ALBERT

Anmerkung: Contents Kurzfassung Summary 1 Introduction 1.1 Water Regime of Mountain Forests in Winter 1.2 Thermodynamics of Frozen Soils 1.3 Water Flow Pathways in Frozen Soils 1.4 Water Infiltration into and Runoff from Frozen Soils 1.5 Objectives and Outline of this Study 2 Field Measurements of Water Transport in Frozen Soils 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Materials and Methods 2.3.1 Test Site 2.3.2 Instrumentation 2.3.3 Soil Physical Properties 2.4 Results and Discussion 2.4.1 Entire Observation Period 2.4.2 Particular Snowmelt Events 2.4.3 Water Balance of Particular Snowmelt Events 2.5 Summary and Conclusions 3 Water and Solute Dynamics in Freezing Soil Columns 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Materials and Methods 3.3.1 Experimental Setup 3.3.2 Determination of the Liquid Water Content 3.3.3 Determination of the Solute Concentration 3.3.4 Model Approach for the Freezing Characteristic Curve 3.4 Results and Discussion 3.4.l Calibration Results 3.4.2 The Freezing and Thawing Cycle 3.4.3 Freezing Characteristic Curves 3.5 Conclusions 4 Modelling Runoff Dynamics in Sloped Frozen Soils 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Model Description 4.4 Model Application 4.5 Results and Discussion 4.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis 4.5.2 Model Calibration 4.5.3 Model Validation 4.5.4 Influence of Temporal Resolution on Model Output 4.5.5 Climate Change Scenarios 4.6 Summary and Conclusions 5 Concluding Remarks Appendices A Additional Field Measurements B Additional Cold-laboratory Measurements C Model Parameter File List of Symbols List of Figures List of Tables Bibliography Curriculum Vitae

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Anmerkung: Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Goals of this Book 1.2 Current Status of Resources 1.2.1 Ozone Hole 1.2.2 Water-Borne Soil Erosion 1.2.3 Loss of Biodiversity 1.3 Impact of Resource Degradation 1.4 Nature of Resource ;Degradation 1.5 Nature of Resource Management 1.5.1 Strategic Management 1.5.2 Process or Regional Management 1.5.3 Operational Management 1.5.4 Relationship between These Levels of Management 1.6 Nature of Regional Resource Management Information Systems 1.7 Geographic Information in Resource Management 1.8 Structure of this Book Reference Chapter2 Physical Principles of Remote Sensing 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 2.2.1 Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation 2.2.2 Radiometric Terms and Definitions 2.2.3 Energy Radiated by the Sun and the Earth 2.2.4 Effects of the Atmosphere 2.2.5 Correction of Remotely Sensed Data for Attenuation through the Atmosphere 2.2.5 .1 Atmospheric Correction Using Field Data 2.2.5.2 Atmospheric Correction Using Numerical Atmospheric Models 2.2.6 Measurement of Radiance and Irradiance 2.2.6.1 Collecting Optics 2.2.6.2 Filter Unit 2.2.6.3 Detectors 2.2.6.4 Output Device 2.3 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 2.3.1 Nature of Reflectance 2.3.1.1 Reflectance within the Boundary Layer 2.3.2 Reflectance of Water Surfaces 2.3.3 Reflectance Characteristics of Soils 2.3.4 Reflectance of Vegetation 2.3.5 Reflectance Characteristics of Green Leaves 2.3.6 Reflectance Characteristics of Dead Leaves 2.3.7 Vegetative Canopy Reflectance 2.3.8 Bi-Directional Reflectance Distribution Function of Surfaces 2.4 Passive Sensing