ALBERT

Description: Quercetin shows interesting pharmacological effects, but its use in topical applications is limited by its low skin permeability and solubility. In this work, the synthesis of highly lipophilic quercetin esters with oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid useful as topical quercetin prodrugs is reported. Partial OH esterification is advisable to maintain the antioxidant activity of these compounds; tetraesters and triesters can be achieved by modulating the reaction conditions utilized for the total esterification of quercetin. The chemical structures of the esters were proven by spectroscopic techniques; quantum chemical NMR calculation were mandatory to unequivocally assign the free position in triesters. Finally, the antioxidant activity of all the synthesized compounds was determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl method and by 2,2-azinobis(3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) assay.

Description: Acetic- and butyric-capped oleic estolide 2-ethylhexyl (2-EH) esters were synthesized in a perchloric acid catalyzed (0.05 equiv) one-pot process from industrial 90 % oleic acid and either acetic or butyric fatty acids at two different ratios. This was directly followed by the esterification process incorporated into an in-situ second step to provide a low viscosity estolide ester functional fluid. The monoestolide and polyestolides were separated via vacuum distillation (6–13 Pa) at 240–250 °C. The physical properties of these materials were followed throughout the synthetic process and are reported. The final low viscosity acetic- and butyric-capped monoestolide 2-EH esters had viscosities of 19.9 and 24.2 cSt at 40 °C and 4.8 and 5.5 cSt at 100 °C with viscosity indexes (VI) of 161 and 163, respectively. Both monoestolide esters displayed excellent pour points (PPs). The PPs of the two were as follows: acetic-capped estolide 2-EH ester PP = −45 °C and butyric-capped estolide 2-EH ester PP = −27 °C. The biodegradable short-capped oleic estolide 2-EH esters had excellent low temperature properties and should perform well in low viscosity applications.

Description: Thirty-four strains of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-producing microorganisms were newly isolated from brackish areas in Japan. These strains showing various compositions of fatty acids. Especially, the fatty acids produced by one of the strains, named D31, had a high DHA content (over 60 % of the total fatty acids) and the simple fatty acid composition (16:0, 18:0, 18:1 and DHA without any other polyunsaturated acids). Although most oleaginous microorganisms accumulate DHA as triacylglycerol, the strain D31 accumulated DHA mainly as a polar lipid (79.4 % of total DHA), especially as phosphatidylcholine (71.4 % of polar DHA). This strain D31 was identified as a related species of Crypthecodinium cohnii on the basis of phylogenetic analysis. Crypthecodinium sp. D31 showed high DHA productivity when cultivated in a medium containing glycerol as the carbon source and a mixture of yeast extract and polypeptone as the nitrogen sources, with a salinity that was equivalent to 50 % of that of seawater and a pH in the acidic range (〈pH 6.0). Crypthecodinium sp. D31 is considered as a promising producer of high-purity DHA-containing phospholipids.

Description: CLA-rich soy oil (CLARSO) has been produced by linoleic acid isomerization in soy oil TAG. The objective was to determine the physicochemical properties of the novel CLARSO relative to conventional refined bleached deodorized soy oil (RBDSO). Iodine value decreased in CLARSO samples despite unsaturation being unchanged, probably because conjugated double bonds in triacylglycerol (TAG) of CLARSO impede the complete addition of iodine. Thermal analysis by differential scanning calorimetry showed the melting point temperature increased with the increase in the CLARSO CLA concentration, and melting point broadening occurred in CLA contained samples. Dynamic viscosity of CLARSO conducted from 4 to 44 °C increased with the increase in CLA concentration, relative to RBDSO. Greatest viscosity differences occurred at the lower temperatures. Refractive indices and density were not greatly affected. The change in physical properties was attributed to the increased intermolecular hydrophobic interaction force due to conjugated double bonds and trans , trans isomers, relative to RBDSO. This may provide hard fat characteristics that may be useful for use in producing margarine or shortenings. Furthermore, the higher viscosity at refrigerator temperatures may be useful in salad oil and refrigerated sauces to enable suspension of particles and maintain a rich, thicker texture.

Description: For better understanding of the adhesive properties of different fractions of cottonseed protein, cottonseed meals from both glanded and glandless cotton varieties were separated into several fractions. Each meal was sequentially extracted with water and 1 M NaCl solution, or with phosphate buffer and NaCl solution. Adhesives were prepared from the recovered fractions and hot-pressed onto maple veneer strips and tested for their properties. The adhesive strength of the water- and buffer-washed solid fractions (i.e., the un-extractable residues of the meals) from the glanded seed ranged from 1.32 to 1.62 MPa and were unchanged or increased compared with the adhesive strength of the original meal that varied from 0.98 and 1.49 MPa. Soaking the wood specimens bonded at 80 °C revealed that the water resistance of these water- and buffer-washed adhesives was significantly improved in that they exhibited no delamination during soaking compared with the meal adhesive that showed some delamination (20–30 % of the samples). Furthermore, the water resistance of these fractions with wet shear strength around 1.5 MPa was comparable to that of cottonseed protein isolate (〉90 % protein) when the joints were bonded at 100 °C. The preparations from glandless cottonseed meals showed similar adhesive performances. Additional extraction of the meals with NaCl solution reduced adhesive performance. The results suggest that water- or buffer-washed cottonseed meal fractions can be used as wood adhesives and would be less costly to prepare than cottonseed protein isolates.

Description: In this study, seeds from the safflower variety called “Dinçer” were roasted and microwaved before oil extraction by cold pressing. Some physico-chemical analyses (moisture, ash, oil content and color) were performed in safflower meals. Physico-chemical properties (refractive index, viscosity, turbidity, specific gravity, color, free acidity, peroxide value, iodine number), nutritional components (total phenolics, antioxidant capacity, tocopherol content), sterol composition and fatty acid composition of produced oils were also determined. Volatile components of the oils were detected by solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography–mass spectrometry technique. Quantitative descriptive analysis was accomplished with trained panelists by 11 definition terms. Cold pressing yielded less oil than solvent extraction, but oil quality was superior and a refining process was not required. There was no significant difference between samples for fatty acid composition and some physico-chemical parameters. Whereas, microwave treatment caused a decrease in oil turbidity, free acidity, α-tocopherol and some sterol contents and an enhancement in total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and peroxide value. Moreover, microwave treatment led to an increased nutty aroma in the oil. In contrast, isot pepper aroma was decreased by microwave treatment. This study provides very important information about the safflower oils for the first time in the literature.

Description: We performed differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction (SR-XRD) experiments of polymorphic structures and binary mixing characteristics of the enantiomers of 1-oleoyl-2,3-dipalmitoyl- sn -glycerol (S-OPP) and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-oleoyl- sn -glycerol (R-PPO). In the two enantiomers, oleic and palmitic acid moieties are asymmetrically connected at the sn -1 and sn -3 positions of the glycerol groups, with palmitic acid moiety at the sn -2 position. Pure enantiomer samples (〉99 %) were synthesized and employed throughout this study. The following results were obtained. (1) A basic feature of the mixture systems of S-OPP and R-PPO is of a eutectic nature due to different polymorphic structures of two enantiomers and the racemic compound of PPO ( rac -PPO). (2) Polymorphic behavior of S-OPP and R-PPO was quite similar, both having α-2 and β′-3, whereas rac -PPO contained α rac -3, β′ rac -2, and β′ rac -3. The DSC measurements showed that the melting points of β′-3 (S-OPP = 35.3 °C and R-PPO = 34.9 °C) were higher than that of β′ rac -3 (31.0 °C). β was not crystallized in the pure enantiomers, and rac -PPO. (3) α rac -3 was crystallized at low cooling rates (~2 °C/min), whereas α-2 of the two enantiomers was crystallized only with very rapid cooling (~10 °C/min). (4) Triple-chain-length structures were formed in α rac -3, β′ S -3 (=β′ R -3), and β′ rac -3; α-2 with a double-chain-length structure was formed in both enantiomers. These results indicate the importance of the relationship between subcell packing and glycerol conformation in the polymorphism and mixing characteristics of asymmetric unsaturated–saturated-saturated mixed-acid triacylglycerols.

Description: Among oil compounds, fatty acids, tocopherols and xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) are of special interest due to their nutritional properties. The identification and quantification of these compounds in pecan nuts ( Carya illinoinensis ) could therefore be very useful to produce functional foods rich in compounds of this type. This paper reports studies on their accumulation and the effect of ripening on the content of these high value-added compounds. The total lipid content increased during the ripening. Saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased significantly, whereas, monounsaturated fatty acids increased during the ripening of pecan nut fruit. Maximum levels of total tocopherol (279.53 mg/kg oil) and xanthophyll (6.18 mg/kg oil) were detected at 20th weeks after the flowering date. These amounts decreased gradually as ripening advances. The early stages of pecan ripening seem to have nutritional and pharmaceutical interests. These results may be useful for evaluating the pecan nut quality and determining the optimal period when the pecans accumulated the maximum of these nutritional and healthy compounds.

Description: Glycerides obtained from the glycerolysis of soybean oil with crude glycerol were acylated with maleic anhydride at 80–100 °C. Both uncatalyzed and catalyzed reactions with 2-methylimidazole (2-MI) were evaluated. Formation of maleated glycerides was confirmed by 1 H-NMR and FTIR analyses. Consumption of maleic anhydride as a function of time was followed by acid value titration. High conversion (ca. 95 %) of hydroxyl groups was obtained at 90 °C in 60 min without catalyst. Under these conditions, a product with 1.9 maleate moieties per glyceride molecule was obtained. Catalyzed reactions afforded lower conversions of hydroxyl groups and lower maleate yields compared to uncatalyzed reactions.

