ALBERT

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Introduction. - 1.1. Research purpose. - 1.2. Research area and methodology. - 2. Atmospheric circulation and dynamic conditions. - 2.1. Atmospheric circulation. - 2.2. Atmospheric pressure. - 2.3. Wind. - 3. Radiation conditions. - 3.1. Cloud cover. - 3.2. Sunshine duration. - 3.3. Solar radiation. - 4. Thermal conditions. - 4.1. Ground temperature. - 4.2. Air temperature. - 5. Higric conditions. - 5.1. Relative air humidity. - 5.2. Precipitation. - 6. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature and humidity conditions. - 6.1. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature conditions. - 6.2. The influence of atmospheric circulation on humidity conditions. - 7. Comparison of meteorological conditions in the area of Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010-2011 with meteorological conditions in the years of 1975-2011. - 7.1. Introduction. - 7.2. Kaffiøyra. - 7.3. Waldemar Glacier. - Appendixes.

Note: Contents: Part 1 Introduction. - 1 Motivation. - 2 Goals. - Reference. - 3 Setting the Stage and Outline. - Part 2 Cosmic Radiation. - 4 Introduction to Cosmic Radiation. - 5 The Cosmic Radiation Near Earth. - 5.1 Introduction and History of Cosmic Ray Research. - 5.2 The "Rosetta Stone" of Paleocosmic Ray Studies. - 5.3 Some Important Definitions. - 5.4 The Origin and Properties of the Galactic Cosmic Radiation. - 5.5 Our Variable Sun. - 5.6 The Heliosphere, the Termination Shock, and the Current Sheet. - 5.7 Modulation of the Cosmic Radiation in the Heliosphere. - 5.7.1 The Cosmic Ray Propagation Equation. - 5.7.2 The Local Interstellar Spectrum. - 5.7.3 The Cosmic Ray Modulation Function and Potential. - 5.7.4 Practical Applications of the Modulation Function. - 5.7.5 Drift Effects (qA Positive and qA Negative Effects). - 5.7.6 Shock Wave Effects (The Forbush Decrease and GMIRs). - 5.8 Geomagnetic Field Effects. - 5.8.1 The Properties of the Geomagnetic Field. - 5.8.2 The Geomagnetic Cut-off Rigidity. - 5.8.3 The Earth's Magnetosphere and the Polar Aurora. - References. - 6 Instrumental Measurements of the Cosmic Radiation. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Ionization Chambers and Muon Telescopes. - 6.3 The IGY and IQSY Neutron Monitors, and Spaceship Earth. - 6.4 Satellite Borne Detectors. - 6.5 Latitude Effects and the Yield Functions. - 6.6 Inter-calibration of the Different Cosmic Ray Records. - 6.7 Cosmic Ray Archives. - References. - 7 Time Variations of the Cosmic Radiation. - 7.1 Introduction and Atmospheric Effects. - 7.2 The Eleven-and Twenty-Two-Year Variations. - 7.3 The Long-term Variations. - 7.4 Forbush Decreases, Globally Merged Interaction Regions and Some Smaller Effects. - References. - 8 The Solar Cosmic Radiation. - 8.1 Historical Overview. - 8.2 The Observed Production of Cosmic Rays by the Sun. - 8.2.1Ground Level Events. - 8.2.2 SEP Events Observed by Satellites. - 8.2.3 Paleo-Cosmic Ray Measurements of SEP Events. - 8.3 Overall Characteristics of the Solar Cosmic Radiation. - 8.3.1 The Energy Spectra. - 8.3.2 The Effect of Longitude Relative to the Central Solar Meridian. - 8.3.3 The Frequency of Occurrence, and the Detection of Historic SEP Events. - References. - Part 3 Cosmogenic Radionuclides. - 9 Introduction to Cosmogenic Radionuclides. - 10 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Atmosphere. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Interaction of Primary Cosmic Rays with the Atmosphere. - 10.2.1 Production of Secondary Particles. - 10.2.2 Ionization and Excitation Processes. - 10.2.3 Simulated Atmospheric Proton and Neutron Fluxes. - 10.3 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Atmosphere. - 10.3.1 Early Production Models. - 10.3.2 Production Cross-Sections. - 10.3.3 Production Rates and Inventories. - 10.4 Production Results and Analytical Tools. - References. - 11 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in Other Environmental Systems. - 11.1 Introduction. - 11.2 Terrestrial Solid Matter (Rocks, Ice). - 11.2.1 36Cl Production in Limestone and Dolomite. - 11.2.2 10Be and 14C Production in Ice. - 11.3 Extraterrestrial Solid Matter. - References. - 12 Alternative Production Mechanisms. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Natural Production Mechanisms. - 12.2.1 Cosmic Ray Induced Reactions. - 12.2.2 Radioactive Decay-Induced Reactions. - 12.3 Anthropogenic Production Mechanisms. - 12.3.1 Nuclear Power Plant and Nuclear Bomb-Induced Reactions. - 12.3.2 Research, Industrial, and Medical Induced Reactions. - References. - 13 Transport and Deposition. - 13.1 Introduction. - 13.2 Basics of the Atmosphere. - 13.3 Removal or Scavenging Processes. - 13.3.1 Wet Deposition. - 13.3.2 Dry Deposition. - 13.3.3 Gravitational Settling. - 13.3.4 The Big Picture. - 13.4 Modelling the Atmospheric Transport. - 13.4.1 Summary. - 13.5 Geochemical Cycles. - 13.5.1 Introduction. - 13.5.2 The Beryllium Cycle. - 13.5.3 Carbon Cycle. - 13.5.4 The Chlorine Cycle. - 13.5.5 The Iodine Cycle. - References. - 14 Archives. - 14.1 Introduction. - 14.2 Intrinsic Properties of the Cosmogenic Radionuclide Archives. - 14.3 Time Scales. - 14.4 Examples of Archives. - 14.5 Proxies and Surrogates. - 14.6 Properties of Data in the Cosmogenic Archives. - 14.6.1 Sampling Effects. - 14.6.2 Transfer Functions. - 14.7 Modelled Transfer Functions. - 14.7.1 10Be and 7Be in the Atmosphere. - 14.7.2 10Be and 26Al in Deep-Sea Sediments. - References. - 15 Detection. - 15.1 Introduction. - 15.2 Low-Level Decay Counting. - 15.3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. - 15.4 Decay Versus Atom Counting. - 15.5 Other Techniques, Optical Methods. - 15.5.1 Final Remarks. - References. - Part 4 Applications. - 16 Introduction to Applications. - 17 Solar Physics. - 17.1 Introduction. - 17.2 Solar Periodicities and the "Grand Minima" in the Cosmogenic Radionuclide Record. - 17.2.1 Solar Periodicities: Time Domain Studies. - 17.2.2 Solar Periodicities: Frequency Domain Studies. - 17.3 Cosmic Rayand Solar Effects in the Past. - 17.3.1 The Past Millennium. - 17.3.2 The Past 10,000 Years (the "Holocene"). - 17.3.3 The Long Solar Minimum of 2007-2009. - 17.4 The Heliomagnetic Field Throughout the Past 10,000 Years. - 17.5 Solar Irradiance and Terrestrial Climate. - 17.6 Radiation Doses on Earth and in Space in the Future. - 17.7 Quantitative Measures of Solar Activity for the Past. - 17.7.1 Reconstructed Sunspot Numbers. - 17.7.2 Modulation Function. - References. - 18 Galactic Astronomy. - 18.1 Introduction. - 18.2 Galactic Structure. - 18.3 Individual Supernova. - References. - 19 Atmosphere. - 19.1 Introduction. - 19.2 Studies of Atmospheric Mixing. - 19.3 36Cl Bomb Pulse as a Tracer of Atmospheric Transport. - 19.4 Concentrations and Fluxes. - References. - 20 Hydrosphere. - 20.1 Introduction. - 20.2 Tritium. - 20.3 Carbon-14. - 20.4 Krypton-81. - 20.5 Chlorine-36. - 20.6 Beryllium-7 to Beryllium-10 Ratio. - References. - 21 Geosphere. - 21.1 Introduction. - 21.2 Geomagnetic Field Intensity. - 21.3 Transport of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in Geological Systems. - 21.3.1 Introduction. - 21.3.2 Migration in Ice. - 21.3.3 Transport in Soils. - 21.3.4 Transport in Rocks. - 21.3.5 Formation of Loess Plateaus. - 21.3.6 Subduction. - References. - 22 Biosphere. - 22.1 Introduction. - 22.2 Radiocarbon Applications. - 22.3 Chlorine-36 in Ecosystems. - 22.4 Iodine-129. - 22.5 Aluminium-26. - References. - 23 Dating. - 23.1 Introduction. - 23.2 Absolute Dating. - 23.2.1 Principle of Radiocarbon Dating. - 23.2.2 Exposure Dating. - 23.2.3 10Be/36Cl- and 7Be/10Be-Dating. - 23.3 Synchronization of Records. - 23.3.1 10Be or 36Cl with 14C During the Holocene. - 23.3.2 The Use of Time Markers. - References. - Glossary. - Index.

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Basics. - 2 Radiative energy flows. - 3 How turbulence and cumulus clouds carry energy upward. - Appendix to Chapter 3: More about Eddy Fluxes. - 4 How energy travels from the tropics to the poles. - Appendix to chapter 4: Conservation of momentum on a rotating sphere. - 5 Feedbacks. - 6 The water planet. - 7 Predictability of weather and climate. - 8 Air, sea, land. - 9 Frontiers. - Notes. - Glossary. - Suggestions for further reading. - Bibliography. - Index.