Systems 2.4.1 The Camera 2.4.1.1 Lens Cone 2.4.1.2 Magazine or Digital Back 2.4.1.3 Camera Body 2.4.1.4 Suspension Mount 2.4.1.5 Light Sensitive Cell Arrays 2.4.1.6 Measurement of Resolution in Image Data 2.4.2 Acquisition of Aerial Photography with a Framing Camera 2.4.2.1 Effects of Height Differences on an Aerial Photograph 2.4.2.2 Types of Lens Cones 2.4.3 The Scanner 2.4.4 The Moving Mirror Scanner 2.4.4.1 Resolution of Scanner Data 2.4.4.2 Thermal Scanner Data 2.4.4.3 Sources of Error in Oscillating Mirror Scanner Imagery 2.4.5 Push broom Scanners 2.5 Active Sensing Systems 2.5 .1 Introduction 2.5.2 The Geometry of Radar Systems 2.5 .2.1 Resolution of Radar Data 2.5.2.2 Effect of Height Displacements 2.5.3 The Attenuation and Scattering of Radar in the Atmosphere 2.5 .4 The Information Content of Radar Imagery 2.5.4.1 Surface Roughness and Slope 2.5.4.2 Inhomogeneity 2.5.4.3 Dielectric Properties 2.5.4.4 Resonance-Sized Objects 2.5.4.5 Wavelength 2.5.4.6 Polarisation 2.5.5 Radar Interferometry 2.5.6 Summary 2.6 Hyperspectral Image Data 2.6.1 Definition 2.6.2 Applications of Hyperspectral Image Data 2.7 Hypertemporal Image Data 2.7.1 Introduction 2.8 Platforms 2.8.1 Terrestrial Platforms 2.8.2 Balloon 2.8.3 Helicopter or Boat 2.8.4 Manned and Unmanned Aircraft 2.8.4.1 Hot Spots 2.8.5 Planning an Aerial Sortie 2.8.6 Satellite Platform 2.9 Satellite Sensor Systems Additional Reading References Chapter 3 Visual Interpretation and Map Reading 3.1 Overview 3.1.1 Remotely Sensed Data and Visual Interpretation 3.1.2 Effects of Height Differences on Remotely Sensed Images 3.2 Stereoscopy 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 Monocular Vision 3.2.3 Binocular Vision 3.2.4 Binocular Perception of Colour 3.2.5 General Principles of Stereoscopic Vision 3.2.6 Methods of Stereoscopic Viewing 3.2.7 Physical Methods of Separation Using Stereoscopes 3.2.8 Viewing with a Stereoscope 3.2.9 Optical Methods of Separation 3.2.9.1 Coloured Anaglyph 3.2.9.2 Polarising Filters 3.2.10 Construction of a Stereo-Triplet 3.3 Measuring Height Differences in a Stereoscopic Pair of Photographs 3.3.1 Principle of the Floating Mark 3.3.2 Parallax Bar 3.3.3 Vertical Exaggeration 3.3.4 Displacements due to Height Differences man Aenal Photograph 3.3.5 Derivation of the Parallax Bar Formulae 3.3.6 Characteristics of the Parallax Bar Equation 3.4 Planimetric Measurements on Aerial Photographs 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 Determination of Scale 3.4.3 Measurement of Distances 3.4.3.1 Graduated Rule or Scale 3.4.3.2 Paper Strip 3.4.3.3 Length of String 3.4.3.4 Odometer 3.4.4 Measurement of Areas 3.4.4.1 Dot Grid 3.4.4.2 Digitiser 3.4.5 Transfer of Planimetric Detail by the Use of the Anharmoruc Ratio 3.4.5.1 Paper Strip Method 3.4.5.2 Projective Nets 3.4.6 Proportional Dividers 3.5 Perception of Colour 3.6 Principles of Photographic Interpretation 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2 Levels of Interpretation 3.6.2.1 Image Reading 3.6.2.2 Image Analysis 3.6.2.3 Image Interpretation 3.6.3 Principles of Object Recognition 3.6.3.1 Size 3.6.3.2 Shape 3.6.3.3 Shadow 3.6.3.4 Colour or Tone 3.6.3 .5 Pattern and Texture 3.6.4 Interpretation Strategies 3.6.4.1 Location and Association 3.6.4.2 Temporal Change 3.6.4.3 Convergence of Evidence 3.6.5 Interpretation Procedure 3.7 Visual Interpretation of lmages 3.7.1 Visual Interpretation of Thermal Image Data 