Description: Sunflower oil was used for deep frying of potatoes at 170 ± 5 °C and for 8 h per day for 5 days in a fryer with an automatic oil filtration system. Three different frying operations were performed: operation (OP)-1, OP-2 and OP-3; that correspond to the oil unfiltered at the end of each frying day, the oil filtered through the fryer's own filter (passive filtration) and the oil firstly subjected to passive filtration and then filtered through a polyethersulfone membrane modified with hexamethyldisiloxane via radio frequency plasma (75 W-5 min, discharge power–time), respectively. The performance of each operation was investigated in terms of free fatty acids (FFA), conjugated dienoic acids (CD), TOTOX value, total polar content (TPC), Hunter color, viscosity, fatty acid composition, and tocopherol content. The results showed that OP-3 could decrease FFA, CD, TOTOX, TPC, L*a*b* value, viscosity and linoleic acid (18:2)/palmitic acid (16:0) ratio in 29.6, 11.7, 25, 30.8, 6.1*11.3*20.8*, 7.8, 12.2 %, respectively, compared to the unfiltered oil (OP-1). Regenerated oil from OP-3 had a frying life approximately 17 h more than oils from both OP-1 and OP-2.

Description: A potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-mutagenic agent; 4-vinyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenol (canolol) was obtained from canola meal in a significant yield via alkaline (NaOH)/enzymatic (ferulic acid esterase) hydrolysis followed by microwave-assisted decarboxylation. The hydrolysis was carried out either through using canola meal directly as a substrate or by using the 70 % aqueous methanolic extract filtrates. The hydrolyzed extracts underwent RP-HPLC analysis which showed that 81.0 and 94.8 % of the total phenolics were hydrolyzed to sinapic acid after the alkaline hydrolysis of the meal and the methanolic extracts, respectively. The enzymatic hydrolysis showed lower conversion rates (49.5 and 58.3 %). The hydrolyzed extracts were consequently decarboxylated using 8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene under microwave irradiation at different conditions. The HPLC profiling of decarboxylated extracts showed that using microwave at 300 W of microwave power for 12 min brought the highest sinapic acid conversion to canolol (58.3 %) yielding 4.2 mg canolol from each gram of canola meal suggesting that the process could be commercially economical.

Description: In the margarine and butter industry, sustainable and more efficient refrigerants, such as CO 2 , are introduced to industrial scraped surface heat exchangers, allowing an increased capacity compared to conventional use of NH 3 . The effect of such changes in capacity and a varied rotational speed was studied in relation to the structural behavior of puff pastry butter during 4 weeks of isothermal storage at 20 °C. The physical properties of the fat crystal network were studied in detail at several length scales by combining X-ray diffraction with differential scanning calorimetry, confocal laser scanning microscopy, LR-NMR and rheology. Our data shows that a high capacity combined with high rotational speed decreases the brittleness of puff pastry butter after 7 days of storage. This effect is, however, diminished after 28 days of storage. Likewise, changes in capacity and rotational speed are shown to induce no microstructural and polymorphic differences after 28 days of storage. However, the degree of work softening is related to the manufacturing conditions: a high capacity and a high rotational speed increase the ability of the puff pastry butter to resist structural breakdown during working. With this being the only observed difference; a wide operational window exists on an industrial level to produce puff pastry butter with similar structural behavior.

Description: Soy protein adhesives with a high solid content (28–39 %) were extracted from soy flour slurry modified with sodium bisulfite (NaHSO 3 ) at different concentrations. 11S-dominated soy protein fractions (SP 5.4) and 7S-dominated soy protein fractions (SP 4.5) were precipitated at pH 5.4 and pH 4.5, respectively. The objective of this work was to study the effects of NaHSO 3 on adhesion and physicochemical properties of soy protein. The adhesion performance of NaHSO 3 -modified SP 4.5 was better than SP 5.4; the wet strength of these two fractions was from 2.5 to 3.2 MPa compared with 1.6 MPa of control soy protein isolate. SDS-PAGE results revealed the reducing effects of NaHSO 3 on soy protein. The isoelectric pH of soy protein decreased as NaHSO 3 increased due to the induced extra negative charges (RS-SO 3 − ) on the protein surface. The rheological properties of soy protein adhesives were improved significantly. Unmodified samples SP 5.4 and SP 4.5 had clay-like properties and extremely high viscosity, respectively; with 2–8 g/L NaHSO 3 modification, both SP 5.4 and SP 4.5 had a viscous cohesive phase with good flowability. Overall, NaHSO 3 -modified soy protein adhesives in our study have many advantages over the traditional soy protein isolate adhesive such as better adhesion performance, higher solid content but with good flowability and longer shelf life.

Description: Steryl ferulates (SFs) are ferulic acid esters of phytosterols and/or triterpene alcohols which have potential as frying oil antioxidants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-polymerization and antioxidant activity at frying temperatures of corn steryl ferulates (CSFs), rice steryl ferulates (oryzanol), and a mixture of CSFs with oryzanol, alone and with tocopherols. Antioxidant activity was measured by the reduction of polymerized triacylglycerol formation, and loss of olefinic and bisallylic protons from fatty acid double bonds by 1 H NMR. CSFs and oryzanol slowed the oxidation and polymerization of soybean oil triacylglycerols heated to 180 °C more effectively than a mixture of alpha and gamma tocopherols. CSFs were more effective at preventing polymerization than oryzanol, but when oryzanol was combined with tocopherols, they all had similar antioxidant activity. In addition, tocopherols had a protective effect on SFs. Corn SFs were degraded more quickly during heating than oryzanol, however, the phytosterol constituents of corn SFs, sitostanol and campestanol, were actually more resistant to degradation compared to the phytosterol constituents of rice SFs. Results demonstrate that corn and rice SFs may be effective antioxidants for use in frying oils, and that their activity is enhanced in the presence of tocopherols.

Description: Dietary phosphatidylinositol (PI) can be synthesized via phospholipase D (PLD)-catalyzed transphosphatidylation of phosphatidylcholine (PC), abundant in soy lecithin, with myo-inositol. However, a generated mixture of phospholipid (PL) classes poses a challenge for analysis. Our current work on Streptomyces PLD engineering requires a robust analytical method for profiling of PI and related PLs derived from the transphosphatidylation reactions. Therefore, we optimized an HPLC-based method with charged aerosol detector (CAD) for PL quantification. PLs were separated on a normal phase silica column by a gradient elution system using two solvents containing chloroform/methanol/1 M formic acid–triethylamine buffer in different ratios. Retention times of the PL standards and LC–MS under identical conditions were used to identity PL classes. PL standards gave linear response in 100- and 10-fold (lyso-PI) concentration range. The method provided a simple, sensitive, repeatable, and precise analysis of PI, PC, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidic acid, and lyso forms of PC and PI. Compared to the similar existing method, introduction of CAD provided a three- to fivefold decrease at the lower end and a two- to fivefold increase at the upper end of the dynamic range. High precision, high sensitivity, and low limits of detection and quantification further underline the benefits of CAD in PL analysis.

Description: Frying is a popular practice because of its unique sensory characteristics and low cost. The high temperature reached with this cooking method alters molecules present in the oil. The deterioration of the oil depends primarily on its chemical composition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the thermal stability of high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO), sunflower oil (SO) and mixed oil (MIX) during deep frying of French fries. Octanoic acid and unsaturated fatty acid (UFA)/saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio showed a good correlation with total polar compounds (TPC) for all frying samples analyzed. HOSO and MIX were characterized by reduced levels of thermal degradation, while SO resulted in the highest values of oxidation products (highest TPC values). SO was also the oil more retained by the food matrix, whereas MIX was the least absorbed. HOSO and MIX, having a high oleic acid content (77.58 and 59.92 %, respectively) and a low linoleic acid content (13.42 and 25.70 %, respectively), showed the best characteristics for the frying process.

Description: Acrolein, which is an irritating and off-flavor compound formed during heating of vegetable oils, was estimated by the gas–liquid chromatography (GLC). Several vegetable oils such as high-oleic sunflower, perilla, rapeseed, rice bran, and soybean oils were heated at 180 °C for 480 min and then the concentration of acrolein in the head space gas was determined by GLC. The formation of acrolein was greatest in perilla oil among the tested oils, while it was much lower in rice bran oil and high-oleic sunflower oil. There was a good correlation between the level of acrolein and linolenate (18:3n-3) in the vegetable oils. To investigate the formation of acrolein from linolenate, methyl oleate, methyl linoleate, and methyl linolenate were also heated at 180 °C, and the amounts of acrolein formed from them were determined by GLC. The level of acrolein was the greatest in methyl linolenate. Acrolein was also formed from methyl linoleate, but not from methyl oleate. Acrolein in vegetable oils may be formed from polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially linolenic acid but not from glycerol backbone in triacylglycerols.

Description: γ-Decalactone is an industrially interesting peach-like aroma compound that can be produced biotechnologically through the biotransformation of ricinoleic acid. Castor oil (CO) is the raw material most used as the ricinoleic acid source. The effect of different CO concentrations on the γ-decalactone production by Yarrowia lipolytica was investigated in batch processing, and 30 g L −1 was found to be the optimal oil concentration. Under these conditions, cells were able to produce lipase but at low activity levels, which might limit ricinoleic acid release and consequently, the γ-decalactone production rate. Thus, the enzymatic hydrolysis of CO by commercial lipases was studied under different operating conditions. Lipozyme TL IM was found to be the most efficient and the optimal hydrolysis conditions were pH 8 and 27 °C. The use of hydrolyzed CO in the aroma production allowed a decrease in the lag phase for γ-decalactone secretion.

Description: Three phosphonate derivatives of methyl oleate (MeO) were chemically synthesized in a radical chain reaction and their physical and tribological properties investigated. The phosphonates differed from each other in the structure of the alkoxy groups attached to the phosphorous, which were as follows: methoxy, ethoxy, and n -butoxy. Phosphonylation eliminated the unsaturation in MeO and also introduced branching. The phosphonate oils had higher density and viscosity than MeO, which was attributed to the contribution of the heavier phosphorus atom in their structures, and to their higher molecular weights, respectively. The phosphonates also displayed improved oxidation stability and cold flow properties, which were attributed to the elimination of the double bond and the introduction of branching in their molecular structures, respectively. Tribological investigations were conducted using 4-Ball anti-wear (AW) and extreme pressure (EP) methods. Neat phosphonates displayed lower AW coefficients of friction and wear scar diameters than MeO. The improved AW results were attributed to the higher viscosity of the phosphonates, since the AW test is conducted in the mixed film regime. The phosphonates had no effect on EP weld point (WP) as neat oils or as 5 % additives in petroleum-based oils. In soy base oil, 5 % phosphonate additives displayed smaller improvement in WP than zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDDP). It is proposed that this lack of EP characteristics could be due to the high dissociation energy of C–P bonds in the phosphonates, compared to, for example, S–P bonds in ZDDP.