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Overview of climate variability and climate science. - 1.1 Climate dynamics, climate change and climate prediction. - 1.2 The chemical and physical climate system. - 1.2.1 Chemical and physical aspects of the climate system. - 1.2.2 El Niño and global warming. - 1.3 Climate models: a brief overview. - 1.4 Global change in recent history. - 1.4.1 Trace gas concentrations. - 1.4.2 A word on the ozone hole. - 1.4.3 Some history of global warming studies. - 1.4.4 Global temperatures. - 1.5 El Niño: an example of natural climate variability. - 1.5.1 Some history of El Niño studies. - 1.5.2 Observations of El Niño: the 1997-98 event. - 1.5.3 The first El Niño forecast with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. - 1.6 Paleoclimate variability. - Notes. - 2. Basics of global climate. - 2.1 Components and phenomena in the climate system. - 2.1.1 Time and space scales. - 2.1.2 Interactions among scales and the parameterization problem. - 2.2 Basics of radiative forcing. - 2.2.1 Blackbody radiation. - 2.2.2 Solar energy input. - 2.3 Globally averaged energy budget: first glance. - 2.4 Gradients of radiative forcing and energy transports. - 2.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 2.5.1 Vertical structure. - 2.5.2 Latitude structure of the circulation. - 2.5.3 Latitude-Iongitude dependence of atmospheric climate features. - 2.6 Ocean circulation. - 2.6.1 Latitude-longitude dependence of oceanic climate features. - 2.6.2 The ocean vertical structure. - 2.6.3 The ocean thermohaline circulation. - 2.7 Land surface proeesses. - 2.8 The carbon cycle. - Notes. - 3. Physical processes in the climate system. - 3.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.1 Coriolis force. - 3.1.2 Pressure gradient force. - 3.1.3 Velocity equations. - 3.1.4 Application: geostrophic wind. - 3.1.5 Pressure-height relation: hydrostatic balance. - 3.1.6 Application: pressure coordinates. - 3.2 Equation of state. - 3.2.1 Equation of state for the atmosphere: ideal gas law. - 3.2.2 Equation of state for the ocean. - 3.2.3 Application: atmospheric height-pressure-temperature relation. - 3.2.4 Application: thermal circulations. - 3.2.5 Application: sea level rise due to oceanic thermal expansion. - 3.3 Temperature equation. - 3.3.1 Ocean temperature equation. - 3.3.2 Temperature equation for air. - 3.3.3 Application: the dry adiabatic lapse rate near the surface. - 3.3.4 Application: decay of a sea surface temperature anomaly. - 3.3.5 Time derivative following the parcel. - 3.4 Continuity equation. - 3.4.1 Oceanic continuity equation. - 3.4.2 Atmospheric continuity equation. - 3.4.3 Application: coastal upwelling. - 3.4.4 Application: equatorial upwelling. - 3.4.5 Application: conservation of warm water mass in an idealized layer above the thermocline. - 3.5 Conservation of mass applied to moisture. - 3.5.1 Moisture equation for the atmosphere and surface. - 3.5.2 Sources and sinks of moisture, and latent heat. - 3.5.3 Application: surface melting on an ice sheet. - 3.5.4 Salinity equation for the ocean. - 3.6 Moist processes. - 3.6.1 Saturation. - 3.6.2 Saturation in convection; lifting condensation level. - 3.6.3 The moist adiabat and lapse rate in convective regions. - 3.6.4 Moist convection. - 3.7 Wave processes in the atmosphere and ocean. - 3.7.1 Gravity waves. - 3.7.2 Kelvin waves. - 3.7.3 Rossby waves. - 3.8 Overview. - Notes. - 4. El Niño and year-to-year climate prediction. - 4.1 Recap of El Niño basics. - 4.1.1 The Bjerknes hypothesis. - 4.2 Tropical Pacific climatology. - 4.3 ENSO mechanisms I: extreme phases. - 4.4 Pressure gradients in an idealized upper layer. - 4.4.1 Subsurface temperature anomalies in an idealized upper layer. - 4.5 Transition into the 1997-98 El Niño. - 4.5.1 Subsurface temperature measurements. - 4.5.2 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the onset of El Niño. - 4.5.3 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the transition to La Niña. - 4.6 El Niño mechanisms II: dynamics of transition phases. - 4.6.1 Equatorial jets and the Kelvin wave. - 4.6.2 The Kelvin wave speed. - 4.6.3 What sets the width of the Kelvin wave and equatorial jet?. - 4.6.4 Response of the ocean to a wind anomaly. - 4.6.5 The delayed oscillator model and the recharge oscillator model. - 4.6.6 ENSO transition mechanism in brief. - 4.7 El Niño prediction. - 4.7.1 Limits to skill in ENSO forecasts. - 4.8 El Niño remote impacts: teleconnections. - 4.9 Other interannual climate phenomena. - 4.9.1 Hurricane season forecasts. - 4.9.2 Sahel drought. - 4.9.3 North Atlantic oscillation and annular modes. - Notes. - 5. Climate models. - 5.1 Constructing a climate model. - 5.1.1 An atmospheric model. - 5.1.2 Treatment of sub-grid-scale processes. - 5.1.3 Resolution and computational cost. - 5.1.4 An ocean model and ocean-atmosphere coupling. - 5.1.5 Land surface, snow, ice and vegetation. - 5.1.6 Summary of principal climate model equations. - 5.1.7 Climate system modeling. - 5.2 Numerical representation of atmospheric and oceanic equations. - 5.2.1 Finite-difference versus spectral models. - 5.2.2 Time-stepping and numerical stability. - 5.2.3 Staggered grids and other grids. - 5.2.4 Parallel computer architecture. - 5.3 Parameterization of small-scale processes. - 5.3.1 Mixing and surface fluxes. - 5.3.2 Dry convection. - 5.3.3 Moist convection. - 5.3.4 Land surface processes and soil moisture. - 5.3.5 Sea ice and snow. - 5.4 The hierarchy of climate models. - 5.5 Climate simulations and climate drift. - 5.6 Evaluation of climate model simulations for present-day climate. - 5.6.1 Atmospheric model climatology from specified SST. - 5.6.2 Climate model simulation of climatology. - 5.6.3 Simulation of ENSO response. - Notes. - 6. The greenhouse effect and climate feedbacks. - 6.1 The greenhouse effect in Earth's current climate. - 6.1.1 Global energy balance. - 6.1.2 A global-average energy balance model with a one-layer atmosphere. - 6.1.3 Infrared emissions from a layer. - 6.1.4 The greenhouse effect: example with a completely IR-absorbing atmosphere. - 6.1.5 The greenhouse effect in a one-layer atmosphere, global-average model. - 6.1.6 Temperatures from the one-layer energy balance model. - 6.2 Global warming I: example in the global-average energy balance model. - 6.2.1 Increases in the basic greenhouse effect. - 6.2.2 Climate feedback parameter in the one-layer global-average model. - 6.3 Climate feedbacks. - 6.3.1 Climate feedback parameter. - 6.3.2 Contributions of climate feedbacks to global-average temperature response. - 6.3.3 Climate sensitivity. - 6.4 The water vapor feedback. - 6.5 Snow/ice feedback. - 6.6 Cloud feedbacks. - 6.7 Other feedbacks in the physical climate system. - 6.7.1 Stratospheric cooling. - 6.7.2 Lapse rate feedback. - 6.8 Climate response time in transient climate change. - 6.8.1 Transient climate change versus equilibrium response experiments. - 6.8.2 A doubled-CO2 equilibrium response experiment. - 6.8.3 The role of the oceans in slowing warming. - 6.8.4 Climate sensitivity in transient climate change. - Notes. - 7. Climate model scenarios for global warming. - 7.1 Greenhouse gases, aerosols and other climate forcings. - 7.1.1 Scenarios, forcings and feedbacks. - 7.1.2 Forcing by sulfate aerosols. - 7.1.3 Commonly used scenarios. - 7.2 Global-average response to greenhouse warming scenarios. - 7.3 Spatial patterns of warming for time-dependent scenarios. - 7.3.1 Comparing projections of different climate models. - 7.3.2 Multi-model ensemble averages. - 7.3.3 Polar amplification of warming. - 7.3.4 Summary of spatial patterns of the response. - 7.4 Ice, sea level, extreme events. - 7.4.1 Sea ice and snow. - 7.4.2 Land ice. - 7.4.3 Extreme events. - 7.5 Summary: the best-estimate prognosis. - 7.6 Climate change observed to date. - 7.6.1 Temperature trends and natural variability: scale dependence. - 7.6.2 Is the observed trend consistent with natural variability or anthropogenic forcing?. - 7.6.3 Sea ice, land ice, ocean heat storage and sea level rise. - 7.7 Emissions

