand der normalisierten Residuen wird eine automatische Umgewichtungsstrategie entwickelt, mit der die Unsicherheit der „Ties“ angemessen behandelt werden kann, ohne dass zu viel Einschränkung dabei verloren geht. Eine Software mit modernsten Modulen ist die Voraussetzung für die integrierte Daten Verarbeitung. Basierend auf der GNSS-Datenverarbeitungssoftware Paket: Positioning And Navigation Data Analyst (PANDA) werden die Module VLBI und SLR in demselben Least-Squares-Estimator wie GNSS implementiert, damit kann man die beste Konsistenz in der Datenverarbeitung erreichen. In dieser Arbeit wird die Leistungsfähigkeit der Software mit den Ein-Technik-Lösungen demonstriert. Die Genauigkeit der Stationskoordinaten liegt sowohl für GNSS als auch für VLBI im Millimeterbereich, und die geschätzten EOP-Parameter sind auch mit der anderer Analysezentren und den IERS-Produkten vergleichbar. Es wird auch gezeigt, dass die Koordinatengenauigkeit der SLR-Station um 20-30% verbessert wird, wenn zusätzliche GLONASS- und GRACE-Satelliten zur LAGEOS und ETALON-Konstellation beitragen. Mit dem Schwerpunkt auf den „Tropospheric Ties“ in der integrierten GNSS- und VLBI- Daten Verarbeitung wird ihr Beitrag zum ersten Mal umfassend dargestellt. Die Anwendung der „Tropospheric Ties“ verbessert die Genauigkeit der VLBI-Koordinaten um 12% bei der horizontalen Komponente und bis zu 30% bei der vertikalen Komponente. Die Genauigkeit im Netzwerkmaßstab wird um bis zu 33% verbessert. Auch die EOP-Bestimmungen werden deutlich verbessert, z.B. um 10-30% bei polaren Bewegungen und bis zu 10% bei anderen Komponenten. Darüber hinaus reduziert die Einführung der „Gradient Ties“ in der VLBI-Intensivsession die systematische Abweichung in den dUT1-Bestimmungen. Die konsistente TRF, CRF, und EOP werden bei der integrierten VLBI- und GNSS-Lösung erreicht. Die Anwendung der „Global Ties, Tropospheric Ties and Local Ties“ stabilisiert die Bestimmungen des Referenzrahmens. Die ERP-Bestimmungen in der integrierten Lösung werden von der GNSS-Technik dominiert, und die VLBI-Technik bringt eine zusätzliche Verbesserung um 10% auf die Tagesgrenzen-Diskontinuität (day-boundary-discontinuity, DBD) für die y-Pol-Komponente. Die dUT1- und CPO werden in der integrierten Lösung ebenfalls leicht verbessert. Es wird auch gezeigt, dass eine ungeeignete Anwendung der LTs das Netzwerk verzerrt und systematische Abweichungen in die ERP-Bestimmungen einführt, wodurch die Notwendigkeit einer Aktualisierung der lokalen Tie Messungen deutlich wird. Darüber hinaus werden die Koordinaten der AGN in den integrierten Lösungen um bis zu 20% verbessert, insbesondere im Süden. Diese Arbeit zeigt die Bedeutung der integrierten Daten Verarbeitung von Multi-Technik auf der Beobachtungsebene, da die beste Konsistenz erreicht werden kann und die angewandten „Ties“ die Lösungen erheblich verbessern. Es wird nachdrücklich empfohlen, für die zukünftige Realisierung von himmelsfesten und erdfesten Referenzrahmen das Konzept der integrierten Verarbeitung auf Beobachtungsebene durchzuführen und alle möglichen „Ties“ anzuwenden, einschließlich der „Global Ties (EOP), Local Ties, Space Ties, and Tropospheric Ties“. Eine solche integrierte Lösung aller vier Techniken kann die robusten Bestimmungen der Referenzrahmen und der EOP liefern, wobei die Vorteile jeder Technik voll ausgeschöpft werden.