Description: The present study presents the antioxidant activity of sesamin in canola oil compared with that of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) by monitoring the oxygen consumption and the decrease in linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid. The oxidation of canola oil was conducted at 35, 60, 90, 120 and 180 °C with addition of 50–400 ppm sesamin. Results from the oxygen consumption test showed that sesamin dose-dependently inhibited the oxidation of canola oil at concentrations of 50–200 ppm at temperatures of 60–180 °C, however, sesamin lost its antioxidant activity at a low temperature of 35 °C. The fatty acid analysis also demonstrated that sesamin at 50, 100 and 200 ppm dose-dependently prevented the oxidation of linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid in canola oil. Both the oxygen consumption and the fatty acid analysis demonstrated sesamin was less effective than BHT as an antioxidant at temperatures of 60–180 °C. It was therefore concluded that sesamin could prevent the lipid oxidation of frying fats and oil, however, its antioxidant activity was not as potent as that of BHT.

Description: Biodiesel is a biofuel obtained from vegetable oils. The oils used as raw materials are usually refined edible vegetable oils. Nonedible acidic oils are unsuitable for biodiesel production unless reduction of the high content in free fatty acids (FFA) of these materials had been achieved. Obtaining a good raw material from unprofitable oils becomes an important research field. Additionally clays have a long history in industrial sorption and catalysis, some being commercially available and with properties that can be modified. In this work we present the results of the use of the montmorillonite clay K10 and two acid modified clays K10(I) and K10(II), in the esterification of stearic acid with methanol and 95 % of methyl stearate was obtained with K10(II). These clays were then used for the first time to reduce the acidity of enhanced FFA sunflower oil and they show to be very effective. Reduction of FFA from 11 to 4 % was obtained with K10(II) mainly due to 94 % conversion of FFA into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). These clays were also tested with two waste oils, one from domestic use and the other gathered from different restaurants, and showed their ability to lower the acidity of these oils. Reactions were followed by 1 H NMR as well as quantitative determination of FFA and FAME. Clays were characterized by FTIR and XRD.

Description: The objective of this work was to develop a corrected method for solid fat content estimation by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), as important differences are usually observed between the results given by DSC and pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Cold storage after full melting of fats was necessary to avoid the appearance of exothermic peaks in the modulated temperature DSC thermograms, in order to make an appropriate estimation of melting energy. Different fats were analyzed by NMR and DSC, obtaining considerably higher solid fat content values with the latter, uncorrected method. These differences were attributed to the fact that consumed energy per unit of melted mass tends to increase with the increase of the melting temperature of each fraction of the fats. A linear correlation between melting enthalpy and melting point of different triglycerides was used to estimate the energy per unit of mass consumed at each temperature. From these data, an estimated transformation of melting energy into melted mass was performed and new solid fat content values were calculated. The results obtained from this correction were much closer to the measurements made by NMR, in comparison to the uncorrected DSC method.

Description: Diphenylamine sulfate (DPAS) and diphenylamine hydrochloride (DPACl) salts were found to be highly active catalysts for esterification and substantial transesterification of inexpensive greases to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). In the presence of catalytic amounts of DPAS or DPACl and excess methanol, the free fatty acids as well as the acylglycerols in waste greases were converted to FAME at 125 °C within 1 h. Although the DPAS and DPACl catalysts were found to have similar catalytic activities to their parent liquid acids (i.e., sulfuric and hydrochloric acids) the diphenylammonium salts are much easier to work with than concentrated liquid acids.

Description: The aim of this study was to examine the oxidation of selected plant oils in concentrated beverage emulsions colored with natural β-carotene. Carotenoid preparations obtained from carrots were dissolved in cold-pressed linseed oil, refined canola oil, and refined palm olein. Oxidative stability of the lipids was examined with and without addition of the pigment to the oil/water (O/W) emulsion. Carotenoid/lipid hydro peroxide (LOOH) concentration was evaluated using two different methods: LOOH + Fe 2+ reaction connected with a colored complex of ammonium thiocyanate determined with the help of a spectrophotometer, and LOOH determined with the help of a chemiluminometer. It was shown that oxidation rate of lipids in the O/W emulsions strongly depended on chemical composition of the lipid fraction (type of oil used). Presence of the carotenoid pigment increased the rate. Therefore, if a carotenoid-containing emulsion is to be stable, it should be based on oils of a high oxidative stability.

Description: This work investigated whether ultrasound treatment could improve the oil recovery from the extract obtained from pressed oil palm mesocarp. Oil recoverable after subjecting two process streams from palm oil milling operations to ultrasound were compared to that obtained from corresponding samples without ultrasound treatment. The process streams examined were (i) the ex-screw press feed into the vertical clarification tank and (ii) the underflow sludge from the clarification tank. Oil recoverable was taken as the sum of decantable oil obtained after a gravity settling process at 85 °C for 1 h (skimmed oil) and oil released from the remaining colloidal dispersion after centrifugation at 1,000 g (centrifuged oil). Oil recoverable was dependent on the ultrasound treatment applied, type of transducer used and the feed stream. Increased recoverable oil was obtained by applying low frequency ultrasound (20 kHz) to the ex-screw press feed using a long rod radial sonotrode system but recoverable oil was decreased when a short single step cascade focused sonotrode system was used. High frequency ultrasound (400 + 1,600 kHz) increased recoverable oil from both process streams. Applying sequential low and high frequency ultrasound increased recoverable oil from the ex-screw press feed but decreased that from the underflow sludge. The use of high frequency ultrasound for improving oil recovery is a significant advance for palm oil milling operations.

Description: Conditioning rapeseed can significantly increase the amount of bioactive compounds in the crude oil, but if the conditioning temperatures are too high, they can cause unwanted side effects such as darker color and sensory defects. Modest conditioning temperatures may be more suitable, but little is known about the effects on the quality and bioactive composition of the resulting oil. Oil was recovered from five rapeseed cultivars by cold pressing (CP) or by pressing seeds conditioned at 80 °C for 30 min (HP). Conditioning rapeseed increased oil yield without changing fatty acid composition and increased the amount of total sterols by 16 %, total tocopherols by 20 %, and the levels of polyphenols. Levels of the polyphenol canolol were up to 55-fold higher in HP oil than in CP oil. These higher levels of bioactive compounds gave HP oil higher radical scavenging activity. Although HP oil also had higher free fatty acid contents, peroxide levels, and specific UV extinctions ( K values). The quality parameters of HP and CP oils were within codex limits indicating high quality. Modest conditioning temperatures can be used to produce rapeseed oil with high quality and radical scavenging activity.

Description: Ten 1,3-dialkylimidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) have been investigated as media for the enzymatic synthesis of tricaprylin, in comparison with the conventional organic solvent hexane. The results suggested that the esterification activity of Novozym 435 was higher than Lypozyme RM IM in all the ILs assayed. Novozym 435 showed higher catalytic activity in ILs with anions Tf 2 N − and PF 6 − than in BF 4 − and hexane. FTIR analysis of the secondary structure of the lipase indicated that a smaller decrease of the α-helix was observed in [C 4 MIM] Tf 2 N and [C 4 MIM] PF 6 than [C 4 MIM] BF 4 and hexane, indicating that the anions of ILs might be a key factor for the activity of lipase in ILs. Process parameters (amount of lipase, caprylic acid/glycerol molar ratio, temperature and their interactive effects) were optimized in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C 4 MIM]PF 6 ) using Novozym 435 by response surface methodology. When the reactions were performed with the lipase amount of 6.1 % substrate mass at a caprylic acid/glycerol molar ratio of 4.5:1 and 66.7 °C, a higher yield was reached up to 92.4 %.

Description: The development of sensitive and robust screening tool(s) for assuring the quality of incoming raw materials would supplement the assurances provided by food manufacturer vendor auditing programs. Our aim was to evaluate the ability of attenuated total reflectance mid-infrared (ATR-MIR) spectroscopy in combination with multivariate analysis as a screening tool for the diverse cocoa butter supply. Forty different cocoa butter samples encompassing an acceptable range of compositional variability for the chocolate industry were included. Cocoa butters were characterized for their melt characteristics (melting heat), triacylglycerol content and fatty acid composition (GC-FAME). Soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) were used for classification and quantification analysis. SIMCA classified all cocoa butters in distinct clusters in a 3-dimensional space but no sample clustering patterns were associated with melt characteristics. Spectral differences responsible for the separation of classes were attributed to stretching vibrations of the ester (–C=O) linkage (1,660–1,720 cm −1 ). PLSR models showed correlation coefficients 〉0.93 and prediction errors (SECV) of 1.5 units for melt characteristics, 0.2–0.3 and 0.4–0.8 % for major fatty acids and triacylglycerols, respectively. ATR-MIR spectroscopy combined with pattern recognition analysis provides robust models for characterization and determination of cocoa butter composition.

Description: The influence of temperature on the fatty acid composition of the oils from conventional and high oleic sunflower genotypes grown in tropical regions was evaluated under various environmental conditions in Brazil (from 0° S to 23° S). The amounts of the oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic fatty acids from the sunflower oil were determined using gas chromatography (GC). The environment exhibited little influence on the amounts of oleic and linoleic fatty acids in high oleic genotypes of sunflower. In conventional genotypes, there was broad variation in the average amounts of these two fatty acids, mainly as a function of the minimum temperature. Depending on the temperature, especially during the maturation of the seeds, the amount of oleic acid in the oil of conventional sunflower genotypes could exceed 70 %. Higher temperatures led to average increases of up to 35 % for this fatty acid. Although the minimum temperature had the strongest effect on the fatty acid composition, locations at the same latitude with different minimum temperatures displayed similar values for both oleic acid and linoleic acid. Furthermore, minimum temperature had little influence on the amounts of palmitic and stearic fatty acids in the oil.