Note: Contents Preface Prelude 1 The Earth-atmosphere system 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Descriptions of atmospheric behavior 1.1.2 Mechanisms influencing atmospheric behavior 1.2 Composition and structure 1.2.1 Description of air 1.2.2 Stratification of mass 1.2.3 Thermal and dynamical structure 1.2.4 Trace constituents 1.2.5 Cloud 1.3 Radiative equilibrium of the Earth 1.4 The global energy budget 1.4.1 Global-mean energy balance 1.4.2 Horizontal distribution of radiative transfer 1.5 The general circulation 1.6 Historical perspective: Global-mean temperature 1.6.1 The instrumental record 1.6.2 Proxy records Suggested references Problems 2 Thermodynamics of gases 2.1 Thermodynamic concepts 2.1.1 Thermodynamic properties 2.1.2 Expansion work 2.1.3 Heat transfer 2.1.4 State variables and thermodynamic processes 2.2 The First Law 2.2.1 Internal energy 2.2.2 Diabatic changes of state 2.3 Heat capacity 2.4 Adiabatic processes 2.4.1 Potential temperature 2.4.2 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 2.5 Diabatic processes 2.5.1 Polytropic processes Suggested references Problems 3 The Second Law and its implications 3.1 Natural and reversible processes 3.1.1 The Carnot cycle 3.2 Entropy and the Second Law 3.3 Restricted forms of the Second Law 3.4 The fundamental relations 3.4.1 The Maxwell Relations 3.4.2 Noncompensated heat transfer 3.5 Conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium 3.6 Relationship of entropy to potential temperature 3.6.1 Implications for vertical motion Suggested references Problems 4 Heterogeneous systems 4.1 Description of a heterogeneous system 4.2 Chemical equilibrium 4.3 Fundamental relations for a mufti-component system 4.4 Thermodynamic degrees of freedom 4.5 Thermodynamic characteristics of water 4.6 Equilibrium phase transformations 4.6.1 Latent heat 4.6.2 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Suggested references Problems 5 Transformations of moist air 5.1 Description of moist air 5.1.1 Properties of the gas phase 5.1.2 Saturation properties 5.2 Implications for the distribution of water vapor 5.3 State variables of the two-component system 5.3.1 Unsaturated behavior 5.3.2 Saturated behavior 5.4 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 5.4.1 Condensation and the release of latent heat 5.4.2 The pseudo-adiabatic process 5.4.3 The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate 5.5 The pseudo-adiabatic chart Suggested references Problems 6 Hydrostatic equilibrium 6.1 Effective gravity 6.2 Geopotential coordinates 6.3 Hydrostatic balance 6.3.1 Hypsometric equation 6.3.2 Meteorological Analyses 6.4 Stratification 6.4.1 Idealized stratification 6.5 Lagrangian interpretation of stratification 6.5.1 Adiabatic stratification: A paradigm of the troposphere 6.5.2 Diabatic stratification: A paradigm of the stratosphere Suggested references Problems 7 Static stability 7.1 Reaction to vertical displacement 7.2 Stability categories 7.2.1 Stability in terms of temperature 7.2.2 Stability in terms of potential temperature 7.2.3 Moisture dependence 7.3 Implications for vertical motion 7.4 Finite displacements 7.4.1 Conditional instability 7.4.2 Entrainment 7.4.3 Potential instability 7.4.4 Modification of stability under unsaturated conditions 7.5 Stabilizing and destabilizing influences 7.6 Turbulent dispersion 7.6.1 Convective mixing 7.6.2 Inversions 7.6.3 Life cycle of the nocturnal inversion 7.7 Relationship to observed thermal structure Suggested references Problems 8 Radiative transfer 8.1 Shortwave and longwave radiation 8.1.1 Spectra of observed SW and LW radiation 8.2 Description of radiative transfer 8.2.1 Radiometric quantities 8.2.2 Absorption 8.2.3 Emission 8.2.4 Scattering 8.2.5 The Equation of Radiative Transfer 8.3 Absorption characteristics of gases 8.3.1 Interaction between radiation and molecules 8.3.2 Line broadening 8.4 Radiative transfer in a plane parallel atmosphere 8.4.1 Transmission function 8.4.2 Two-stream approximation 8.5 Thermal equilibrium 8.5.1 Radiative equilibrium in a gray atmosphere 8.5.2 Radiative-convective equilibrium 8.5.3 Radiative heating 8.6 Thermal relaxation 8.7 The greenhouse effect 8.7.1 Feedback in the climate system 8.7.2 Unchecked feedback 8.7.3 Simulation of climate Suggested references Problems 9 Aerosol and cloud 9.1 Morphology of atmospheric aerosol 9.1.1 Continental aerosol 9.1.2 Marine aerosol 9.1.3 Stratospheric aerosol 9.2 Microphysics of cloud 9.2.1 Droplet growth by condensation 9.2.2 Droplet growth by collision 9.2.3 Growth of ice particles 9.3 Macroscopic characteristics of cloud 9.3.1 Formation and classification of cloud 9.3.2 Microphysical properties of cloud 9.3.3 Cloud dissipation 9.3.4 Cumulus detrainment: Influence on the environment 9.4 Radiative transfer in aerosol and cloud 9.4.1 Scattering by molecules and particles 9.4.2 Radiative transfer in a cloudy atmosphere 9.5 Roles of cloud and aerosol in climate 9.5.1 Involvement in the global energy budget 9.5.2 Involvement in chemical processes Suggested references Problems 10 Atmospheric motion 10.1 Description of atmospheric motion 10.2 Kinematics of fluid motion 10.3 The material derivative 10.4 Reynolds'transport theorem 10.5 Conservation of mass 10.6 The momentum budget 10.6.1 Cauchy's Equations of Motion 10.6.2 Momentum equations in a rotating reference frame 1 0.7 The first law of thermodynamics Suggested references Problems 11 Atmospheric equations of motion 11.1 Curvilinear coordinates 11.2 Spherical coordinates 11.2.1 The traditional approximation 11.3 Special forms of motion 11.4 Prevailing balances 11.4.1 Motion-related stratification 11.4.2 Scale analysis 11.5 Thermodynamic coordinates 11.5.1 Isobaric coordinates 11.5.2 Log-pressure coordinates 11.5.3 Isentropic coordinates Suggested references Problems 12 Large-scale motion 12.1 Ceostrophic equilibrium 12.1.1 Motion on an f plane 1 2.2 Vertical shear of the geostrophic wind 12.2.1 Classes of stratification 12.2.2 Thermal wind balance 12.3 Frictional geostrophic motion 1 2.4 Curvilinear motion 12.4.1 Inertial motion 12.4.2 Cyclostrophic motion 12.4.3 Gradient motion 12.5 Weakly divergent motion 12.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent motion 12.5.2 Vorticity budget under baroclinic stratification 12.5.3 Quasi-geostrophic motion Suggested references Problems 13 The planetary boundary layer 13.1 Description of turbulence 13.1.1 Reynolds decomposition 13.1.2 Turbulent diffusion 13.2 Structure of the boundary layer 13.2.1 The Ekman Layer 13.2.2 The surface layer 1 3.3 Influence of stratification 1 3.4 Ekman pumping Suggested references Problems 14 Wave propagation 14.1 Description of wave propagation 14.1.1 Surface water waves 14.1.2 Fourier synthesis 14.1.3 Limiting behavior 14.1.4 Wave dispersion 14.2 Acoustic waves 14.3 Buoyancy waves 14.3.1 Shortwave limit 14.3.2 Propagation of gravity waves in an inhomogeneous medium 14.3.3 The WKB approximation 14.3.4 Method of geometric optics 1 4.4 The Lamb wave 14.5 Rossby waves 14.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent Rossby waves 14.5.2 Rossby wave propagation in three dimensions 14.5.3 Planetary wave propagation in sheared mean flow 14.5.4 Transmission of planetary wave activity 14.6 Wave absorption 14.7 Nonlinear considerations Suggested references Problems 15 The general circulation 15.1 Forms of atmospheric energy 15.1.1 Moist static energy 15.1.2 Total potential energy 15.1.3 Available potential energy 1 5.2 Heat transfer in a zonally symmetric circulation 1 5.3 Heat transfer in a laboratory analogue 1 5.4 Quasi-permanent features 15.4.1 Thermal properties of the Earth's surface 1 5.4.2 Surface pressure and wind systems 1 5.4.3 Tropical circulations 15.5 Fluctuations of the circulation 15.5.1 Interannual changes 15.5.2 Intraseasonal variations Suggested references Problems 16 Dynamic stability 16.1 Inertial instability 16.2 Shear instability 16.2.1 Necessary conditions for instability 16.2.2

Note: Contents: PART I INTRODUCTION, NUMERICAL OVERVIEW, AND DATA-SETS. - 1 The march towards the quantitative analysis of palaeolimnological data. - 2 Overview of numerical metods in Palaeolimnology. - 3 Data-Sets. - PART II NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MODERN AND STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 4 Introduction and overview Part II. - 5 Exploratory data analysis and data display. - Assessment of uncertainities associated with Palaeolimnological laboratory methods and microfossil analysis. - 7 Clustering and partitioning. - 8 From Classical to canonical ordination. - 9 Statistical learning in Palaeolimnology. - PART III NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 10 Introduction and overview of Part III. - 11 Analysis of stratigraphical data. - 12 Estimation of age-depth relationships. - 13 Core correlation. - 14 Quantitative environmental reconstructions from biological data. - 15 Analogue methods in Palaeolimnology. - 16 Autocorrelogram and Periodogram analysis of palaeolimnological temporal-series from lakes in Central and Western North America to assess shifts in drought conditions. - PART IV CASE STUDIES AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE PALAEOLIMNOLOGY. - 17 Introduction and overview of Part IV. - 18 Limnological responses to environmental changes at Inter-annual to decadal time-scales. - 19 Human impacts: applications of numerical methods to evaluate surface-water acidification and eutrophication. - 20 Tracking Holocene climatic change with aquatic biota from lake sediments: case studies of commonly used numerical techniques. - 21 Conclusions and future challenges. - Glossary. - Index.

Note: Contents: 1 The origins of ACSYS / Victor Savtchenko. - PART I OBSERVATIONS: 2 Advances in Arctic atmospheric research / James E. Overland and Mark C. Serreze. - 3 Sea-ice observation: advances and challenges / Humfrey Melling. - 4 Observations in the ocean / Bert Rudels, Leif Anderson, Patrick Eriksson, Eberhard Fahrbach, Martin Jakobsson, E. Peter Jones, Humfrey Melling, Simon Prinsenberg, Ursula Schauer, and Tom Yao. - 5 Observed hydrological cycle / Hermann Mächel, Bruno Rudolf, Thomas Maurer, Stefan Hagemann, Reinhard Hagenbrock, Lev Kitaev, Eirik J. Førland, Vjacheslav Rasuvaev, and Ole Einar Tveito. - 6 Interaction with the global climate system / T. A. McClimans, G. V. Alekseev, O. M. Johannessen, and M. W. Miles. - PART II MODELLING: 7 Mesoscale modelling of the Arctic atmospheric boundary layer and its interaction with sea ice / Christof Lüpkes, Timo Vihma, Gerit Birnbaum, Silke Dierer, Thomas Garbrecht, Vladimir M. Gryanik, Micha Gryschka, Jörg Hartmann, Günther Heinemann, Lars Kaleschke, Siegfried Raasch, Hannu Savijärvi, K. Heinke Schlünzen, and Ulrike Wacker. - 8 Arctic regional climate models / K. Dethloff, A. Rinke, A. Lynch, W. Dorn, S. Saha, and D. Handorf. - 9 Progress in hydrological modeling over high latitudes: under arctic climate system study (ACSYS) / Dennis P. Lettenmaier and Fengge Su. - 10 Sea-ice-ocean modelling / Rüdiger Gerdes and Peter Lemke. - 11 Global climate models and 20th and 21st century Arctic climate change / Cecilia M. Bitz, Jeff K. Ridley, Marika Holland, and Howard Cattle. - 12 ACSYS: Scientific foundation for the climate and cryosphere (CliC) project / Konrad Steffen, Daqing Yang, Vladimir Ryabinin, and Ghassem Asrar.