3.7.2 Visual Interpretation of Radar Image Data 3.8 Maps and Map Reading 3.8.1 Map Projections 3.8.1.1 Definition of the Mathematical Shape of the Portion of the Earth 3.8.1.2 Specify How the Curved Surface of the Earth is to be Unfolded onto a Flat Sheet 3.8.2 Mapping Systems and Map Types 3.8.3 Map Co-ordinates and Bearings 3.8.4 Establishing One's Location on a Map 3.8.5 Map Reading on a Topographic.Map 3.8.6 Terrain Classification Further Reading References Chapter4 Image Processing 4.1 Overview 4.1.1 Pre-Processing 4.1.2 Enhancement 4.1.3 Classification 4.1.4 Estimation 4.1.5 Temporal Analysis 4.2 Statistical Considerations 4.2.1 Probability Density Functions 4.2.1.1 Binomial Distribution 4.2.1.2 Normal Distribution 4.2.2 Correlation 4.2.3 Statistical Characteristics of Satellite Scanner Data 4.2.4 Measures of Distance 4.2.5 Shannon's Sampling Theorem 4.2.6 Autocorrelation and Variograms 4.2.7 Frequency Domain 4.2.7.1 Scaling 4.2.7.2 Shifting 4.2.7.3 Convolution 4.2.8 Least Squares Method of Fitting 4.3 Pre-Processing of Image Data 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Rectification 4.3.2.1 Theoretical Basis for Rectification 4.3.2.2 Correction for Systematic Errors 4.3.2.3 Fitting Image Data to Ground Control 4.3.2.4 Resampling the Image Data 4.3.2.5 Windowing and Mosaicing 4.3.2.6 Rectification in Practice 4.3 .3 Radiometric Calibration 4.3.4 Atmospheric Correction 4.3.4.1 Use of a Linear Model for Atmospheric Correction 4.3.4.2 Atmospheric Correction Using Atmospheric Models 4.4 The Enhancement of Image Data 4.4.1 Radiometric Enhancement 4.4.1.1 Display of an Image 4.4.1.2 Pseudo-Colour Density Slice 4.4.1.3 Linear Enhancement 4.4.1.4 Non-Linear Enhancements 4.4.1.5 Piecewise Linear Stretch 4.4.1.6 Histogram Equalisation 4.4.2 Spectral Enhancements 4.4.2.1 Ratioing 4.4.2.2 Orthogonal Transformations 4.4.2.3 Vegetation Indices 4.4.2.4 Fourier Transformation 4.4.3 Spatial Transformations of Image Data 4.4.3.1 Measurement of Texture 4.4.3.2 Edge Detection 4.4.3.3 Removal of Regular Noise in Image Data 4.4.3.4 Analysis of Spatial Correlation: The Variogram 4.4.3.5 Image Segmentation 4.4.3 .6 Object Patterns and Object Sizes: The ALV Function 4.4.4 Temporal Enhancements 4.4.4.1 Temporal Enhancement 4.4.4.2 Principal Components 4.4.4.3 Temporal Distance Images 4.4.4.4 Fourier Analysis of Hypertemporal Data 4.5 Analysis of Mixtures or End Member Analysis 4.5.1 Linear End Member Model 4.5.2 Characteristics of the Linear End Member Model 4.5.3 Identification of End Members 4.5.4 Implementation of the Linear End Member Algorithm 4.6 Image Classification 4.6.1 Principles of Classification 4.6.2 Discriminant Function Classifiers 4.6.2.1 Development of the Maximum Likelihood Classifier 4.6.2.2 Summary 4.6.2.3 Characteristics of the Discriminant Function Family of Classifiers 4.6.2.4 Implementation of the Maximum Likelihood Classifier 4.6.3 Fuzzy Classifiers 4.6.4 Neural Network Classifiers 4.6.5 Hierarchical Classifiers 4.6.6 Classification Strategies 4.6.6.1 Types of Classes 4.6.6.2 Selecting Classes and Classifiers 4.6.6.3 Im