Description: To better understand the effects of water properties on the reaction characteristics of acrolein production from glycerol, dehydration of refined glycerol and crude glycerol was comparatively conducted in both sub- and super-critical water states, and the effect of changing water properties was studied to optimize the reaction conditions. The effects of reaction temperature, pressure, residence time, water/glycerol ratio, and catalyst concentration on the yields and distribution of chemical products were also examined. Acrolein yield 〉80 mol% from both refined glycerol and crude glycerol can be achieved by controlling water properties in the sub-critical water state with the addition of sulfuric acid as a homogeneous catalyst and the formation of undesired acetaldehyde and propionaldehyde can be greatly restrained. These results provide valuable information for the production of value-added chemicals from crude glycerol.

Description: The extraction efficiency of microalgae lipids with aqueous isopropanol (IPA) was investigated and compared with the extraction of oil from full-fat soy flour. The effects of the type of microalgae ( Scenedesmus sp. and Schizochytrium limacinum ), cell rupture, and IPA concentration on the yield of oil and non-lipid biomass were determined. The oil yield from intact cells of Scenedesmus was 86–93 % with 70, 88, or 95 % (by wt) IPA. Ultrasonic cell rupture prior to oil extraction decreased the oil yield of Scenedesmus to 74 % when extracting with 70 % IPA. The oil yield from intact cells of S. limacinum was 〈23 % regardless of the IPA concentration, but ruptured cells gave a 94–96 % oil yield with 88 or 95 % IPA. The different response of the two microalgae to extraction with IPA is possibly caused by differences in the cell wall structure and type and amount of polar lipids. The oil yield from soy flour with 88 and 95 % IPA was 93–95 %, which was significantly greater than yields with 50 and 70 % IPA. Cell rupture had no effect on soy flour extraction. In general, the oil yield from the ruptured cells of both microalgae and soy flour increased with increasing IPA concentration.

Description: An interlaboratory study was conducted to evaluate a method for determining glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE) in edible oils. Samples were dissolved in tert -butyl methyl ether/ethyl acetate and subjected to two solid-phase extraction (SPE) steps. The first SPE step utilized methanol elution from a C18 cartridge, and the second SPE step utilized n -hexane/ethyl acetate elution from a silica cartridge. The final extract was analyzed using liquid chromatography with a single quadrupole mass spectrometer in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. Quantification was performed using external standardization. Eighteen samples (9 oils × 2 blind duplicates) were assayed for glycidyl palmitate, glycidyl stearate, glycidyl oleate, glycidyl linoleate and glycidyl linolenate by 17 collaborating laboratories from seven countries. Sample matrices included palm, olive, corn, soybean and rapeseed oils. Repeatability (RSDr) ranged from 6.85 to 19.88 % and reproducibility (RSDR) ranged from 16.58 to 35.52 % for samples containing greater than 0.5 mg/kg of individual GE. HORRAT R values ranged from 0.62 to 14.70 for determination of total GE. The method provides acceptable results for quantification of GE in edible oils.

Description: Milk fat is known to contain one of the highest number of fatty acids of all edible oils. Some of these fatty acids are known to be valuable (e.g. conjugated linoleic acids, furan fatty acid) and other as undesirable (e.g. saturated and some trans -fatty acids) food ingredients. However, a comprehensive picture on the presence of many trace fatty acids has not been achieved. For this reason we have developed an analysis scheme based on the conversion of the fatty acids into methyl esters. The fatty acid methyl esters were then fractionated by urea complexation. Both the filtrate of the urea complexation (~4 % of the sample weight) and the original sample were fractionated by high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC). The resulting fractions were analyzed by GC/MS analysis. With this method 430 fatty acids were detected in one single butter sample. More than 230 fatty acids had two or more double bonds. In addition to the widely known spectrum of fatty acids we also detected a range of cyclohexyl fatty acids (five homologues) and methyl-branched fatty acids (including short chain and even-numbered anteiso -fatty acids), conjugated tetradecadienoic acids along with the novel ω-oxo-fatty acids (seven homologues). The reported relative retention time on the polar column may serve as a data base for the screening of other samples for this profusion of fatty acids.

Description: Fatty acid methyl ester sulfonate (MES), an anionic surfactant suitable as a laundry detergent, is produced commercially by the direct sulfonation of fatty acid methyl ester (ME) with SO 3 . However, intense coloration occurs during the sulfonation process. The sulfonation of ME was performed through the addition of SO 3 (SO 3 /ME molar ratio = 0.8–1.2) for 1–4 h and subsequent aging for 1 h at 80 °C. Even when the amount of unsaturated bonds in ME was reduced to give an iodine value (IV) of less than 0.01, coloration occurred during the sulfonation, making the unbleached product unsuitable for commercial use. The formation of olefinic units and SO 2 was observed during the reaction, and the color of the reaction mixture was strongly correlated with their amounts. Further analysis confirmed that equimolar amounts of the olefinic unit and SO 2 were formed, and the rate profiles of the formation of MES and SO 2 agreed well with each other. From these observations, we concluded that the coloration of the reaction mixture was caused by oxidation of the alkyl chain with SO 3 during the liberation of SO 3 from the 1:2 adduct of ME and SO 3 , a key intermediate in the sulfonation process.

Description: Lipid compositions of two non-conventional oilseeds ( Irvingia gabonensis and Treculia africana ) were studied. Total lipids were extracted by the Folch method and phospholipids were isolated by solid phase extraction. Fatty acid compositions of total lipids and phospholipids were determined by gas chromatography. Phospholipid classes and tocopherols were quantified by HPLC. The major fatty acids in I. gabonensis seed total lipids were myristic (41.4–48.9 %) and lauric (39.8–46.8 %) while those in T. africana seed were linoleic (29.1–31.4 %) and oleic (22.9–25.9 %). The principal fatty acid at the sn -2 position of I. gabonensis seed triacylglycerols was myristic (49.5 %) while that of T. africana was linoleic (50.6 %). Phospholipid content of crude T. africana seed oil was 3.3 % and that of I. gabonensis was 0.1–0.3 %. The composition and distribution of saturated fatty acids in I. gabonensis seed lipids suggest that it may contribute to cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Igbo people in Nigeria that use the seed as food ingredient.

Description: External laminar oscillatory shear applied during crystallization in combination with different temperature fields was used to modify the microstructure and physical properties of edible oil organogels. Crystallization at a high cooling rate (30 °C/min) resulted in a spherulitic microstructure with a higher oil-binding capacity, lower storage modulus and lower yield stress compared with a material (with a fibrillar microstructure) crystallized at a slow cooling rate (1 °C/min). The application of an oscillatory shear resulted in the formation of novel microstructures depending on the cooling regime used. The application of an oscillatory shear (strain 〉 500 % and frequency = 1 Hz) resulted in the thickening of fibers observed in the slow-cooled material and an increased incidence of spherulite nucleation in the rapidly cooled material. Increasing the frequency of the oscillatory shear applied did not change the microstructure for the slow-cooled gel but further increased the incidence of nucleation for the rapidly cooled gel. The application of controlled-strain oscillatory shear to the crystallizing gel at either cooling rates resulted in an oily and very soft, paste-like material. This material had a lower storage modulus and poorer oil-binding capacity compared with the same gel crystallized statically. Reduction of the oscillatory strain from a maximum of 1500 to 500 % moderately mitigated the loss of mechanical properties and oil-binding capacity although these properties were in no way comparable to those obtained from static crystallization. The study shows that the application of oscillatory shear and different cooling regimes can be used to tailor a crystalline organogel. However, the application of continuous shear must be done with care as application of excessive shear can result in a complete breakdown in gel structure and large amounts of oil loss.

Description: The fatty acid profile of kenaf ( Hibiscus cannabinus L.) seed oil has been the subject of several previous reports in the literature. These reports vary considerably regarding the presence and amounts of specific fatty acids, notably (12,13-epoxy-9( Z )-octadecenoic (epoxyoleic) acid, but also cyclic (cyclopropene and cyclopropane) fatty acids. To clarify this matter, two kenaf seed oils (from the Cubano and Dowling varieties of kenaf) were investigated regarding their fatty acid profiles. Both contain epoxyoleic acid, the Cubano sample around 2 % and the Dowling sample 5-6 % depending on processing. The cyclic fatty acids malvalic and dihydrosterculic were identified in amounts around 1 %. Trace amounts of sterculic acid were observed as were minor amounts of C17:1 fatty acids. The results are discussed in the context of the fatty acid profiles of other hibiscus seed oils.

Description: Biodiesel is an alternative fuel composed of mono-alkyl fatty acid esters made from the transesterification of plant oils or animal fats with methanol or ethanol. After conversion, biodiesel may contain trace concentrations of unconverted monoacylglycerols (MAG). These MAG have low solubility in biodiesel and may form solid residues when stored at cold temperatures. The present study evaluates the measurement of kinematic viscosity ( ν ) and cold filter plugging point (CFPP)-time to filter (Δ t ) as parameters that predict the temperature where small concentrations of MAG may lead to formation of solids or other phase transitions that restrict the flow of soybean oil fatty acid methyl esters (SME) through filters and fuel lines. Mixtures of SME doped with MAG were prepared and ν and Δ t were measured as the temperature decreased from 20 to below 0 °C. Results showed a correlation between ν and Δ t that held for neat SME (SME without added MAG) and SME-MAG mixtures as the temperature decreased to the threshold temperature ( T th ). Sharp increases in ∆ t disrupted the correlation as temperature decreased below T th . Furthermore, T th generally increased as added MAG concentration increased in the mixtures.

Description: Typoselectivity of crude CBD-T1 lipase ( Geobacillus sp. T1 lipase fused with a cellulose binding domain) was investigated. Multi-competitive reaction mixtures including a set of n -chain fatty acids (C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, C18:1 n-9, C18:2 n-6 and C18:3 n-3) and tripalmitin-enriched triacylglycerols were studied in hexane. The crude CBD-T1 lipase discriminated strongly against C18:1 n-9 [competitive factor ( α ) = 0.23] and showed the highest preference for C8:0 ( α  = 1). Utilizing the catalytic properties of crude CBD-T1 lipase, acidolysis of soybean oil with C8:0 was selected as a model reaction to investigate the ability of the lipase to produce MLM-type (medium-long-medium) structured lipids. Several reaction parameters (added water amount, reaction temperature, substrate molar ratio and reaction time) examined for incorporating C8:0 into soybean oil, the optimum conditions were: 1:3 (soybean oil/C8:0) of molar ratio, 3 mL of hexane, 50 °C of temperature, 48 h of reaction time, 20 % of crude CBD-T1 lipase (w/w total substrates), and 7.5 % of water (w/w enzyme). Under these conditions, the incorporation of C8:0 was 29.6 mol%. The results suggest that crude CBD-T1 lipase, which showed different fatty acid specificity profiles, is a potential biocatalyst for the modification of fats and oils.