Note: TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION How to collect, process and identify diatoms Phytoplankton Periphyton Permanent preparation Health and Safety Light microscopy (LM) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) The Pathway to diatom studies CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGY AND APPLICATION OF DIATOMS Introduction Habitat Habit Frustule Structure Cytology Cell Division Movement of Diatoms Life Cycle Resting Stages Ecology and biomonitoring Palaeoecology and climate change Diatomite Diatoms in Forensic Science Harmful Diatoms Classification and Systematics CHAPTER 3 FEATURES AND ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY FOR DIATOM IDENTIFICATION Glossary of Terms Applicable to Diatoms Botanical Nomenclature A Mind Map Recent Name Changes CHAPTER 4 SHORT DIAGNOSTIC DESCRIPTIONS OF COMMON GENERA CENTRIC PENNATE DIATOMS ARAPHID GROUP MONORAPHID GROUP PRORAPHID GROUP BIRAPHID GROUP NAVICULOID SIGMOID GROUP HETEROPOLAR GROUP CYMBELLOID GROUP DIATOMS WITH RAPHE RAISED ON KEEL BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX OF DIATOM SPECIES ILLUSTRATED IN THIS GUIDE

Note: Introduction -- Citizen competence and democratic decision-making -- Data and methods -- The preference/policy link -- Policy domains and democratic responsiveness -- Interest groups and democratic responsiveness -- Parties, elections, and democratic responsiveness -- Democratic responsiveness across time -- Money and American politics..

Note: Ersch. unregelmäßig , Beiträge teilweise in Englisch

Note: Introduction and overview -- Climate policies in the United States -- Theories of climate policy -- The structural theory applied to the cases -- Causes of climate policies in the fifty states -- Air-pollution and energy policy making in California (the 1940s to the 1980s) -- Climate policy making in California (the 2000s to the present) -- Energy and climate policy making in New York State -- Energy and climate policy making by the federal government -- Conclusions : political opportunities for climate policy in the United States.

Note: Contents: Abstract. - Kurzfassung. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Motivation. - 1.2 Scientific questions. - 1.3 Method. - 2 Background and state of the science. - 2.1 The atmospheric aerosol. - 2.1.1 Relevance. - 2.1.2 Aerosol processes. - 2.1.3 Aerosol properties. - 2.2 The influence of ship emissions. - 2.3 Aerosol modeling. - 2.3.1 Selected results. - 2.3.2 Motivation to expand on previous work. - 2.3.3 The computational approach. - 2.3.4 Existing aerosol microphysics submodels. - 2.3.5 MADE3 as a successor of MADE and MADE-in. - 3 The aerosol submodel MADE3. - 3.1 Aerosol characteristics. - 3.1.1 Modes. - 3.1.2 Species. - 3.1.3 Mathematical representation of aerosol characteristics. - 3.2 Aerosol processes. - 3.2.1 Gas–particle partitioning. - 3.2.2 Condensation of H2SO4 and organic vapors. - 3.2.3 New particle formation. - 3.2.4 Coagulation. - 3.2.5 Renaming. - 3.2.6 Aging of insoluble particles. - 4 Box model tests. - 4.1 Model description: MADE vs. MADE3. - 4.2 Model description: PartMC-MOSAIC. - 4.3 Test case scenario. - 4.4 Results: MADE3 vs. MADE. - 4.4.1 Size distributions. - 4.4.2 Composition. - 4.5 Results: MADE3 vs. PartMC-MOSAIC. - 4.5.1 Size distributions. - 4.5.2 Composition. - 4.6 Summary and conclusions. - 5 MADE3 in the atmospheric chemistry general circulation model EMAC. - 5.1 Basic settings. - 5.2 Emissions. - 5.3 Transport. - 5.4 Gas phase chemistry. - 5.5 Cloud formation. - 5.5.1 Stratiform clouds. - 5.5.2 Convective clouds. - 5.6 Cloud and precipitation processing of the aerosol. - 5.7 Wet deposition. - 5.8 Dry deposition. - 5.9 Sedimentation. - 5.10 Optical properties. - 6 Evaluation of simulated tropospheric aerosol properties. - 6.1 Data comparability. - 6.2 The MADE3 aerosol within EMAC. - 6.2.1 Near-surface mass concentrations. - 6.2.2 Vertical distributions. - 6.2.3 Size distributions. - 6.2.4 Aerosol optical depth. - 6.2.5 Global tropospheric burdens and residence times. - 6.2.6 Summary and conclusions. - 6.3 Comparison to MADE. - 6.4 New features of MADE3. - 7 Effects of oceanic ship emissions on atmospheric aerosol particles. - 7.1 Effects of year 2000 emissions. - 7.1.1 Near-surface concentrations. - 7.1.2 Near-surface size distributions. - 7.1.3 Tropospheric burdens. - 7.2 Effects of an idealized fuel sulfur content reduction. - 7.3 Summary and conclusions. - 8 Summary, conclusions, and outlook. - Appendix. - A.1 Particle evolution in the box model study. - A.2 Gas phase chemical mechanism. - A.3 Liquid phase chemical mechanism. - A.4 Mode assignment of cloud residual aerosol. - A.4.1 Terminology. - A.4.2 Basic assumptions. - A.4.3 Algorithm for residual assignment. - A.5 Year 2000 aerosol in EMAC with MADE3. - A.6 Near-surface mass concentration evaluation. - References. - Acronyms, symbols, and species names. - Acronyms. - Symbols. - Tracers and chemical species. - Danksagung.

Note: Introduction: What is development? : indicators and issues -- State of development -- History of thought in development economics -- Impact evaluation of development policies and programs -- Poverty and vulnerability assessment -- Inequality and inequity -- International trade and industrialization strategies -- Explaining economic growth, the macro level -- Endogenous economic growth -- International finance and development -- Population and development -- Labor and migration -- Financial services for the poor -- Social assistance programs and targeting -- Sustainable development and the environment -- Common property resources and determinants of cooperation -- Human capital: education and health -- Agriculture for development -- Development aid and its effectiveness -- Institutional innovations and development -- Political economy and the role of the state -- The economics of farm households..

Note: Contents: Part I: Overview of the Changes in the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 1: Macroscale Hydrological Modeling and Global Water Balance ; Chapter 2: Historical and Future Changes in Streamflow and Continental Runoff ; Chapter 3: Changes in the Global Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Part II: Human Alterations of the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 4: Human-Induced Changes in the Global Water Cycle ; Chapter 5: Impacts of Groundwater Pumping on Regional and Global Water Resources ; Chapter 6: Land Use/Cover Change Impacts on Hydrology in Large River Basins ; Part III: Recent Advances in Hydrological Measurement and Observation ; Chapter 7: GRACE-Based Estimates of Global Groundwater Depletion ; Chapter 8: Regional-Scale Combined Land-Atmosphere Water Balance Based on Daily Observations in Illinois ; Part IV: Integrated Modeling of the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 9: Drivers of Change in Managed Water Resources ; Chapter 10: Modeling the Role of Vegetation in Hydrological Responses to Climate Change ; Chapter 11: Estimating Virtual Water Contents Using a Global Hydrological Model ; Index

Note: Climate change and non-ideal theory : six ways of responding to non-compliance / Simon Caney -- A climate of disorder : what to do about the obstacles to effective climate politics / Aaron Maltais -- Difference-making and individuals' climate-related obligations / Holly Lawford-Smith -- Reducing injustice within the bounds of motivation / Dominic Roser -- Taking UNFCCC norms seriously / Darrel Moellendorf -- Justice and choice of legal instrument under the Durban mandate : ideal and not so ideal legal forms / Peter Lawrence -- Emissions trading schemes in a 'non-Ideal' world / Jonathan Aldred -- A responsible path : advancing a full-participation climate regime through enhanced action on short-lived climate pollutants / Andrew Light and Gwynne Taraska -- Climate justice for LDCs through global decisions / Achala Abeysinghe and Saleemul Huq -- A free movement passport for the territorially dispossessed / Clare Heyward and Jorgen Odalen -- Aristotle on the ethics of communicating climate change / Melissa Lane and Michael Lamb -- Moral language in climate politics / Jonathan Pickering -- The costs of moralizing : how about a 'government house climate ethics'? / Christian Seidel -- Principles or pathways? Improving the contribution of philosophical ethics to climate policy / Martin Kowarsch and Ottmar Edenhofer..

Note: Contents: Front Matter -- Copyright -- Contents -- Acknowledgements -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Good health -- 3. The invisible mind -- 4. Inputs and outcomes -- 5. The individual -- 6. The practitioner -- 7. The public -- 8. The logic of insurance -- 9. Insurance: private and public -- 10. Equity and equality -- 11. The right to health -- 12. Inequality and health -- 13. Narrowing the gap -- 14. Equalising medical care -- 15. The cost of care -- 16. Cost containment -- 17. State, market and cost -- 18. Conclusion -- References -- Index

Note: Three stories of our time -- Trusting the spiral -- Coming from gratitude -- Honoring our pain for the world -- A wider sense of self -- A different kind of power -- A richer experience of community -- A larger view of time -- Catching an inspiring vision -- Daring to believe it is possible -- Building support around you -- Maintaining energy and enthusiasm -- Strengthened by uncertainty.

Note: Knowledge as a public good (2009)Open access, markets, and missions (2010) -- Open access overview (2004) -- Removing the barriers to research : an introduction to open access for librarians (2003) -- The taxpayer argument for open access (2003) -- It's the authors, stupid! (2004) -- Six things that researchers need to know about open access (2006) -- Trends favoring open access (2007) -- Gratis and libre open access (2008) -- The scaling argument (2004) -- Problems and opportunities (blizzards and beauty) (2007) -- Open access and the self-correction of knowledge (2008) -- Open access and the last-mile problem for knowledge (2008) -- The case for OAI in the age of Google (2004) -- Good facts, bad predictions (2006) -- No-fee open-access journals (2006) -- Balancing author and publisher rights (2007) -- Flipping journal to open access (2007) -- Society publishers with open access journals (2007) -- Ten challenges for open-access journals (2009) -- The final version of the NIH public-access policy (2005) -- Another OA mandate : the Federal Research Public Access Act of 2006 (2006) -- Twelve reminders about FRPAA (2007) -- An open access mandate for the NIH (2008) -- The open access mandate at Harvard (2008) -- A bill to overturn the NIH policy (2008) -- Open access policy options for funding agencies and universities (2009) -- Open access and quality (2006) -- Thinking about prestige, quality, and open access (2008) -- Not napster for science (2003) -- Two distractions (2004) -- Praising progress, preserving precision (2004) -- Who should control access to research literature? (2004) -- Four analogies to clean energy (2010) -- Promoting open access in the humanities (2005) -- Helping scholars and helping libraries (2005) -- Unbinding knowledge : a proposal for providing open access to past research articles, staring with the most important (2006) -- Open access to electronic theses and dissertations (2006) -- Open access for digitization projects (2009) -- Analogies and precendents for the FOS revolution (2002) -- Thoughts on the first and second-order scholarly judgments (2002) -- Saving the oodlehood and shebangity of the internet (2003) -- What's the ullage of your library? (2004) -- Can search tame the wild Web? : can open access help? (2005) -- Glossary..