Description: South Wales is characterised by a rich variety of geologic formations and rocks of different ages and periods, and a large asymmetric syncline, as perhaps its most significant structural geological feature, extending from east to west over a length of approximately 96 km and 30 km from north to south, respectively. This oval-shaped syncline is part of the Variscan orogenic thrust and fold belt in Central Europe and covers some 2,700 km2, with coal-bearing rocks from the Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian Stage) deposited in the central syncline and older rocks outcropping in a peripheral belt around it. The coal-bearing sequence begins with Namurian grits and shales, overlain by the more productive Lower, Middle and Upper Coal Measures. A 3D structural geological model has been implemented for the central part of the South Wales Syncline and its bedrock geology. The oldest rocks in the model domain date back to the Pridoli Series from the uppermost Silurian, the youngest to the Westphalian Stage of the Upper Carboniferous. For model implementation, mainly open access data from the British Geological Survey (BGS) has been used. The final 3D structural geological model covers the entire Central South Wales Syncline and is 32.8 km wide and 36.6 km long. In total, the 3D model includes 21 fault zones and the elevation depth of ten surfaces: (1) Top Upper Coal Measures Formation; (2) Top Middle Coal Measures Formation; (3) Top Lower Coal Measures Formation; (4) Top Millstone Grit Group; (5) Top Dinantian Rocks; (6) Top Upper Devonian Rocks; (7) Top Lower Devonian Rocks (sandstone dominated); (8) Top Lower Devonian Rocks (mudstone dominated); (9) Top Pridoli Rocks; (10) Top Ludlow Rocks (in parts).

Description: This Technical Report presents data from a solaroptical spectral investigation in the area of the Rammelsberg non-ferrous metal mine in the Harz Mountains near the city of Goslar. The investigation refers to the local communion stone quarry (“Kommunionssteinbruch”) above the former mining area. As this is a nature conservation zone, all measurements were carried out in-situ without any physical sampling action. The field measurements were carried out in June 2019 in cooperation with Bergbau Goslar GmbH and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ). The data were collected within the research project ReMon (Remote Monitoring of Tailings Using Satellites and Drones, https://www.gfzpotsdam. de/en/section/remote-sensing-and-geoinformatics/projects/remon/) which aims at developing a prototypical monitoring system for mine tailings by using different sensors scaling from satellite- to drone-based. The data were analysed in the unpublished B.Sc. thesis of Constantin Hildebrand (Hildebrand, 2019). Sixteen different surface materials were determined and examined on-site. Point and imaging hyperspectral data were acquired (with the spectroradiometer PSR+ 3500 operating in the range of 350 - 2500 nm and with the Cubert FireflEYEUHD-185 hyperspectral camera with a range of 450 - 950 nm, respectively), both data sets are presented as spectral libraries. Chemical analyses of the samples were performed by using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS). LIBS data were collected using a handheld LIBS analyzer, the SciAps Z-300. In this report the different in-situ measurements are presented for each of the sixteen samples. Detailed information about the analysed material, the area of spectral sampling and geochemical analyses are explained in this report and can also be found in the additional Excel® sheet provided with the data.

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Description: This document is a collection of the REFLECT factsheets produced for promoting the project results.

Description: This deliverable summarizes the activities related to the development of predictive models to simulate the impact of fluid flow hydrodynamics and chemical composition uncertainties on the production behavior of geothermal assets. Specifically, in this report, the mineral precipitation behavior of the geothermal fluid was studied as both uncertainties in the fluid composition and the interaction between the fluid flow hydrodynamics and mineral precipitation can impact the deposition of the scaling. A workflow was developed to couple a multiphase flow solver to thermodynamics libraries and models which are used to simulate the precipitation amount and kinetics of different geothermal minerals. This coupled workflow will enable a better estimation of the location and amount of precipitated minerals in different location of a geothermal system. A detailed roughness model was developed to simulate the impact of mineral deposition to the fluid flow. In addition, an uncertainty quantification workflow was combined with the modelling framework to estimate the uncertainty bounds of the scaling and precipitation resulted from uncertainties in the fluid composition characterization and operational settings. The modelling and uncertainty quantification workflow was demonstrated on a barite precipitation case study in a heat exchanger. Initially, the impact of geo-chemical uncertainties (in fluid composition) on the mineral precipitation was assessed. Afterwards, the coupled fluid flow and precipitation model with the developed roughness model was tested. Finally, the coupled uncertainty quantification workflow with the coupled model was simulated to assess the impact of fluid composition uncertainties on mineral deposition. As an outcome of the simulation, the impact of uncertainties in the mineral deposition on reduction in the production rate and heat transfer (within the heat exchanger) was calculated. The developed framework is flexible and generic which can be applied to various production and operational challenges in geothermal assets. In the future, the workflow can be used to optimize the design and operation of geothermal assets considering various sources of uncertainties which is not only fluid composition but also operational conditions (link to D4.5 REFLECT), robust modelling of other geo-chemical and flow assurance challenges in geothermal sites or even developing geo-chemical risk maps for different sites within EU (link to WP3 REFLECT).