Description: Food habits worldwide have increased the demand for oxidative-resistant oils that can be used for deep-frying. Oxidative stability in oils can be improved by changing the fatty acid composition of the oil or by adding natural antioxidants to the oil. In this study, the effect of essential oils of seven plants; cinnamon, rosemary, sage, turmeric, clove, thyme and oregano enriched with carvacrol on the oxidative stability of corn oil at frying temperatures were studied. Experiments were conducted by using a PetroOxy device, a rapid small scale oxidation stability test. A central composite design was used to evaluate the effects of concentration of essential oil (X1: 1,500–5,000 ppm) and temperature (X2: 150–180 °C), on the induction time of corn oil. In order to compare the results with the synthetic antioxidant, butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), another design was made with a concentration range (60–350 ppm) containing the legal upper limit of BHT, 200 ppm. Induction periods obtained from the accelerated oxidation test revealed that increasing temperature decreased the induction time of all the samples. However, the essential oils except for oregano oil had no significant antioxidative effect on corn oil, probably due to a lower content of their active components. The antioxidative effect of oregano oil was also found to be higher compared to BHT. At very high temperatures (e.g., 180 °C), the concentration of antioxidants had no effect on the induction periods.

Description: Essential oils with antioxidant properties are of increasing interest in West Africa where there are many antioxidant rich plants. The objective of this study was to determine the essential oil extracted from six native plants ( Lippia multiflora, Lippia rugosa, Monodora tenuifolia, Ocimum gratissimum, Pimenta racemosa, Cymbopogon citratus ) extracted by hydrodistillation from local plants in Benin. These samples were also evaluated for their antioxidant capacity using the conjugated autoxidizable triene (CAT) assay performed in stripped tung oil-in-water emulsion. The essential oil of P. racemosa , containing high amounts of chavicol (10.3 %) and eugenol (54.5 %), showed the strongest antioxidant activity, followed by that from O. gratissimum containing large amounts of thymol (50.2 %). The essential oil extracted from M. tenuifolia exhibited a moderate antioxidant activity. This essential oil is primarily composed of sesquiterpene alcohols such as α-cadinol (20.5 %), its isomer, α-muurolol (14.7 %), and germacrene D-4-ol (16.8 %). Essential oils from L. multiflora, L. rugosa and C. citratus oils showed poor ability to protect tung oil from oxidation. Finally, essential oils containing phenolic compounds and, in a lesser extent, sesquiterpene alcohols, exhibited the highest CAT values indicating that these compounds are the key determinants of the antioxidant activity of these essential oils in oil-in-water emulsions.

Description: New avenues to add value to glycerol are currently being explored. One of them is the synthesis of structured lipids through glycerol esterification. In this work we have analyzed the recovery and purification of dicaprin obtained by esterification of glycerol with capric acid (C) in heptane, mediated by Lipozyme RM IM. This is an intermediate step to obtain lipids MLM. In the first stage, the diglyceride synthesis MGM (being G a central HC–OH) was carried out. When M = C, the diglyceride is CGC. Recovery of the diglyceride CGC is required to carry out the esterification of the sn -2 position with palmitic acid (P), thus obtaining the triglyceride CPC. Different solvents were evaluated using Ecofac 1.0 (a molecular design software solvent) through a theoretical approach to explore the best solvents for the acylglycerides separation. Then, the performance of the selected solvents to separate dicaprin from mono and tricaprin was experimentally studied in a liquid–liquid extraction process. Previously, the remaining fatty acid had been neutralized. With liquid–liquid extraction in three simple steps, using ethanol/water, 94 % of the dicaprin obtained by enzymatic esterification was recovered with a purity of 89 % (wt%). It was also possible to obtain dicaprin with a purity of 97 % but with a yield of 56 %.

Description: The impacts of four different types of tocotrienol homologues on the singlet oxygen oxidation of lard were evaluated by measuring the headspace oxygen content and the peroxide value. Singlet oxygen oxidation of lard was induced by chlorophyll photosensitization. Samples of 0.100, 0.250, and 0.400 M lard in methylene chloride containing chlorophyll and α-, β-, γ-, or δ-tocotrienol were prepared and stored under light at 3,000 lux for 4 h. All tocotrienol homologues at 1.20 mM significantly prevented the singlet oxygen oxidation of lard. Chlorophyll under light produced singlet oxygen at 1.09 μmol oxygen/mL headspace/h. A steady state kinetic study showed that tocotrienols reduced the singlet oxygen oxidation of lard by quenching the singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen reacted with lard at 6.50 × 10 4  M −1  s −1 . α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocotrienol quenched singlet oxygen with the rate of 2.16, 1.99, 2.05, and 0.800 × 10 7  M −1  s −1 , respectively. Among them, α-tocotrienol significantly prevented singlet oxygen oxidation of lard.

Description: This study evaluated the effect of the inclusion of chia bran in the diet of Nile tilapia on the composition of n-3 fatty acids (FA). Omega-3 fatty acids provide health benefits such as reducing the risks of coronary heart disease, hypertension and inflammation, and the precursor alpha-linolenic acid is considered strictly essential because it cannot be synthesized by humans, therefore must be ingested. Tilapias grown in tanks for a period of 45 days were treated with diets supplemented with either soybean oil (TI) or chia bran (TII). Proximal composition analysis of the feeds showed no significant difference. Feed FA quantification showed that the chia diet (TII) had a higher alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) content. A significant increase was observed in the concentrations of LNA (8.38–81.31 mg 100 g −1 fillets), eicosapentaenoic acid (1.12–1.56 mg 100 g −1 fillets) and docosahexaenoic acid (19.55–26.55 mg 100 g −1 fillets) in tilapia fillets between 0 and 45 days for TII. Total lipids at 45 days under TII were fractionated into neutral lipids (67.66 %) and polar lipids (18.90 %). Thus, dietary supplementation with chia bran contributed to raising the nutritional quality of Nile tilapia fillets.

Description: Epoxidized cotton seed oil (ECSO) was conveniently synthesized from cotton seed oil (CSO) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, formic acid, and phosphoric acid. Then the ECSO was converted into carbonated cotton seed oil (CCSO) by reacting with CO 2 using tetrabutylammonium bromide as a catalyst. The reaction conditions including reaction temperature, pressure, reaction time and the amount of catalyst were examined. In addition, the final product (CCSO) from cyclic addition reaction was characterized by FT-IR, 1 H NMR and TGA. Compared with CSO and ECSO, CCSO showed excellent thermal and oxidation stability. Additionally, the CCSO’s properties of extreme pressure, anti-wear and friction reduction were tested and analyzed. The results indicated that it could be used as potential lubricating base oil.

Description: A heterogeneous catalysis method to produce 20 % conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-rich food-grade soy oil in 2 h without solvents or gases was recently developed. The objective of this study was to produce and characterize CLA-rich soy oil margarine relative to a soy oil control and commercial margarine. CLA-rich soy oil was used to prepare margarine. The samples were characterized for firmness, rheology, thermal behavior, solid fat content (SFC) and microstructure and compared with a soy oil control and commercial margarine. The CLA-rich oil margarine firmness and rheological properties were similar to commercial margarine and provided a better texture relative to the soy oil control margarine. However, SFC, droplet size distribution and melting behavior of CLA-rich oil margarine were similar to control soy oil margarine and dissimilar to the commercial product. This suggests that hardness and rheological properties of margarine are not solely dependent on SFC and melting behavior. Lipid composition, polymorphism and microstructure differences in CLA-rich oil margarine may play an important role on the texture and rheological properties. A 7-g typical serving of the CLA-rich oil margarine will provide 0.6 g CLA. Thus five servings will provide 3.2 g/day of CLA and 185 calories/day, which is well within the maximum recommended 700–980 fat calories/day.

Description: In this study, Nigella sativa L. seeds were extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO 2 ) and Soxhlet. Chemical characteristics, fatty acid composition, antioxidant activity and thymoquinone content of N. sativa L. extracts obtained through different methods were investigated and compared. It was revealed that antioxidant activity and thymoquinone content could be significantly different for SC-CO 2 and Soxhlet extracts. The results for fatty acid composition indicated that linoleic acid, palmitic acid and oleic acid were the main fatty acids in both extracts. The SC-CO 2 extraction could provide an extract with higher quality and antioxidant activity compared to Soxhlet extraction method and can be considered a more appropriate method for attaining a high-quality extract.

Description: Nanoemulsions are of great interest in food industry finding various food applications. However, oil-in-water (o/w) nanoemulsions have been intensively investigated, but there are few studies on w/o nanoemulsions. In the present work the preparation of nanoemulsions with olive oil using non-ionic surfactants (Tween 20, 40, 60, 80, Span 20, 80) without the addition of a co-surfactant was studied and their emulsion properties and stability were examined. The stable nanoemulsions were presented in ternary phase diagrams (oil–water-surfactant) for each surfactant and the emulsifying ability of the efficient surfactants was determined. The nanoemulsions properties were evaluated in relationship to compositional components. From the results of this study it can be concluded that stable olive oil nanoemulsions without use of a co-surfactant were obtained and moreover the most efficient type of emulsifier and its ratio of addition in the system were determined.

Description: In this study, the fat phase of chocolate samples which contained cocoa butter from Ghana and cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) of moderate hardness was analyzed. Physical properties and shelf life of chocolate depend on the fat phase behavior as well as the amount and composition of added CBE. The laboratory-made chocolate samples were tempered at three different pre-crystallization temperatures (25, 27 and 29 °C), with three different concentrations of CBE, amounting to 3, 5 and 7 %, calculated on chocolate. The color and other physical attributes of chocolate samples were investigated by the following analytical methods: thermoreographic measurement, solid fat content (SFC) of chocolate, Blooming test (thermo-cycle test 32/20 °C) and color measurement. It was found that using CBE of moderate hardness did not change the melting properties of chocolate in relation to the investigated cocoa butter from Ghana (of moderate hardness). It was found that all three applied temperatures of pre-crystallization are optimum for the chocolate mass with the addition of the investigated CBE under the given measurement conditions. At all these temperatures, the chocolate had excellent fat bloom resistance.