Note: Conceptualizing climate change-related movement -- The relevance of international refugee law -- Climate change-related movement and international human rights law : the role of complementary protection -- State practice on protection from disasters and related harms -- "Disappearing states", statelessness, and relocation -- Moving with dignity : responding to climate change-related mobility in Bangladesh -- "Protection" or "Migration"? The "climate refugee" treaty debate -- Institutional governance -- Overarching normative principles..

Note: Introduction ; Part 1 - The Big Idea ; Part 2 - Global Toolkit of Practices and Species ; Part 3 - Perennial Staple Crops ; Part 4 - Perennial Industrial Crops ; Part 5 - Road Map to Implementation

Note: Contents: What has changed since the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment in 2005? Part 1. How the Arctic cryosphere is changing 1.1. The Arctic cryosphere 1.2. Monitoring change in the Arctic cryosphere 1.3. Snow cover is decreasing 1.4. Permafrost is thawing 1.5. Lakes and rivers are losing ice cover 1.6. Mountain glaciers, ice caps and the Greenland Ice Sheet are all diminishing 1.7. Summer sea-ice cover has declined dramatically Part 2. Why the Arctic cryosphere is changing 2.1. The Arctic climate is changing 2.2. The cryosphere interacts with other aspects of climate Part 3. More change is expected. Where in the Arctic? 3.1. Modelling the future 3.2. Future changes in temperature, rain and snowfall 3.3. Future changes in snow, permafrost, lake and river ice 3.4. Future changes in mountain glaciers, ice caps and the Greenland Ice Sheet 3.5. Future changes in sea ice Part 4. How these changes affect people and nature. Where in the Arctic? 4.1. Changing Arctic ecosystems 4.2. Changing supplies of natural resources 4.3. Changing access 4.4. Changing risks to buildings and land 4.5. Changing movement of contaminants 4.6. Changing Arctic living conditions Part 5. Why changes in the Arctic matter globally 5.1. Changes in the Arctic cryosphere affect the global climate 5.2. Melting Arctic land ice contributes to sea-level rise 5.3. Consequences for global society Part 6. What should be done? 6.1. Adapting to change 6.2. The big unknowns Glossary.

Note: Contents: Overview ; 1 From Climate Change to Poverty and Back: A Framework ; 2 Bad Seed: Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security ; 3 Threat Multiplier: Climate Change, Disasters, and Poor People ; 4 Under the Weather: Climate Change, Health, and the Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty ; 5 Lend a Hand: Poor People, Support Systems, Safety Nets, andInclusion ; 6 A Window of Opportunity: Climate-Informed Development and Pro-Poor Climate Policies

Note: Contents Preface Preface to the First Edition List of figures Abbreviations 1 Historical perspective (Roland A. Madden and Paul R. Julian) 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The intraseasonal, tropospheric oscillation 1.3 The elementary 4-D structure 1.4 Other early studies of the oscillation 1.5 The oscillation in 1979 1.6 Complexity of cloud movement and structure 1.7 Seasonal variations in the oscillation 1.8 The oscillation in the zonal average 1.9 Other effects of the oscillation 1.10 Summary 1.11 References 2 South Asian monsoon (B. N. Goswami) 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 South Asian summer monsoon and active/break cycles 2.1.2 Amplitude and temporal and spatial scales 2.1.3 Regional propagation characteristics 2.1.4 Relationship between poleward-propagating ISOs and monsoon onset 2.1.5 Relationship with the MJO 2.2 Mechanism for temporal-scale selection and propagation 2.2.1 30 to 60-day mode 2.2.2 10 to 20-day mode 2.3 Air-sea interactions 2.4 Clustering of synoptic events by ISOs 2.5 Monsoon ISOs and predictability of the seasonal mean 2.6 Aerosols and monsoon ISOs 2.7 Predictability and prediction of monsoon ISOs 2.8 Summary and discussion 2.9 Acknowledgments 2.10 Appendix 2.11 References 3 Intraseasonal variability of the atmosphere-ocean-climate system: East Asian monsoon (Huang-Hsiung Hsu) 3.1 Introduction 3.2 General characteristics of EA/WNP monsoon flow 3.3 Periodicity, seasonality, and regionality 3.4 Intraseasonal oscillation propagation tendency 3.5 Relationship with monsoon onsets and breaks 3.6 The 10 to 30-day and 30 to 60-day boreal summer ISO 3.6.1 The 30 to 60-day northward/northwestward-propagating pattern 3.6.2 The 10 to 30-day westward-propagating pattern 3.7 Relationship with tropical cyclone activity 3.8 Upscale effect of TC and synoptic systems 3.9 Final remarks 3.9.1 Close association with the EA/WNP monsoon 3.9.2 The CISO vs. interannual variability 3.9.3 Multiperiodicities and multiscale interaction 3.9.4 Others 3.10 References 4 Pan America (Kingtse C. Mo, Charles Jones, and Julia Nogues Paegle) 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Variations in the IS band 4.3 IS variability in December-March 4.3.1 EOF modes 4.3.2 The Madden Julian Oscillation 4.3.3 The submonthly oscillation 4.4 IS variability in June-September 4.4.1 EOF modes 4.4.2 Madden-Julian Oscillation 4.4.3 Submonthly oscillation 4.5 Intraseasonal modulation of hurricanes 4.6 Summary 4.7 References 5 Australasian monsoon (M. C. Wheeler and J. L. McBride) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Seasonal cycle of background flow 5.3 Broadband intraseasonal behavior: Bursts and breaks 5.4 Broadband intraseasonal behavior: Spectral analysis 5.5 Meteorology of the bursts and breaks 5.6 Characteristics and influence of the MJO 5.7 1983/1984 and 1987/1988 case studies 5.8 MJO influence on monsoon onset 5.9 Other modes and sources of ISV 5.10 Modulation of tropical cyclones 5.11 Extratropical-tropical interaction 5.12 Prediction 5.13 Conclusions 5.14 References 6 The oceans (William S. Kessler) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Heat fluxes 6.2.1 Salinity and the barrier layer 6.2.2 A 1-D heat balance? 6.2.3 The role of advection 6.3 Vertical structure under westerly winds 6.4 Remote signatures of wind-forced Kelvin waves 6.5 El Nino and rectification of ISV 6.6 ISV in the Indian Ocean 6.6.1 Differences between the Indian and Pacific Ocean warm pools and their consequences 6.6.2 Oscillations lasting about 60 days in the western equatorial Indian Ocean 6.6.3 Recent models of wind-forced ISV in the Indian Ocean 6.7 Other intrinsic oceanic ISV 6.7.1 Global ISV 6.7.2 Non-TISO-forced ISV in the tropical Indo-Pacific 6.7.3 ISV outside the equatorial Indo-Pacific 6.8 Conclusion 6.9 References 7 Air-sea interaction (Harry Hendori) 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Air-sea fluxes for the eastward MJO 7.3 Air-sea fluxes associated with northward propagation in the Indian summer monsoon 7.4 SST variability 7.5 Mechanisms of SST variability 7.6 SST-atmosphere feedback 7.7 Impact of slow SST variations on MJO activity 7.8 Concluding remarks 7.9 Acknowledgments 7.10 References 8 Mass, momentum, and geodynamics (Benjamin F. Chao and David A. Salstein) 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Angular momentum variations and Earth rotation 8.2.1 Length-of-day variation and axial angular momentum 8.2.2 Polar motion excitation and equatorial angular momentum 8.2.3 Angular momentum and torques 8.3 Time-variable gravity 8.4 Geocenter motion 8.5 Conclusions 8.6 Acknowledgments 8.7 References 9 El Nino Southern Oscillation connection (William K. M. Lau) 9.1 Introduction 9.2 A historical perspective 9.3 Phase 1: The embryonic stage 9.3.1 OLR time-longitude sections 9.3.2 Seasonality 9.3.3 Supercloud clusters 9.3.4 Early modeling framework 9.4 Phase 2: The exploratory stage 9.4.1 MJO and ENSO interactions 9.4.2 WWEs 9.5 Phase 3: ENSO case studies 9.5.1 El Nino of 1997/1998 9.5.2 Stochastic forcings 9.6 Phase-4: Recent development 9.6.1 A new ISO index 9.6.2 Composite events 9.6.3 The ISV-ENSO biennial rhythm 9.7 TISV and predictability 9.8 Acknowledgments 9.9 References 10 Theories (Bin Wang) 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Review of ISO theories 10.2.1 Wave CISK 10.2.2 Wind-evaporation feedback or WISHE 10.2.3 Frictional convergence instability (FCI) 10.2.4 Cloud-radiation feedback 10.2.5 Convection-water vapor feedback and the moisture mode 10.2.6 Multiscale interaction theory 10.2.7 Mechanisms of the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation 10.2.8 Atmosphere-ocean interaction 10.3 A general theoretical framework 10.3.1 Fundamental physical processes 10.3.2 Governing equations 10.3.3 Boundary layer dynamics near the equator 10.3.4 The 1.5-layer model for the MJO 10.3.5 The 2.5-layer model including the effects of basic flows 10.4 Dynamics of the MJO 10.4.1 Low-frequency equatorial waves and the associated Ekman pumping 10.4.2 Frictional convergence instability (FCI) 10.4.3 FCI mode under nonlinear heating 10.4.4 The role of multiscale interaction (MSI) in MJO dynamics 10.5 Dynamics of boreal summer ISO 10.5.1 Effects of mean flows on the ISO 10.5.2 Mechanism of northward propagation 10.6 Role played by atmospheric-ocean interaction 10.7 Summary and discussion 10.7.1 Understanding gained from the FCI theory 10.7.2 Model limitations 10.7.3 Outstanding issues 10.8 Acknowledgments 10.9 References 11 Modeling intraseasonal variability (K. R. Sperber, J. M. Slingo, and P. M. Inness) 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Modeling the MJO in boreal winter 11.2.1 Interannual and decadal variability of the MJO 11.2.2 Sensitivity to formulation of the atmospheric model 11.2.3 Modeling the MJO as a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon 11.3 Boreal summer intraseasonal variability 11.3.1 GCM simulations 11.3.2 Air-sea interaction and boreal summer intraseasonal variability 11.3.3 Modeling studies of the links between boreal summer intraseasonal and interannual variability 11.4 The impact of vertical resolution in the upper ocean 11.5 Concluding remarks 11.6 Acknowledgments 11.7 References 12 Predictability and forecasting (Duane Waliser) 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Empirical models 12.3 Dynamical forecast models 12.4 Predictability 12.5 Real time forecasts 12.6 Discussion 12.7 Appendix 12.8 Acknowledgments 12.9 References 13 Africa and West Asia (Mathew Barlow) 13.1 Overview 13.2 Summary of Africa research 13.2.1 West Africa 13.2.2 Eastern Africa 13.2.3 Southern Africa 13.3 Summary of West Asia research 13.4 Station data analysis 13.4.1 Methodology and data 13.4.2 Nairobi 13.4.3 Riyadh 13.5 Relevance of Gill-Matsuno dynamics and the role of mean wind 13.6 Summary and discussion 13.7 References 14 Tropical-extratropical interactions (Paul E. Roundy) 14.1 Introduction 14.2 A boreal winter composite of the global flow associated with the MJO 14.3 Response of the global atmosphere to heating in tropical convection 14.4 Influence of extratropical waves on tropical convection 14.5 Two-way interactions between the tropics and extratropics 14.6 MJO inf