Description: This brochure is designed for scientists and engineers of upcoming drilling projects and explains the key steps and important challenges in planning and executing continental scientific drilling.

Description: We present a workflow to estimate geostatistical aquifer parameters from pumping test data using the Python package welltestpy. The procedure of pumping test analysis is exemplified for two data sets from the Horkheimer Insel site and from the Lauswiesen site, Germany. The analysis is based on a semi‐analytical drawdown solution from the upscaling approach Radial Coarse Graining, which enables to infer log‐transmissivity variance and horizontal correlation length, beside mean transmissivity, and storativity, from pumping test data. We estimate these parameters of aquifer heterogeneity from type‐curve analysis and determine their sensitivity. This procedure, implemented in welltestpy, is a template for analyzing any pumping test. It goes beyond the possibilities of standard methods, for example, based on Theis' equation, which are limited to mean transmissivity and storativity. A sensitivity study showed the impact of observation well positions on the parameter estimation quality. The insights of this study help to optimize future test setups for geostatistical aquifer analysis and provides guidance for investigating pumping tests with regard to aquifer statistics using the open‐source software package welltestpy.

Description: Article impact statement: We present a workflow to infer parameters of subsurface heterogeneity from pumping test data exemplified at two sites using welltestpy.

Description: German Federal Environmental Foundation (DBU) http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100007636

Description: In designed experiments, different sources of variability and an adequate scale of measurement need to be considered, but not all approaches in common usage are equally valid. In order to elucidate the importance of sources of variability and choice of scale, we conducted an experiment where the effects of biochar and slurry applications on soil properties related to soil fertility were studied for different designs: (a) for a field‐scale sampling design with either a model soil (without natural variability) as an internal control or with composited soils, (b) for a design with a focus on amendment variabilities, and (c) for three individual field‐scale designs with true field replication and a combined analysis representative of the population of loess‐derived soils. Three silty loam sites in Germany were sampled and the soil macroaggregates were crushed. For each design, six treatments (0, 0.15 and 0.30 g slurry‐N kg−1 with and without 30 g biochar kg−1) were applied before incubating the units under constant soil moisture conditions for 78 days. CO2 fluxes were monitored and soils were analysed for macroaggregate yields and associated organic carbon (C). Mixed‐effects models were used to describe the effects. For all soil properties, results for the loess sites differed with respect to significant contributions of fixed effects for at least one site, suggesting the need for a general inclusion of different sites. Analysis using a multilevel model allowed generalizations for loess soils to be made and showed that site:slurry:biochar and site:slurry interactions were not negligible for macroaggregate yields. The use of a model soil as an internal control enabled observation of variabilities other than those related to soils or amendments. Experiments incorporating natural variability in soils or amendments resulted in partially different outcomes, indicating the need to include all important sources of variability. Highlights Effects of biochar and slurry applications were studied for different designs and mixed‐effects models were used to describe the effects. Including an internal control allowed observation of, e.g., methodological and analytical variabilities. The results suggested the need for a general inclusion of different sites. Analysis using a multilevel model allowed generalizations for loess soils. The results indicated the need to include all important sources of variability.