Description: A novel method using ethanol and ultrasound to extract oil from cream obtained from enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of soybean oil was developed. To evaluate the relationships between operating variables and free oil yield and to maximize the free oil yield, response surface methodology was introduced in this work. The developed regression model was fitted with R 2  = 0.9591. Optimized variables were: ethanol concentration of 73 %, ethanol addition volume of 0.55 L/kg, ultrasound power of 427 W, ultrasound time of 47 s, and ultrasound temperature of 53 °C. The free oil yield from the cream under the above conditions was 92.6 ± 3.4 %. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to evaluate the effect of ultrasonic treatment on ethanol-treated cream, and the SEM images clearly showed that the ultrasound treatment affected dispersing and fracturing of the microstructure of ethanol-treated cream.

Description: Waste oils are potentially advantageous over petroleum and virgin vegetable oil based fuels due to waste utilization, and an overall lowering of gases and most other emissions over the life cycle of fuel production, use, and disposal. Waste generated from fish processing plants varies from 10–50 wt% of landed fish depending on the type of fish, product and processing techniques. A portion of this waste contains fish oil and varies significantly depending on the species. The oil recovery process must maximize extraction of oil and at the same time be able to integrate into the existing infrastructure at fish plants. In this study, we have optimized the recovery process developed in our lab (based on a fishmeal processing) and tested with the waste of a variety of fish species. The oil had low impurities (〈0.5 wt% moisture) and degradation products, and physical properties suitable for substitution of No. 6 fuel oils and marine distillate/residual fuels. Based on this, pilot scale experiments were performed to determine scale-up challenges and design specifications for eventual costs analysis (e.g. size, residence time, etc.), energy required and waste emissions.

Description: Food wastes are today considered as a cheap source of valuable components since the existent technologies allow the recovery of target compounds and their recycling inside the food chain as functional additives in different products. Olive mill wastewater (OMW) is generated from olive oil extraction systems. It has high added-value compounds namely phenolics, recalcitrants, pectin, and some important enzymes. It causes a certain amount of toxicity/phytotoxicity because of its phenolic compounds. OMW also has significant impacts when discharged directly into surface waters. Therefore, the treatment of olive mill wastewater is very much needed. Several types of techniques have been investigated for OMW treatment along with recovery and removal of its phenolic compounds. Among these techniques, physical ones are utilized for extraction purposes, while chemical and biological methods are applied in order to diminish organic load. In this review, current status and recent developments in the recovery and removal of phenolic compounds from OMW have been critically examined.

Description: Supercritical carbon dioxide was used to fractionate anhydrous milk fat. Six fractions were produced at 40, 50 and 60 °C using pressure values of 10, 20, 25, 30, 33 and 36 MPa. The fractions were analyzed for fatty acids, thermal behavior, iodine and color values. Composition and yield of fatty acid methyl esters were evaluated at different fractionation conditions in relation to the original milk fat values. Short chain fatty acids (C 4 –C 8 ), medium chain fatty acids (C 10 –C 14 ) and total saturated fatty acids were decreased from fraction obtained in the order of 10–36 MPa, while long chain fatty acids (C 16 –C 18:2 ) and total unsaturated fatty acids were increased. Fractions obtained in the raffinate stage of the fractionation exhibited higher melting behavior that obtained at the low CO 2 pressures. The higher iodine value of raffinate fraction indicated that fraction was richer in oleic acid. Fractions produced at low pressures had lower melting behavior than those obtained at high pressures. Yellowness Index and b * values increased in raffinate fraction due to concentration of carotenoids.

Description: Selective ethanolysis of fish oil was catalyzed by immobilized lipases and their derivatives in organic media. Lipases from Candida antarctica B (CALB), Thermomyces lanuginosa (TLL) and Rhizomucor miehei (RML) were studied. The three lipases were immobilized by anion exchange and hydrophobic adsorption. The discrimination between the ethyl ester of eicosapentaenoic acid (EE-EPA) and the ethyl ester of docosahexaenoic acid (EE-DHA) depends on the lipase, the immobilization support, the physico-chemical modifications of the immobilized lipase derivatives and on the solvents used. TLL and RML were much more selective than CALB. EE-EPA is released 20-fold faster than EE-DHA when ethanolysis was catalyzed, in cyclohexane, by TLL hydrophobically adsorbed on Sepabeads C18. The selectivity and stability of the different derivatives in these polar organic solvents were further improved after physico-chemical modification. The best results for activity-selectivity-stability were obtained in cyclohexane for TLL adsorbed on Sepabeads C18 and further modified via solid-phase physical modification with a polyethylenimine polymer. In this case, the initial selectivity was higher than 20, and a 80 % of EPA was released as ethyl ester after 3 h at 25 °C. At this conversion, mixtures of ethyl esters highly enriched in the ethyl ester of EPA with less than 5 % of the EE-DHA were obtained. TLL derivatives remained fully active after incubation for 24 h in anhydrous solvents.

Description: The chemical interesterification of blends of soybean (SO) and fully hydrogenated crambe oil (FHCO) in the ratios of 80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 65:35, and 60:40 (w/w), respectively, was investigated. FHCO is a source of behenic acid. The blends and the interesterified fats were analyzed for fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition, regiospecific distribution, slip melting point, solid profile, and consistency. The regiospecific analysis of the TAG indicated random insertion of saturated fatty acids at sn -2 of the glycerol of the interesterified blends with more significant alterations at sn -2 than at sn -1 and sn -3. The gradual addition of FHCO increased the solid fat content and the slip melting point. The chemical interesterification formed new TAG facilitating the miscibility between SO and FHCO. The 70:30 interesterified blend was suitable for general use, 60:40 for use as a base stock. At 35 °C, the 65:35 interesterified blend showed suitable plasticity for use in products with fat contents below 80 %. FHCO, rich in behenic acid, is not associated with increased total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, and it can be used as a low trans fat. FHCO is not associated with increased total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, and it can be used as a low trans fat alternative.

Description: Pure diacylglycerol (DAG) is of vital importance for the biomedical and dietetic properties research of DAG. In this study, we aimed to develop an effective process to produce DAG-mixture of regioisomers with high purity. Firstly, DAGs and monoacylglycerols (MAGs) were synthesized by enzymatic esterification of glycerol and free fatty acids (FFAs) from camellia oil with catalysis of Penicillium camembertii lipase, and the obtained reaction mixture was composed of 49.9 % DAG [33.4 % for 1,3-DAG and 16.5 % for 1,2 (2,3)-DAG], 31.6 % MAG and 18.5 % FFA. Secondly, a monoacylglycerol lipase (lipase CBD-MGLP), which was produced by recombinant Escherichia coli in our laboratory, was employed to hydrolyze MAG in the above reaction mixture, and the MAG content decreased to 1.9 % under the optimal conditions with 375 U/g (U/w, with respect to the mass of MAG in the mixture) of CBD-MGLP loading, temperature of 45 °C, mass ratio of esterification mixture to Tris–HCl buffer (w/w) 10:10, and pH of Tris–HCl buffer 9.0. Then, the hydrolytic products were further purified by molecular distillation at low temperature of 130 °C under a pressure of 10 Pa [equivalent to 377 °C at 101.325 kPa (1 atm)], and the DAG purity was up to 98.0 % (66.6 % for 1,3-DAG and 31.4 % for 1,2-DAG) in the final products. This indicated that two-step enzymatic reactions combined with molecular distillation at low temperature could be a feasible and prospective process to produce DAG-mixture of regioisomers with high purity.

Description: Sinapic acid present in the waste stream of yellow mustard protein isolation was purified by strong base Dowex (1 × 8, Cl − ) ion exchange chromatography. The ratio of loading volume to resin bed volume was 19:1. Approximately 80 % of sinapic acid was adsorbed. The column was washed with two bed volumes of water to remove remaining undesirable components. Approximately 75 % of sinapic acid adsorbed by the resins in the column was eluted by ten bed volumes of a solution containing 0.9 M acetic acid and methanol (4:6, v/v). Up to 15 adsorption and regeneration cycles resulted in only a slight, 3–5 %, reduction in ion exchange capacity, indicating that this is a viable approach to the recovery and purification of sinapic acid. The recovery of this valuable nutraceutical ingredient improves the economic viability of an integrated extraction process for this Canadian oilseed crop.

Description: The military uses JP-8, a kerosene type hydrocarbon, to fuel most of its vehicles and is seeking a renewable alternative fuel that meets strict JP-8 specifications. Biodiesel is typically a mixture of different alkyl esters produced from the transesterification of triglycerides readily available in plant oils and used cooking oil. To date, no traditional biodiesel meets the requirements for heat of combustion, freezing point, viscosity and oxidative stability to be a stand-alone replacement for JP-8. This work is a fundamental survey of the heat of combustion of single fatty acid esters and a predictive model for estimating the heat of combustion given a known molecular structure. The gross heat of combustion of various C6–C18 fatty acids and the methyl, propyl and isopropyl esters of these fatty acids was measured. This study sought to relate the effect of chain length, degree of unsaturation and branching to the critical fuel property of the gross heat of combustion ( H c ). It was found that H c (kJ/g) increased with chain length. A nearly linear relationship was found between wt% carbon and hydrogen, and H c . Group contribution models previously published for hydrocarbons and polymers were modified to more accurately predict the heat of combustion of the fatty acids and esters. Modification of the molar heat values of carboxylic acid, methyl, and methylene groups improved correlation of the model with the experimental results.