Note: Contents: PART I CONCEPTS ; 1. Meghnad Desai (2003), ‘Public Goods: A Historical Perspective’, in Inge Kaul, Pedro Conceição, Katell Le Goulven and Ronald U. Mendoza (eds), Providing Global Public Goods: Managing Globalization, Part 1, New York, NY, USA, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 63–77 ; 2. Charles P. Kindleberger (1986), ‘International Public Goods Without International Government’, American Economic Review, 76 (1), March, 1–13 ; 3. William D. Nordhaus (2006), ‘Paul Samuelson and Global Public Goods: A Commemorative Essay for Paul Samuelson’, in Michael Szenberg, Lall Ramrattan and Aron A. Gottesman (eds), Samuelsonian Economics and the Twenty-First Century, Chapter 5, New York, NY, USA, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 88–98 ; 4. Inge Kaul and Ronald U. Mendoza (2003), ‘Advancing the Concept of Public Goods’, in Inge Kaul, Pedro Conceição, Katell Le Goulven and Ronald U. Mendoza (eds), Providing Global Public Goods: Managing Globalization, Part 1, New York, NY, USA, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 78–111 ; PART II INCENTIVES TO COOPERATE ; 5. Todd Sandler (1998), ‘Global and Regional Public Goods: A Prognosis for Collective Action’, Fiscal Studies, 19 (3), 221–47 ; 6. Joseph S. Nye Jr. (2002), ‘The American National Interest and Global Public Goods’, International Affairs, 78 (2), April, 233–44 ; 7. Amartya Sen (1999), ‘Global Justice: Beyond International Equity’, in Inge Kaul, Isabelle Grunberg and Marc A. Stern (eds), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century, New York, NY, USA, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 116–25 ; 8. Calvin Blackwell and Michael McKee (2003), ‘Only for my Own Neighbourhood? Preferences and Voluntary Provision of Local and Global Public Goods’, Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization, 52 (1), 115–31 ; 9. Eric Brousseau and Tom Dedeurwaerdere (2012), ‘Global Public Goods: The Participatory Governance Challenges’, in Eric Brousseau, Tom Dedeurwaerdere and Bernd Siebenhüner (eds), Reflexive Governance for Global Public Goods, Chapter 1, Cambridge, MA, London, UK: MIT Press, 21–36, references ; PART III PROVISION PATTERNS ; 10. Scott Barrett (2006), ‘Critical Factors for Providing Transnational Public Goods’, Expert Paper Series Seven: Cross-Cutting Issues, Chapter 1, Stockholm, Sweden: Secretariat of the International Task Force on Global Public Goods, 1‒58 ; 11. Cecilia Albin (2003), ‘Negotiating International Cooperation: Global Public Goods and Fairness’, Review of International Studies, 29 (3), July, 365-85 ; 12. Todd Sandler (2013), ‘Buchanan Clubs’, Constitutional Political Economy, 24 (4), 265–84 ; 13. Elinor Ostrom (2014), ‘A Polycentric Approach for Coping with Climate Change’, Annals of Economics and Finance, 15 (1), 97–134 ; 14. Fabrizio Cafaggi (2012), ‘Transnational Private Regulation and the Production of Global Public Goods and Private “Bads”’, European Journal of International Law, 23 (3), 695‒718 ; 15. David Gartner (2012), ‘Global Public Goods and Global Health’, Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, 22, 303–18 ; 16. Keith E. Maskus and Jerome H. Reichman (2004), ‘The Globalization of Private Knowledge Goods and the Privatization of Global Public Goods’, Journal of International Economic Law, 7 (2), 279–320 ; PART IV FINANCING SCHEMES ; 17. Agnar Sandmo (2007), ‘The Welfare Economics of Global Public Goods’, NHH (Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration) Working Paper 35, November, 1–25 ; 18. Ramses H. Abul Naga and Philip Jones (2013), ‘Helping Others or Helping Oneself? International Subsidies and the Provision of Global Public Goods’, Oxford Economic Papers, 65 (4), 856–75 ; 19. Dirk T.G. Rübbelke (2011), ‘International Support of Climate Change Policies in Developing Countries: Strategic, Moral and Fairness Aspects’, Ecological Economics, 70 (8), June, 1470–80 ; 20. Pedro Conceição and Ronald U. Mendoza (2006), ‘Identifying High-Return Investments: A Methodology for Assessing When International Cooperation Pays – and for Whom’, in Inge Kaul and Pedro Conceição (eds), The New Public Finance: Responding to Global Challenges, Part 3, New York, NY, USA, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 327–56 ; 21. Tony Atkinson (2006), ‘Global Public Finance’, Oxonomics, 1 (1), 2–4 ; 22. Ottmar Edenhofer, Michael Jakob, Felix Creutzig, Christian Flachsland, Sabine Fuss, Martin Kowarsch, Kai Lessmann, Linus Mattauch, Jan Siegmeier and Jan Christoph Steckel (2015), ‘Closing the Emission Price Gap’, Global Environmental Change, 31, 132–43 ; 23. Nancy Birdsall and Benjamin Leo (2011), ‘Find me the Money: Financing Climate and Other Global Public Goods’, Centre for Global Development Working Paper 248, i, 1‒50 ; PART V GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONS ; 24. Daniel Bodansky (2012), ‘What’s In a Concept? Global Public Goods, International Law and Legitimacy’, European Journal of International Law, 23 (3), 651–68 ; 25. Inge Kaul (2013), ‘Meeting Global Challenges: Assessing Governance Readiness’, The Governance Report, 33–58 ; 26. Julio Frenk and Suerie Moon (2013), ‘Governance Challenges in Global Health’, New England Journal of Medicine, 368 (10), 936–42 ; 27. José Antonio Ocampo (2010), ‘Rethinking Global Economic and Social Governance’, Journal of Globalization and Development, 1 (1), February, i, 1–27 ; 28. Peter H. Sand (2004), ‘Sovereignty Bounded: Public Trusteeship for Common Pool Resources?’, Global Environmental Politics, 4 (1), February, 47–71 ; 29. Nico Krisch (2014), ‘The Decay of Consent: International Law in an Age of Global Public Goods’, American Journal of International Law, 108 (1), 1–40 ; Index

Note: Contents: PART I: BASICS ; 1. Population Dynamics ; 2. Simple Frequency Dependence ; 3. Dynamics in n-dimensional Games ; 4. Equilibrium ; 5. Social games ; 6. Cellular Automaton Games ; PART II: APPLICATIONS ; 7. Rock-Paper-Scissors Everywhere ; 8. Learning in Games ; 9. Contingent Life Cycle Strategies ; 10. The Blessing and the Curse of the Multiplicative Updates (Contributed by Manfred K. Warmuth) ; 11. Traffic Games (contributed by John Musacchio) ; 12. International Trade and the Environment (contributed by Matthew McGinty) ; 13. Evolution of Cooperation ; 14. Speciation ; Glossaries

Note: Contents List of contributors Acknowledgments Introduction 1 Overview of the aquaculture feed industry / Zuridah Merican and Dagoberto Sanchez 1. Aquafeed in Asia 1.1 Introduction 1.2 A shift in equilibrium 1.3 Lower demand with EMS 1.4 Horizontal expansion and integration 1.5 Extruded and functional feeds 1.6 Rising production costs 1.7 Feed production and trends 1.8 New capacity and new entrants 1.9 Shrimp feed types 1.10 Feed prices 1.11 Country developments 2. Aquafeed in the Americas 2.1 Development of aquafeed production in the Americas 2.2 Country development Acknowledgments References 2 Feed formulation software / A. Victor Suresh 2.1 Introduction 2.2 General overview of the formulation process in the feed industry 2.3 LP-based feed formulation 2.4 Essential components of LP-based feed formulation software 2.5 Software options 2.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 3 Understanding the nutritional and biological constraints of ingredients to optimize their application in aquaculture feeds / Brett Glencross 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Characterizing ingredients 3.3 Chemical composition of oils 3.4 Digestibility, palatability, and utilization value of plant protein meals 3.5 Nutritional value of plant and animal oils to aquaculture species 3.6 Processing effects of ingredients References 4 Nutrient requirements / Cesar Molina-Poveda 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Proteins and amino acids 4.3 Lipids and fatty acids 4.4 Carbohydrates 4.5 Nutritional energetics 4.6 Vitamins 4.7 Minerals References 5 Functional feed additives in aquaculture feeds / Pedro Encarnagao 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Phytogenies 5.3 Organic acids 5.4 Yeast products 5.5 Probiotics 5.6 Enzymes 5.7 Mycotoxin binders References 6 Optimizing nutritional quality of aquafeeds / Karthik Masagounder, Sheila Ramos, Ingolf Reimann and Girish Channarayapatna 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Sources of nutrient database 6.3 Nutrient levels and variability in commonly used raw materials 6.4 Impact of heat damage on the amino acid level and their variability 6.5 Proximate nutrients of raw material 6.6 Managing nutrient variation 6.7 Integration of Laboratory Information Management System and formulation 6.8 Summary References Index