Anmerkung: Contents Acknowledgments Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Discovery 1.2 General Introduction 1.3 Just for Fun — An Isotope Biography of Mr. Polychaete Chapter 2. Isotope Notation and Measurement Overview 2.1 The Necessary Minimum for Ecologists 2.2 Why Use the 5 Notation? 2.3 Why Is 8 a Good Substitute for % Heavy Isotope? 2.4 8 and the Ratio-of-Ratios 2.5 Chapter Summary Chapter 3. Using Stable Isotope Tracers Overview 3.1 Isotope Circulation in the Biosphere 3.2 Landscape Ecology and Isotope Maps 3.3 Community Ecology and Invasive Species in Food Webs 3.4 Life History Ecology and Animal Migrations 3.5 Plants, Microbes, and Scaling Up 3.6 Chapter Summary Chapter 4. Isotope Chi ("I Chi") Overview 4.1 Chocolate Isotopes 4.2 Oxygen in the Sea 4.3 Equations for Isotope Chi ("I Chi") 4.4 Building an I Chi Gain-Loss Model, Step by Step 4.5 Errors in I Chi Models 4.6 Exact Equations for I Chi Models 4.7 Cows in a Pasture 4.8 Chapter Summary Chapter 5. Mixing Overview 5.1 Isotope Mixing in Food Webs 5.2 Isotope Sourcery 5.3 Mixing Mechanics 5.4 Advanced Mixing Mechanics 5.5 Mixing Assumptions and Errors or the Art and Wisdom of Using Isotope Mixing Models 5.6 River Sulfate and Mass-Weighted Mixing 5.7 A Special Muddy Case and Mixing Through Time 5.8 The Qualquan Chronicles and Mixing Across Landscapes 5.9 Dietary Mixing, Turnover, and a Stable Isotope Clock 5.10 Chapter Summary Chapter 6. Isotope Additions Overview 6.1 Addition Addiction 6.2 The Golden Spike Award for Isotopes 6.3 Chapter Summary Chapter 7. Fractionation Overview 7.1 Fractionation Fundamentals 7.2 Isotopium and Fractionation in Closed Systems 7.3 A Strange and Routine Case 7.4 A Genuine Puzzle — Fractionation or Mixing? 7.5 Cracking the Closed Systems 7.6 Equilibrium Fractionation, Subtle Drama in the Cold 7.7 A Supply/Demand Model for Open System Fractionation 7.8 Open System Fractionation and Evolution of the Earth's Sulfur Cycle 7.9 Open System Legacies 7.10 Conducting Fractionation Experiments 7.11 Chapter Summary Chapter 8. Scanning the Future Overview 8.1 The Isotope Scanner 8.2 Mangrove Maude 8.3 The Beginner's Advantage—Imagine! 8.4 Chapter Summary Appendix. Important Isotope Equations and Useful Conversions Index Supplemental Electronic Materials on the Accompanying CD A. Chapter 1 Color Figures and Cartoon Problems B. Chapter 2 Color Figures and Cartoon Problems Technical Supplement 2A: Measuring Spiked Samples Technical Supplement 2B: Ion Corrections Technical Supplement 2C: The Ratio Notation and The Power of 1 C. Chapter 3 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems D. Chapter 4 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets E. Chapters 5 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets F. Chapter 6 Color Figure and Cartoon Problems I Chi Spreadsheet Technical Supplement 6A: How Much Isotope Should I Add? Technical Supplement 6B: Noisy Data and Data Analysis with Enriched Samples G. Chapter 7 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets Technical Supplement 7A: A Chemist's View of Isotope Effects Technical Supplement 7B: Derivations of Closed System Isotope Equations H. Chapter 8 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I. All Problems for Chapters 1-8 J. All Answers to Problems for Chapters 1-8 K. All Figures and Cartoons L. All I Chi Spreadsheets M. A Reading List