Description: Whole dead poultry birds obtained from commercial layer farms were assessed for fat in the whole carcass and then dry rendered in three different rendering regimens T 1 , T 2 and T 3 (temperature = 120, 130 and 140 °C and shell pressure = 1, 2 and 3 kg/cm 2 respectively) and the effect on the yield and quality of the rendered chicken oil were studied. The overall fat percentage of the whole dead poultry carcass was 14.55 ± 0.17 % and the fat content of ‘greaves’ was 14.49 ± 0.38 %. In the dry batch rendering trials, the mean overall fat recovery was 24.46 ± 1.19, 26.78 ± 3.14 and 22.42 ± 2.32 % and the overall fat yield was 3.52 ± 1.72, 3.84 ± 0.44 and 3.22 ± 0.33 % of the carcass weight in T 1 , T 2 and T 3 respectively. Solvent extraction of fat could recover 96.10 ± 0.14 % of fat from ‘greaves’ which was significantly higher than the mechanical centrifugation method. Among the quality characteristics of the rendered chicken oil (RCO), moisture content ranged from 0.61 % (T 2 ) to 1.09 % (T 1 ) and the mean specific gravity was 0.91 at 30 °C. The FFA values of RCO obtained from the T 3 rendering regimen were significantly ( p  〈 0.05) higher than the FFA values of T 2 and T 1 . The mean acid value, iodine number, peroxide value, saponification value and unsaponifiable matter present in RCO showed no significant difference. The fatty acid profile and calorific values were studied. The RCO was converted to biodiesel by transesterification and the physico-chemical properties of the biodiesel were studied and compared with the Indian biodiesel specification.

Description: The aim of this work was to establish the richness in γ-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6) and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) of the seed oil of several restricted-range Boraginaceae species, in a search for new valuable oils as advantageous alternatives to the commercially available sources of both polyunsaturated fatty acids. To this end, seeds of selected Boraginaceae species were collected and analyzed. The highest GLA contents (% total fatty acids) were found in the seed oils of Symphytum caucasicum M.Bieb. (22.9 %), Anchusa undulata subsp. undulata (Ten.) Cout. (22.0 %), Anchusa puechii Valdés (20.0 %), Glandora nitida Thomas (19.2 %), Echium pininana Webb & Berth. (17.1 %) and Pentaglottis sempervirens (L.) L. H. Bailey (17.0 %). With regard to SDA, the highest percentage was found in the seed oil of Echium cantabricum (M. Laínz) Fdez. Casas & M. Laínz (14.7 %), followed by Lappula patula (Lehm.) Asch ex Gürke (13.6 %). It is noticeable that several GLA-enriched species stand under a great threat of extinction, thus revealing the importance of the preservation of the natural ecosystems for endangered species.

Description: Soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr] with increased oleic acid is desirable to improve oxidative stability and functionality of soybean seed oil. Recently, soybean genotypes with high oleic acid (≥70 %) were developed by breeding programs. Efficient and effective identification of high oleic acid soybean genotypes using non-destructive near infrared reflectance (NIR) on whole seeds would greatly enhance progress in breeding programs. The objective of this study was to develop a calibration equation for NIR determination of high oleic acid from single soybean seeds. A total of 600 intact, single F 2 seeds were scanned by NIR. Spectral data were collected between 400 and 2,500 nm at 2 nm intervals. The relationship between NIR spectral patterns of each soybean seed and its oleic acid content was examined. The best predicted equations for oleic acid were selected on the basis of minimizing the standard error of cross-validation and increasing the coefficient of determination. Validation demonstrated that the equations for determining total oleic acid and over 50 % oleic acid content had high predictive ability ( r 2  = 0.91 and r 2  = 0.99, respectively). To validate the newly developed equation, F 2 seeds from a different genetic background were tested. Again, high oleic acid from single soybean seeds was accurately predicted from various genetic backgrounds. Therefore, applying the calibration equations to NIR will be useful to rapidly and efficiently select high oleic acid soybean genotypes in breeding programs.

Description: The seed oils of 19 Indian mustard varieties were analyzed for fatty acid composition using GC–MS, reporting the presence of n-7 isomers of C18:1, C20:1 and C22:1 fatty acids. n-7 isomers namely cis -vaccenic (C18:1), 11, eicosenoic(C20:1) and 13- cis -docosenoic (C22:1) acids ranged from 0.61 to 1.73, 1.04 to 1.69 and 0.58 to 1.17 %, respectively. The average values of C20:1(n-7) was highest (1.36) amongst the three acids. Nervonic acid was also reported in the range of 0.69 to 2.52 %. The ratios of (n-7)/(n-9) ranged from 6.22 to 14.62, 12.38 to 27.35 and 2.01 to 3.24 % for C18:1, C20:1 and C22:1 fatty acids, respectively. The variety RLM-619 had the lowest elongation ratio (ER) as 0.44 and the highest desaturation ratio (DR) as 0.41 indicating higher efficiency of the desaturation pathway than for other varieties. The oleic desaturation ratio (ODR) values varied from 0.68 (Basanti) to 0.75 (GM-2) with a mean value of 0.72 and linoleic desaturation ratio from 0.40 (Basanti) to 0.49 (Pusa Bold) with a mean value of 0.45. Palmitoleic acid showed positive correlation with C18:1(n-7), C20:1(n-7), C20:2, C22:0, C22:1(n-7), C24:1, (n-7)/(n-9) ratio of C18:1 and C22:1 and a positive trend with ER but a significant negative correlation with C18:3, DR and ODR. The results indicated that palmitoleic acid is an important intermediate component in the synthesis of long chain (n-7) fatty acids.

Description: Chicken egg yolk is a concentrated source of phospholipids (PL). Extracting egg PL with high efficiency is vital to the availability and economics of this high-valued lipid product. In this study, two types of structured dry egg yolk materials, yolk flakes and pellets, were prepared. Two commonly used solvents, hexane and ethanol, were tested on the extraction of total yolk lipids including the PL. The PL fraction was obtained by the conventional cold acetone precipitation. The drum-dried yolk flakes were shown to be an ideal starting material for total lipid and PL extraction. Anhydrous ethanol can extract almost all the neutral lipids and PL with little change to the individual components of the native PL. A PL product with a purity of more than 90 % and a yield of 99 % can be prepared using this method.

Description: The cost of starting materials for the production of biodiesel is typically 75 % of the final retail price. Oils previously used for frying, waste frying oils (WFO), are a very suitable resource. Repetitive use of oil for frying foods involves high temperature, moisture and aeration for extended periods. The most important deterioration processes triggered by these conditions are hydrolysis and oxidation. In this study, 24 WFO samples of different origins were analyzed and classified as potential starting materials for biodiesel production using three quality parameters representing the main factors that affect the conversion of WFO. These parameters were: acid value, content of polar compounds and content of polymers, which varied in the ranges from 0.2 to 7.6, 14.9 to 43.2 and 0.9 to 15.2 %, respectively. Ester content obtained using conventional transesterification (TE) for WFO conversion decreased with increased levels of WFO deterioration determined by any of the three parameters noted above. TE products obtained had ester content between 81.4 and 95.7 %. Total ester content of a WFO sample with relatively low %AV could be increased to 96.5 % using a two-stage base catalysis TE. Finally, conversion of WFO samples resulted in ester contents of 89.0 and 91.3 %, respectively, when transesterified by conventional TE. After blending up to 10 % with refined oil, the ester content achieved was near 96.5 %. Thus, the blending represents an alternative for obtaining a product with suitable ester content.

Description: In this work the analysis of inorganic elements (Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na and Zn) in different types of carnauba waxes (types 1, 3 and 4) was implemented. The Box-Behnken experimental design was used to optimize the digestion of the carnauba wax sample using a microwave-assisted approach. The following parameters were evaluated: microwave power applied (600–1,000 W), time of microwave power application (5–20 min) and nitric acid volume (1–4 mL). The residual carbon content (%RCC) was measured by ICP OES (inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry) to evaluate the efficiency of the digestion. The %RCC values in all of the experiments were below 16 %. The best conditions for carnauba wax digestion were found: 800 W applied power for 15 min using 2.5 mL of HNO 3 . In these conditions the %RCC was lower than 4 %. The amounts of Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na and Zn in these samples were determined by ICP OES. The average contents of Al, Ca, Fe and K found in the carnauba wax type 1 were 28.6 ± 1.5, 33.8 ± 2.8, 18.5 ± 1.1 and 37.2 ± 2.5 mg kg −1 , respectively. For carnauba wax types 3 and 4 larger amounts were found. The principal components analysis (PCA) showed three groups of carnauba wax with the first two principal components.

Description: Hydrogen peroxide (HP) can degrade soluble heme, forming yellow or colorless degradation products. Thermal treatment during bloodmeal production changes the conformation of oxyhemoglobin trapping heme in hydrophobic protein regions or forms methemoglobin (metHb) heme which catalytically removes HP. As a result, HP can only degrade a portion of the heme present in bloodmeal leading to poor decoloring. Equilibrium peracetic acid (PAA) solutions can effectively decolor bloodmeal. This work assessed the ability of PAA to decolor bloodmeal and the mechanism by which it occurs. The inability of HP to decolor bloodmeal is determined by the fact that it is unable to permanently degrade metHb heme, or hydrophobically trapped heme. Addition of organic acids to HP led to significant swelling of the protein chains but also to poorer decoloring and lower HP consumption compared to PAA. This suggested that in the case of PAA solutions, where bleaching was facile, the reason PAA solutions are capable of decoloring bloodmeal was due to the action of the PAA molecule against heme, whereas HP and acetic (ethanoic) acid played only minor roles in total bleaching. The decolored protein powder has reduced odor and whiter color, and is suitable for applications such as bioplastics.

Description: β-Sitosterol and γ-oryzanol have been shown to form unique structures in canola oil that have the potential to act as saturated and trans fat replacers [ 1 – 7 ]. The ternary phase, reported herein, illustrates numerous interesting physical systems. At high canola oil ratios with low β-sitosterol and γ-oryzanol concentrations, the system has a crystal structure capable of mimicking fat crystal networks. Four mesophases are identified based on Bragg’s ratios using small angle X-ray scattering. Two mesophases are lamellar crystals, one is the cubic P phase, and the fourth is an amorphous material due to the low solids content. Wide-angle X-ray further subcategorized the phases based on polymorphic divisions of the hydrocarbon side chain packing. In all, six distinct phases are reported, ranging from lamellar crystals, to liquid crystals to what appears to be a lipid glass.