Note: Table of Contents Preface Chapter 1. North-East Eurasia (Siberia) in the Context of World History: New Concepts / Vladislav Kokoulin and Igor Likhomanov Chapter 2. The Past, Present, and Future of the use of the Agricultural Soils of Siberia / W. Halicki and K. Kita Chapter 3. Agroecological Monitoring of the Carbon Transformation in Agroecosystems on Gray Forest Soils of the Baikal Region under Current Climatic Changes and Conditions of Fluoride Pollution / L. V. Pomazkina and Yu. V. Semenova Chapter 4. Ecology of Avian Influenza Viruses in Siberia / Maria Alessandra De Marco, Kirill Sharshov, Marina Gulyaeva, Mauro Delogu, Lorenzo Ciccarese, Maria Rita Castrucci, Alexander Shestopalov Chapter 5. Assessment of Biogenic Substances of Selected Terrestrial Waters in the Northern Part of Western Siberia: Significance for Ecology and Climate Change / W. Halicki, M. W. Kochanska and S. N. Kirpotin Chapter 6. Quality Assessment of Selected Surface Waters of the Arctic Tundra of Western Siberia in the Context of Climate Change / W. Halicki, M.W. Kochanska and S.N. Kirpotin Index

Note: Contents 1 High elevation treelines 1.1 The task 1.2 Previous works 2 Definitions and conventions 2.1 The life form ‘tree’ 2.2 Lines and transitions 2.3 Limitation, stress and disturbance 2.4 Altitude-related and other environmental drivers 2.5 Treeline nomenclature 3 Treeline patterns 3.1 Treeline taxa 3.2 The summit syndrome and other treeline depressions 3.3 Mass elevation effect 3.4 Treeline elevation 3.5 Time matters 3.6 Forest structure near treeline 4 Treeline climate 4.1 Specific aspects of treeline climatology 4.2 Criteria to define temperature regimes at treeline 4.3 Treeline temperatures in different bioclimatic regions 4.3.1 Subarctic and boreal zone (45–68° N) 4.3.2 Cool temperate zone (45–47° N, 44° S) 4.3.3 Warm temperate zone (28–42° N, 36° S) 4.3.4 Subtropical zone (19° S, 19° N) 4.3.5 Equatorial tropics (6° N to 3° S) 4.3.6 Mediterranean ‘treelines’ (38–42° N) 4.3.7 The Nothofagus and Metrosideros case 4.3.8 Treeline temperatures across bioclimatic zones 4.4 Seedbed and branch temperatures 4.5 Whole forest temperatures 5 Global mountain statistics based on treeline elevation 5.1 Mountain geostatistics 5.2 Elevational belts 5.3 Global treeline ecotones 6 Structure and stature of treeline trees 6.1 Foliage properties 6.2 Wood properties 6.3 Bark properties 6.4 Root traits 6.5 Tree stature 6.6 Dry matter allocation in treeline trees 7 Growth and development 7.1 Tree growth near the treeline 7.1.1 In situ growth of seedlings 7.1.2 In situ growth of saplings and adult trees 7.2 Xylogenesis at the treeline 7.2.1 In situ cambial activity 7.2.2 Apical growth dynamics 7.3 Root growth 7.4 Phenology at the treeline 8 Evolutionary adjustments to life at the treeline 8.1 Phylogenetic selection 8.2 Genotypic responses of growth and development 8.3 Genotypic responses of physiological traits 9 Reproduction, early life stages and tree demography 9.1 Amount and quality of seeds at high elevation 9.2 Germination, seedling and sapling stage 9.3 Tree demography at the treeline 10 Freezing and other forms of stress 10.1 Stress at the treeline in a fitness context 10.2 Mechanisms and principles of freezing resistance 10.3 Freezing resistance in treeline trees 10.4 Other forms of stress at the treeline 10.4.1 Freeze-thaw cycles and hydraulic failure 10.4.2 Winter desiccation 11 Water, nutrient and carbon relations 11.1 Tree water relations during the growing season 11.2 Nutrient relations 11.3 Carbon relations 12 Treeline formation - currently, in the past and in the future 12.1 Causes of current treelines 12.2 Treelines in the recent past 12.3 Treelines in the distant past (Holocene) 12.4 Treelines in the future References Subject Index Taxonomic Index

Note: Contents 1 Introducing Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba Dana, 1850 / Volker Siegel 2 Distribution, Biomass and Demography of Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba / Volker Siegel and Jonathan L. Watkins 3 Age, Growth, Mortality, and Recruitment of Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba / Christian S. Reiss 4 Physiology of Euphausia superba / Bettina Meyer and Mathias Teschke 5 Feeding and Food Processing in Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba Dana) / Katrin Schmidt and Angus Atkinson 6 Reproduction and Larval Development in Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba) / So Kawaguchi 7 Genetics of Antarctic Krill / Simon N. Jarman and Bruce E. Deagle 8 Swarming and Behaviour in Antarctic Krill / Geraint A. Tarling and Sophie Fielding 9 The Importance of Krill Predation in the Southern Ocean / Philip N. Trathan and Simeon L. Hill 10 Parasites and Diseases / Jaime Go´mez-Gutie´rrez and Jose´ Rau´l Morales-A´ vila 11 The Fishery for Antarctic Krill: Its Current Status and Management Regime / Stephen Nicol and Jacqueline Foster Glossary Subject Index Genera and Species Index

Note: Contents Part I The Algae Cell The Cell Cycle of Microalgae / Vilém Zachleder, Kateřina Bišová, and Milada Vítová Biosynthesis of the Cell Walls of the Algae / David S. Domozych Part II The Fundamental Physiological Processes Photosynthesis and Light Harvesting in Algae / Anthony W. Larkum Carbon Acquisition by Microalgae / John Beardall and John A. Raven Fundamentals and Recent Advances in Hydrogen Production and Nitrogen Fixation in Cyanobacteria / Namita Khanna, Patrícia Raleiras, and Peter Lindblad Dark Respiration and Organic Carbon Loss / John A. Raven and John Beardall Part III Nutrients and Their Acquisition Combined Nitrogen / John A. Raven and Mario Giordano Nutrients and Their Acquisition: Phosphorus Physiology in Microalgae / Sonya T. Dyhrman Sulphur and Algae: Metabolism, Ecology and Evolution / Mario Giordano and Laura Prioretti Micronutrients / Antonietta Quigg Iron / Adrian Marchetti and Maria T. Maldonado Selenium in Algae / Hiroya Araie and Yoshihiro Shiraiwa Silicification in the Microalgae / Zoe V. Finkel Calcification / Alison R. Taylor and Colin Brownlee Part IV Algae Interactions with Environment Chemically-Mediated Interactions in Microalgae / Michael A. Borowitzka Coping with High and Variable Salinity: Molecular Aspects of Compatible Solute Accumulation / Martin Hagemann Effects of Global Change, Including UV and UV Screening Compounds / Richa, Rajeshwar P. Sinha, and Donat-P. Häder Part V Secondary Metabolites Lipid Metabolism in Microalgae / Inna Khozin-Goldberg Sterols in Microalgae / John K. Volkman Carotenoids / Einar Skarstad Egeland Exocellular Polysaccharides in Microalgae and Cyanobacteria: Chemical Features, Role and Enzymes and Genes Involved in Their Biosynthesis / Federico Rossi and Roberto De Philippis Algae Genome-Scale Reconstruction, Modelling and Applications / Cristiana G.O. Dal’Molin and Lars K. Nielsen Part VI Applications Algal Physiology and Large-Scale Outdoor Cultures of Microalgae / Michael A. Borowitzka Part VII Systematics and Taxonomy Systematics, Taxonomy and Species Names: Do They Matter? / Michael A. Borowitzka

Note: Contents 1 The Protein Data Bank 2 Seeing Is Believing: Methods of Structure Solution 3 Visualizing the Invisible World of Molecules 4 The Twists and Turns of DNA 5 The Central Dogma 6 The Secret of Life: The Genetic Code 7 Evolution in Action 8 How Evolution Shapes Proteins 9 The Universe of Protein Folds 10 Order and Chaos in Protein Structure 11 Molecular Electronics 12 Green Energy 13 Peak Performance 14 Cellular Signaling Networks 15 GPCRs Revealed 16 Signaling with Hormones 17 Single-Molecule Chemistry: Enzyme Action and the Transition State 18 Seven Wonders of the World of Enzymes 19 Building Bodies 20 Coloring the Biological World 21 Amazing Antibodies 22 Attack and Defense: Weapons of the Immune System 23 Reconstructing HIV Erratum