Description: Temperate forest soils are often considered as an important sink for atmospheric carbon (C), thereby buffering anthropogenic CO2 emissions. However, the effect of tree species composition on the magnitude of this sink is unclear. We resampled a tree species common garden experiment (six sites) a decade after initial sampling to evaluate whether forest floor (FF) and topsoil organic carbon (Corg) and total nitrogen (Nt) stocks changed in dependence of tree species (Norway spruce—Picea abies L., European beech—Fagus sylvatica L., pedunculate oak—Quercus robur L., sycamore maple—Acer pseudoplatanus L., European ash—Fraxinus excelsior L. and small‐leaved lime—Tilia cordata L.). Two groups of species were identified in terms of Corg and Nt distribution: (1) Spruce with high Corg and Nt stocks in the FF developed as a mor humus layer which tended to have smaller Corg and Nt stocks and a wider Corg:Nt ratio in the mineral topsoil, and (2) the broadleaved species, of which ash and maple distinguished most clearly from spruce by very low Corg and Nt stocks in the FF developed as mull humus layer, had greater Corg and Nt stocks, and narrow Corg:Nt ratios in the mineral topsoil. Over 11 years, FF Corg and Nt stocks increased most under spruce, while small decreases in bulk mineral soil (esp. in 0–15 cm and 0–30 cm depth) Corg and Nt stocks dominated irrespective of species. Observed decadal changes were associated with site‐related and tree species‐mediated soil properties in a way that hinted towards short‐term accumulation and mineralisation dynamics of easily available organic substances. We found no indication for Corg stabilisation. However, results indicated increasing Nt stabilisation with increasing biomass of burrowing earthworms, which were highest under ash, lime and maple and lowest under spruce. Highlights We studied if tree species differences in topsoil Corg and Nt stocks substantiate after a decade. The study is unique in its repeated soil sampling in a multisite common garden experiment. Forest floors increased under spruce, but topsoil stocks decreased irrespective of species. Changes were of short‐term nature. Nitrogen was most stable under arbuscular mycorrhizal species.

Description: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaff (DFG)

Description: Little research attention has been given to validating clusters obtained from the groundwater geochemistry of the waterworks' capture zone with a prevailing lake‐groundwater exchange. To address this knowledge gap, we proposed a new scheme whereby Gaussian finite mixture modeling (GFMM) and Spike‐and‐Slab Bayesian (SSB) algorithms were utilized to cluster the groundwater geochemistry while quantifying the probability of the resulting cluster membership against each other. We applied GFMM and SSB to 13 geochemical parameters collected during different sampling periods at 13 observation points across the Barnim Highlands plateau located in the northeast of Berlin, Germany; this included 10 observation wells, two lakes, and a gallery of drinking production wells. The cluster analysis of GFMM yielded nine clusters, either with a probability ≥0.8, while the SSB produced three hierarchical clusters with a probability of cluster membership varying from 〈0.2 to 〉0.8. The findings demonstrated that the clustering results of GFMM were in good agreement with the classification as per the principal component analysis and Piper diagram. By superimposing the parameter clustering onto the observation clustering, we could identify discrepancies that exist among the parameters of a certain cluster. This enables the identification of different factors that may control the geochemistry of a certain cluster, although parameters of that cluster share a strong similarity. The GFMM results have shown that from 2002, there has been active groundwater inflow from the lakes towards the capture zone. This means that it is necessary to adopt appropriate measures to reverse the inflow towards the lakes.

Description: Article impact statement: The probability of cluster membership quantified using an algorithm should be validated against another probabilistic‐based classifier.

Description: Federal Ministry of Education and Research http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002347

Description: Copper (Cu) is an essential element for plants and microorganisms and at larger concentrations a toxic pollutant. A number of factors controlling Cu dynamics have been reported, but information on quantitative relationships is scarce. We aimed to (i) quantitatively describe and predict soil Cu concentrations (CuAR) in aqua regia considering site‐specific effects and effects of pH, soil organic carbon (SOC) and cation exchange capacity (CEC), and (ii) study the suitability of mixed‐effects modelling and rule‐based models for the analysis of long‐term soil monitoring data. Thirteen uncontaminated long‐term monitoring soil profiles in southern Germany were analysed. Since there was no measurable trend of increasing CuAR concentrations with time in the respective depth ranges of the sites, data from different sampling dates were combined and horizon‐specific regression analyses including model simplifications were carried out for 10 horizons. Fixed‐ and mixed‐effects models with the site as a random effect were useful for the different horizons and significant contributions (either of main effects or interactions) of SOC, CEC and pH were present for 9, 8 and 7 horizons, respectively. Horizon‐specific rule‐based cubist models described the CuAR data similarly well. Validations of cubist models and mixed‐effects models for the CuAR concentrations in A horizons were successful for the given population after random splitting into calibration and validation samples, but not after independent validations with random splitting according to sites. Overall, site, CEC, SOC and pH provide important information for a description of CuAR concentrations using the different regression approaches. Highlights: Information on quantitative relationships for factors controlling Cu dynamics is scarce. Site, CEC, SOC and pH provide important information for a description of Cu concentrations. Validations of cubist models and mixed‐effects models for A horizons were successful for a closed population of sites.