Anmerkung: CONTENTS VOLUME 2 Section 6 GULLY DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES Chapter 31 Thresholds of Channel Initiation in Historical and Holocene Times, Southeastern Australia / I. P. Prosser Chapter 32 The Role of Sideslope Gullies in the Production andDelivery of Sediment to Contemporary Terraces, Rambla del Hornillo, Southern Spain / H. Faulkner Chapter 33 Holocene Hillslope Gully Systems in the Howgill Fells, Cumbria / A. M. Harvey Chapter 34 Unsaturated Strength and Preferential Flow as Controls on Gully Head Development / A. J. C. Collison Section 7 SLOPE STABILITY Chapter 35 Landslides and Stability in the Nepalese Middle Hills under Seasonal and Agricultural Land-Use Change Scenarios / K. Wu and J. B. Thornes Chapter 36 Developments in Slope Hydrology-Stability Modelling for Tropical Slopes / M. G. Anderson, A. J. C. Collison, J. Hartshorne, D. M. Lloyd and A. Park Chapter 37 The Mechanics and Landforms of Deep-Seated Landslides / D. Petley Chapter 38 The Assessment and Modelling of Hydrological Failure Conditions of Landslides in the Puriscal Region (Costa Rica) and the Manizales Region (Colombia) / M. T. J. Terlien, P. G. B. De Louw, Th. W. J. Van Asch and R. A. A. Hetterschijt Chapter 39 The Effects of Grass Roots on the Shear Strength of Colluvial Soils in Nepal / C. J. Lawrance, R. J. Rickson and J. E. Clark Chapter 40 Development of an Episodic Landform Change Model based upon the Black Ven Mudslide, 1946-1995 / D. Brunsden and J. H. Chandler Chapter 41 Coastal Slope Development: Temporal and Spatial Periodicity in the Holderness Cliff Recession / J. Pethick Section 8 TROPICAL HILLSLOPE PROCESSES Chapter 42 A New Approach towards the Quantification of Runoff and Eroded Sediment from Bench Terraces in Humid Tropical Steeplands and its Application in South-Central Java, Indonesia / L. A. Bruijnzee/ and W. R. S. Critchley Chapter 43 Hydrological Pathways and Water Chemistry in Amazonian Rain Forests / H. Elsenbeer and A. Lack Chapter 44 Observations on Slope Processes in a Tropical Rain Forest Environment Before and After Forest Plantation Establishment / A. Maimer Chapter 45 Tectonics and Relief in Tropical Forested Mountains: The Gipfelflur Hypothesis Revisited / A. P. Dykes and J. B. Thornes Section 9 SEMI-ARID HILLSLOPE PROCESSES Chapter 46 Hillslope Response to Extreme Storm Events: The Example of the Vaison-La-Romaine Event / J. Wainwright Chapter 47 Geomorphological Implications of Vegetation Patchiness on Semi-arid Slopes / J. Puigdefabregas and G. Sanchez Chapter 48 Runoff and Erosion on Semi-arid Hillslopes / A. J. Parsons, J. Wainwright and A. D. Abrahams Chapter 49 Cuesta Scarp Forms and Processes in Different Attitudinal Belts of the Colorado Plateau as Indicators of Climatic Change / K.-H. Schmidt and P. Meitz Chapter 50 Modelling the Complexity of Land Surface Response to Climatic Variability in Mediterranean Environments / M. Mulligan Section 10 PERIGLACIAL HILLSLOPE PROCESSES Chapter 51 Processes of Thaw-Induced Mass Movement in Non-cohesive Soils: Results of an Instrumented Slope Simulation Experiment / C. Harris and M. C. R. Davies Chapter 52 Paraglacial Slope Adjustment during Recent Deglaciation and Its Implication for Slope Evolution in Formerly Glaciated Environments / C. K. Ballantyne and D. I. Benn Chapter 53 Paraglacial or Periglacial? The Sedimentology of Slope Deposits in Upland Northumberland / S. Harrison Chapter 54 Slow Mass Movements and Climatic Relationships, 1972-1994, Kapp Linné, West Spitzbergen / H. J. Akerman Chapter 55 Rock Weathering and the Formation of Summit Blockfield Slopes in Norway: Examples and Implications / B. R. Rea, W. B. Whalley and E. M. Porter Author Index Subject Index

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2006