Note: Contents: 1 Introduction. - 1.1 The world cold regions. - 1.2 Water in frozen soils. - 1.3 Permafrost. - 1.3.1 Definitions. - 1.3.2. Distribution. - 1.3.3. Factors influencing permafrost occurence. - 1.4 Permafrost and hydrology. - 1.4.1 Permafrost hydrology. - 1.4.2 Hydrologic behavior of seasonal frost and permafrost. - 1.5 Environments of permafrost regions. - 1.5.1 Hydroclimatology. - 1.5.2 Geology. - 1.5.3 Glaciation. - 1.5.4 Physiography. - 1.5.5 Vegetation. - 1.5.6 Peat cover. - 1.6 Presentation of the book. - 2 Moisture and heat. - 2.1 Precipitation. - 2.1.1 General pattern. - 2.1.2 Cyclones. - 2.1.3 Recycling. - 2.1.4 Trace precipitation. - 2.2 Surface energy balance. - 2.3 Evaporation. - 2.3.1 Eddy Fluctuation Method. - 2.3.2 Aerodynamic method. - 2.3.3 Bowen Ratio Method. - 2.3.4 Priestley and Taylor Method. - 2.4 Energy balance of the active layer. - 2.4.1 Energy Balance. - 2.4.2 Thermal conductivity and heat capacity. - 2.5 Ground temperature. - 2.5.1 Penetration of temperature waves. - 2.5.2 Frost table development. - 2.6 Heat and moisture flows in frozen soils. - 2.6.1 Stefan's Algorithm. - 2.6.2 Near-Surface ground temperature. - 2.6.3 Moisture migration and ice lens formation. - 2.7 Ground ice. - 2.7.1 Types of ground ice. - 2.7.2 Excess ice. - 3 Groundwater. - 3.1 Groundwater occurence in permafrost. - 3.1.1 Suprapermafrost groundwater. - 3.1.2 Intrapermafrost groundwater. - 3.1.3 Subpermafrost groundwater. - 3.2 Groundwater recharge and circulation. - 3.2.1 Recharge. - 3.2.2 Groundwater movement. - 3.3 Groundwater discharge. - 3.3.1 Seeps. - 3.3.2 Springs. - 3.3.3 Baseflow. - 3.3.4 Ponds and lakes. - 3.4 Icings. - 3.4.1 Ground and spring icings. - 3.4.2 River icings. - 3.4.3 Icing dimension. - 3.4.4 Icing problems. - 3.5 Domed ice features. - 3.5.1 Frost mounds and icing mounds. - 3.5.2 Pingos. - References. - 4 Snow cover. - 4.1 Snow accumulation. - 4.1.1 Winter precipitation. - 4.1.2 Blowing snow. - 4.1.3 Terrain heterogeneity. - 4.1.4 Vegetation cover. - 4.2 Characteristics of the snow cover. - 4.2.1 Snow temperature and insulation. - 4.2.2 Snow metamorphism. - 4.2.3 Snow stratigraphy. - 4.3 Snowmelt processes. - 4.3.1 Radiation melt. - 4.3.2 Turbulent fluxes melt. - 4.3.3 Other melt terms. - 4.4 Snowmelt in permafrost areas. - 4.4.1 Tundra and Barren areas. - 4.4.2 Dirty snow. - 4.4.3 Shrub fields. - 4.4.4 Forests. - 4.5 Meltwater movement in snow. - 4.5.1 Dry snow. - 4.5.2 Wet snow. - References. - 5 Active layer dynamics. - 5.1 Freeze-back and winter periods. - 5.1.1 Snow cover and ground freezing. - 5.1.2 Moisture flux and ice formation. - 5.1.3 Vapor flux from soil to snow. - 5.2 Snowmelt period. - 5.2.1 Snowmelt and basal ice. - 5.2.2 Infiltration into frozen soil. - 5.2.3 Soil warming. - 5.2.4 Surface saturation, evaporation and runoff. - 5.3 Summer. - 5.3.1 Active layer thaw. - 5.3.2 Summer precipitation. - 5.3.3 Evaporation. - 5.3.4 Rainwater infiltration. - 5.3.5 Soil moisture. - 5.3.6 Groundwater. - References. - 6 Slope processes. - 6.1 Flow paths. - 6.1.1 Flow paths in snow. - 6.1.2 Surface and subsurface flows. - 6.1.3 Flow in bedrock areas. - 6.1.4 Flow in unconsolidated materials. - 6.2 Water sources. - 6.3 Factors influencing slope runoff generation. - 6.3.1 Microclimatic control. - 6.3.2 Topographic influence. - 6.3.3 Importance of the Frost table. - 6.3.4 Roles of organic materials. - 6.3.5 Bedrock control. - 6.4 Basin slopes in permafrost regions. - 6.4.1 High Arctic slopes. - 6.4.2 Low Arctic slopes. - 6.4.3 Subarctic slopes. - 6.4.4 Alpine permafrost zones. - 6.4.5 Precambrian bedrock terrain. - 6.5 Concepts for basin flow generation. - 6.5.1 Variable source area and fill-and-spill concepts. - 6.5.2 Heterogenous slopes. - References. - 7 Cold lakes. - 7.1 Types of lake. - 7.2 Lake ice. - 7.2.1 Lake ice regime. - 7.2.2 Ice formation and growth. - 7.2.3 Ice decay. - 7.3 Lake circulation. - 7.4 Hydrologic inputs. - 7.5 Lake evaporation. - 7.6 Lake outflow. - 7.6.1 Outflow conditions. - 7.6.2 Fill-and-Spill concept and lake outflow. - 7.7 Lake level. - 7.8 Large lakes. - 7.9 Permafrost and lakes. - References. - 8 Northern wetlands. - 8.1 Wetlands in permafrost regions. - 8.2 Factors favoring wetland occurence. - 8.2.1 Climate. - 8.2.2 Topography. - 8.2.3 Stratigraphy. - 8.2.4 Other factors. - 8.3 Hydrogeomorphic features in wetlands. - 8.3.1 Bog-related features. - 8.3.2 Fen-related features. - 8.3.3 Marshes and swamps. - 8.3.4 Shallow water bodies. - 8.4 Hydrologic behavior of wetlands. - 8.4.1 Seasonality of hydrologic activities. - 8.4.2 Wetland storage. - 8.4.3 Flow paths. - 8.4.4 Application of Fill-and-Spill concept. - 8.5 Patchy arctic wetlands. - 8.5.1 Wetlands maintained by snowmelt. - 8.5.2 Groundwater-fed wetlands. - 8.5.3 Valley bottom fens. - 8.5.4 Wetlands due to lateral inundation. - 8.5.5 Tundra ponds. - 8.5.6 Lake-fed and lake-bed wetlands. - 8.6 Extensive wetlands. - 8.6.1 Wet terrain. - 8.6.2 Ice-wedge polygon fields. - 8.6.3 Coastal plains. - 8.6.4 Deltas. - 8.6.5 Subarctic continental wetlands. - 8.7 Wetlands, permafrost and disturbances. - References. - 9 Rivers in cold regions. - 9.1 Drainage patterns. - 9.2 In-valley conditions. - 9.2.1 Geological setting for channels. - 9.2.2 River ice. - 9.2.3 River icing. - 9.2.4 In-channel snow. - 9.2.5 Permafrost. - 9.2.6 Alluvial environment. - 9.3 In-channel hydrology. - 9.3.1 Lateral inflow. - 9.3.2 Channel inflow. - 9.3.3 Vertical water exchanges. - 9.3.4 Storage in channels. - 9.4 Flow connectivity and delivery. - 9.4.1 Flow network integration. - 9.4.2 Decoupling of flow network. - 9.4.3 Flow delivery. - References. - 10 Basin hydrology. - 10.1 Basin outflow generation. - 10.1.1 The roles of snow. - 10.1.2 Meltwater from glaciers. - 10.1.3 Rainfall contribution. - 10.1.4 Groundwater supply. - 10.1.5 Evaporation losses. - 10.1.6 Permafrost effects. - 10.1.7 Consequences of basin storage. - 10.2 Streamflow hydrograph. - 10.3 Streamflow regimes. - 10.3.1 Nival regime. - 10.3.2 Proglacial regime. - 10.3.3 Pluvial regime. - 10.3.4 Spring-fed Regime. - 10.3.5 Prolacustrine regime. - 10.3.6 Wetland regime. - 10.4 Streamflow in large basins. - 10.4.1 Scaling up to large rivers. - 10.4.2 Flow generation in a large basin: the Liard river. - 10.4.3 Regulated discharge of large rivers. - 10.4.4 Flow in a sub-continental scale basin: Mackenzie basin. - 10.5 Basin water balance. - 10.5.1 Considerations in water balance investigation. - 10.5.2 Regional tendencies. - 10.5.3 Examples from permafrost environments. - 10.6 Permafrost basin hydrology: general remarks. - References. - Appendices. - Index.

Note: Contents: About the author. - About the technical reviewer. - Acknowledgments. - Introduction. - Chapter 1: Getting R and getting started. - Chapter 2: Programming in R. - Chapter 3: Writing reusable functions. - Chapter 4: Summary statistics. - Chapter 5: Creating Tables and graphs. - Chapter 6: Discrete probability distributions. - Chapter 7: Computing normal probabilities. - Chapter 8: Creating confidence intervals. - Chapter 9: Performing t tests. - Chapter 10: One-way analysis of variance. - Chapter 11: Advanced analysis of variance. - Chapter 12: Correlation and regression. - Chapter 13: Multiple regression. - Chapter 14: Logistic regression. - Chapter 15: Chi-square tests. - Chapter 16: Nonparametric tests. - Chapter 17: Using R for simulation. - Chapter 18: The 'new' statistics: resampling and bootstrapping. - Chapter 19: Making an R package. - Chapter 20: The R commander package. - Index

Note: Machine generated contents note: Preface; 1. Introduction; Part I. Fundamental Concepts: 2. Fundamental concepts and terminology; 3. Modeling and computational simulation; Part II. Code Verification: 4. Software engineering; 5. Code verification; 6. Exact solutions; Part III. Solution Verification: 7. Solution verification; 8. Discretization error; 9. Solution adaptation; Part IV. Model Validation and Prediction: 10. Model validation fundamentals; 11. Design and execution of validation experiments; 12. Model accuracy assessment; 13. Predictive capability; Part V. Planning, Management, and Implementation Issues: 14. Planning and prioritization in modeling and simulation; 15. Maturity assessment of modeling and simulation; 16. Development and responsibilities for verification, validation and uncertainty quantification; Appendix. Programming practices; Index..

Note: Chapter 1: The innovation challenge: America's innovation challenges -- New trends in global innovation -- The pillars of U.S. innovative strength -- Responding to the innovation challenge -- Chapter 2: Sustaining leadership in innovation: Improving framework conditions, substantially increasing R&D funding, institutional support for applied research -- Strengthening manufacturing -- Providing early stage finance -- Developing twenty-first century universities -- Investing in modern S&T parks -- Growing innovation clusters -- Hunting for global talent, the way forward -- Chapter 3: Findings -- Chapter 4: Recommendations -- Chapter 5: The new global competitive environment: Emerging powers -- Newly industrialized economies -- Industrialized nation case studies -- Chapter 6: National support for emerging industries: Seminconductors -- The photovoltaic industry -- Advanced batteries -- Pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals -- In closing -- Chapter 7: Clusters and regional initiatives: The innovation challenge, policies to foster innovation, regional innovation clusters -- Twenty-first century research and industry -- In closing..