Description: Bavarian State Ministry of the Environment and Consumer Protection http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100010219

Description: Ministry of Agriculture and Environment Mecklenburg‐Western Pomerania

Description: In recent years, German cities were heavily impacted by pluvial flooding and related damage is projected to increase due to climate change and urbanisation. It is important to ask how to improve urban pluvial flood risk management. To understand the current state of property level adaptation, a survey was conducted in four municipalities that had recently been impacted by pluvial flooding. A hybrid framework based on the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) and the Protection Action Decision Model (PADM) was used to investigate drivers of adaptive behaviour through both descriptive and regression analyses. Descriptive statistics revealed that participants tended to instal more low‐ and medium‐cost measures than high‐cost measures. Regression analyses showed that coping appraisal increased protection motivation, but that the adaptive behaviour also depends on framing factors, particularly homeownership. We further found that, while threat appraisal solely affects protection motivation and responsibility appraisal affects solely maladaptive thinking, coping appraisal affects both. Our results indicate that PMT is a solid starting point to study adaptive behaviours in the context of pluvial flooding, but we need to go beyond that by, for instance, considering factors of the PADM, such as responsibility, ownership, or respondent age, to fully understand this complex decision‐making process.

Description: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002347

Description: Soil aeration is a critical factor for oxygen‐limited subsoil processes, as transport by diffusion and advection is restricted by the long distance to the free atmosphere. Oxygen transport into the soil matrix is highly dependent on its connectivity to larger pore channels like earthworm and root colonised biopores. Here we hypothesize that the soil matrix around biopores represents different connectivity depending on biopore genesis and actual coloniser. We analysed the soil pore system of undisturbed soil core samples around biopores generated or colonised by roots and earthworms and compared them with the pore system of soil, not in the immediacy of a biopore. Oxygen partial pressure profiles and gas relative diffusion was measured in the rhizosphere and drilosphere from the biopore wall into the bulk soil with microelectrodes. The measurements were linked with structural features such as porosity and connectivity obtained from X‐ray tomography and image analysis. Aeration was enhanced in the soil matrix surrounding biopores in comparison to the bulk soil, shown by higher oxygen concentrations and higher relative diffusion coefficients. Biopores colonised by roots presented more connected lateral pores than earthworm colonised ones, which resulted in enhanced aeration of the rhizosphere compared to the drilosphere. This has influenced biotic processes (microbial turnover/mineralization or root respiration) at biopore interfaces and highlights the importance of microstructural features for soil processes and their dependency on the biopore's coloniser.

Description: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659

Description: Application of farmyard manure (FYM) is common practice to improve physical and chemical properties of arable soil and crop yields. However, studies on effects of FYM application mainly focussed on topsoils, whereas subsoils have rarely been addressed so far. We, therefore, investigated the effects of 36‐year FYM application with different rates of annual organic carbon (OC) addition (0, 469, 938 and 1875 g C m−2 a−1) on OC contents of a Chernozem in 0–30 cm (topsoil) and 35–45 cm (subsoil) depth. We also investigated its effects on soil structure and hydraulic properties in subsoil. X‐ray computed tomography was used to analyse the response of the subsoil macropore system (≥19 μm) and the distribution of particulate organic matter (POM) to different FYM applications, which were related to contents in total OC (TOC) and water‐extractable OC (WEOC). We show that FYM‐C application of 469 g C m−2 a−1 caused increases in TOC and WEOC contents only in the topsoil, whereas rates of ≥938 g C m−2 a−1 were necessary for TOC enrichment also in the subsoil. At this depth, the subdivision of TOC into different OC sources shows that most of the increase was due to fresh POM, likely by the stimulation of root growth and bioturbation. The increase in subsoil TOC went along with increases in macroporosity and macropore connectivity. We neither observed increases in plant‐available water capacity nor in unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. In conclusion, only very high application of FYM over long periods can increase OC content of subsoil at our study site, but this increase is largely based on fresh, easily degradable POM and likely accompanied by high C losses when considering the discrepancy between OC addition rate by FYM and TOC response in soil. Highlights A new image processing procedure to distinguish fresh and decomposed POM. The increase of subsoil C stock based to a large extend on fresh, labile POM. Potential of arable subsoils for long‐term C storage by large FYM application rates is limited. The increase in TOC has no effect on hydraulic properties of the subsoil.

Description: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659