Description: The physicochemical characteristics and aflatoxin levels of two types of sesame oil [Walad (W) and Normal (N)] were determined. A total of 104 sesame oil samples were collected during two seasons (I and II) from traditional mills in five states of Sudan. Levels of aflatoxin B 1 , B 2 , G 1 , and G 2 were determined using HPLC. The physicochemical characteristics of W and N samples were significantly ( P  ≤ 0.05) different: samples of W and N from the five states had fluctuations in physicochemical characteristics in the two seasons. The highest percentage of contamination (recorded in Khartoum followed by Kordofan state) by aflatoxin B 1 during season II occurred in normal sesame oil which was 80.77 %, followed by Walad sesame oil which was 76.92 %. These percentages of contamination in season I were lower than 59.26 % for normal sesame oil and lower than 52.0 % for Walad sesame oil in season II. Aflatoxin B 2 contamination recorded the highest incidence in season II (3 out of 26 samples, 11.54 %) of normal sesame oil, followed by Walad sesame oil (2 out of 26 samples, 7.69 %). These percentages were lower than the 7.40 and 4.0 % of normal and Walad sesame oils in season I, respectively. Aflatoxin B 1 and B 2 levels in sesame oil ranged from 0.5 to 9.8 and 0.5 to 1.3 μg/kg, respectively.

Description: X-ray reflectivity (XR) and scanning probe microscopy (SPM) were used to examine the structures, polymorphic transitions, and surface morphologies of triacylglycerol (TAG), 1,3-stearin-2-olein (SOS) and 1-palmitin-2-olein-3-stearin (POS) thin films supported on Si substrates. The structural parameters: thickness, electron density, and surface/interface roughnesses of TAG thin films were determined by the nonlinear least-squares regression of XR profiles to reveal their temperature dependences. In the lower temperature regimes, we observed Bragg peaks without significant interference fringe patterns in the XR profiles. SPM at room temperature displayed isolated islands on TAG thin films with surface undulations. Whereas in the higher temperature regimes in which the Bragg peaks disappeared, the interference fringe patterns became prominent. The analyses of the XR profiles indicated the structural change in thin films from three layers to single layer on Si substrates with increasing temperature. However, the temperatures at which the structural change occurred were obviously different between SOS and POS thin films.

Description: Negative pressure effects appear to play an important role during crystallization of complex TAG mixtures such as cocoa butter. Crystallization conditions influence the final macroscopic sample density and the resulting gaseous phase void structure. Well-tempered cocoa butter had a relatively smooth surface, higher macroscopic density, and a closed-pore void structure. In contrast, over-tempered samples were rougher, less dense, and contained large continuous gas-filled pores. Under-tempered cocoa butter had properties between these two treatments, with a continuous, yet very fine pore structure. Since cocoa butter is the continuous phase in chocolate, negative pressure phenomena will likely have a significant influence on chocolate density and thus how it de-molds during processing.

Description: Cloud points (CPs) of five vegetable oil fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and three biodiesel mixtures estimated by a thermodynamic equation were compared to measured CPs. The results indicate that estimated CP of peanut oil FAME are similar to measured CP and for three biodiesel mixtures a minimum total saturated FAME (SFAME) concentration is required for measured CPs to be closer to estimated CPs. These comparisons provide the basis for comments on using this method for estimating CPs of 22 test data of microalgae FAME. Cold filter plugging points (CFPPs) calculated by equation CFPP = 1.0191 × CP − 2.9 with CPs verified from the thermodynamic equation was found to be identical to CFPPs reported in literature for 22 test data of microalgae FAME. Therefore these CPs were inserted in equation CFPP = CP −4.5 for another set of CFPPs. Plots of CFPPs versus percent SFAME of the 22 test data of microalgae FAME (〉12 %) for these two equations indicates that CFPP is controlled by 85 % of SFAME. Calculated CFPPs of vegetable oil FAME and biodiesel mixtures using both equations for estimated and measured CPs is discussed. Low concentrations of long chain saturated FAME impacting the estimation of CPs of vegetable oil FAME is used as a rationale to discuss the role of unidentified other species (OS) in estimation of CPs of microalgae FAME.

Description: The objective of this research was to investigate the physicochemical properties of donkey fat. Results show that donkey fat contains 59.38 % unsaturated fatty acids, 38.37 % saturated fatty acids, and 0.21 % trans fatty acids. The sn -2 monoglyceride present in donkey fat contain 67.91 % unsaturated fatty acids and 30.97 % saturated fatty acids. Donkey fat is also characterized by a total tocopherol content of 8.59 mg/100 g fat (7.90 mg/100 g fat α -tocopherol, 0.51 mg/100 g fat β  +  γ -tocopherol, and 0.18 mg/100 g fat δ -tocopherol), 0.0032 mg/100 g fat cholesterol, an acid value of 0.091 KOH (mg/g), an iodine value of 76.47 g/100 g, a peroxide value of 0.68 mmol/kg, a saponification value of 193 mg/g, a refractive index of 1.4666, and a specific gravity of 0.9144. The complete melting temperature was 40 °C. The content of unsaturated fatty acids (total and sn -2) in donkey fat is higher than cow, pig and sheep, while the content of trans fatty acids is lower. The tocopherol content is also higher in donkey fat compared to cow, pig and sheep fat. Interestingly, the fat with such processing has nearly no cholesterol. Generally speaking, donkey fat could be a good animal fat for human consumption.

Description: Monoacylglycerols (MAG) are precursors for the synthesis of symmetrical and unsymmetrical triacylglycerols (TAG). In the present study, we improved two methods for synthesizing MAG. One method involved the enzymatic transesterification of vinyl palmitate with glycerol catalyzed by Novozym 435 lipase, and the other method was an enzymatic esterification of 1,2-acetonide glycerol with palmitic acid catalyzed by Novozym 435 lipase and then the cleavage of 1,2-acetonide-3-palmitoyl glycerol in methanol catalyzed by Amberlyst-15 to produce monopalmitin. Pure monopalmitin was obtained after repeated crystallization. The main novelties of this study are twofold: Novozym 435 proved to be very effective in catalyzing the transesterification between vinyl palmitate and glycerol without absorbing glycerol onto silica gel; and the enzyme catalyzed reaction between 1,2-acetonide glycerol and palmitic acid was simpler and safer than the typical method of using 4-dimethyl aminopyridine and N -ethyl- N ′-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride as catalysts. Our methods for the synthesis of monopalmitin are much simpler and environmentally friendlier than the reported methods, and they are economical and scalable to larger quantity production.

Description: With the increased use of plant oils as sustainable feedstocks, industrial oilseed meal from Crambe abyssinica (crambe) and Brassica carinata (carinata) can become a potential source for oilseed meal based plastics. In this study, crambe and carinata oilseed meal plastics were produced with 10–30 % glycerol and compression molding at 100–180 °C. Size exclusion HPLC was used to relate tensile properties to changes in protein solubility and molecular weight distribution. By combining glycerol and thermal processing, increased flexibility has been observed compared to previous work on unplasticized oilseed meal. Tensile results varied from a brittle crambe based material (10 % glycerol, 130 °C), Young’s modulus 240 MPa, strain at maximum stress of 2 %, to a soft and flexible carinata based material (30 % glycerol, 100 °C), Young’s modulus 6.5 MPa, strain at maximum stress of 13 %. Strength and stiffness development with increasing molding temperature is in agreement with the protein profiles obtained. Thus, the highest mechanical parameters were obtained at the protein solubility minimum at 140 °C. Higher temperatures caused protein degradation, increasing the level of low molecular weight extractable proteins. In carinata based materials the strain at maximum stress decreased as the protein aggregation developed. Results presented indicate that both crambe and carinata oilseed meal based materials can have their properties modulated through thermal treatment and the addition of plasticizers.

Description: This study details the enzymatic destabilization of the emulsion formed during aqueous extraction of peanut seeds and the quality of the resulting oil. The emulsion was exposed to enzymatic treatment and pH adjustment. The experimental results suggest that the alkaline endopeptidase Mifong ® 2709 was the most effective demulsifier, while Phospholipase A2 and pH adjustment had little effect on emulsion stability. The demulsifying conditions of Mifong ® 2709 were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The optimal conditions which produced a free oil yield of ~94 % were: 1:1 water-to-emulsion ratio, enzyme concentration of 1,600 IU/g of emulsion and 70 min hydrolysis time at 50 °C. We found that these conditions resulted in a positive relationship ( R 2  = 0.9671) between free oil yield and the degree of protein hydrolysis. Increased protease treatment produced a smaller number of oil droplets, but the size of these droplets increased significantly. When compared to demulsified oil products obtained by using thermal treatment, the oil obtained by Mifong ® 2709 exhibited lower acid and peroxide values, contained more tocopherols and had a longer induction time as determined in the Rancimat test. The high yield and quality of peanut oil obtained by enzymatic treatment makes enzyme demulsification a promising approach to recovering free oil in aqueous extractions of peanuts.

Description: Lipases are enzymes used in numerous reactions of industrial interest. Depending on their aqueous microenvironment, lipases can catalyze hydrolysis or, conversely, organic synthesis like interesterification. This reaction can be used as a method to modify the physical and chemical properties of fats and oils, a basic process for production of “structured lipids”. For such synthesis reactions, thermodynamic water activity (a w ) of the catalyst is generally the most important parameter to control. Actually, it will directly determine the performance of the synthesis, namely its yield, selectivity and stability. Effect of the a w on the activity of immobilized Thermomyces lanuginosus and Candida antarctica B lipases in interesterification reactions was studied. Water sorption and desorption isotherms were determined, showing a phenomenon of hysteresis for the Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase. Evaluation of the influence of a w on reaction yields revealed that the IE activity tends to increase with the water activity of immobilized Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase. In contrast, a w had little influence in the case of the Candida antarctica B lipase.

Description: ABSTRACT The official methods of the American Oil Chemists’ Society recommend the modified Villavecchia test Cb 2-40 for detecting sesame oil in animal and vegetable fats and oils. The test is based on the reactivity of sesamol and sesamolin to furfural under acidic conditions. Although the contribution of sesamol and sesamolin to the reaction has been reported, little information is available on how the test performed with oils prepared from different sesame varieties or for effects of roasting conditions of seeds. The objective of this study was to clarify the contribution of various lignans to the Villavecchia test results. Chromogenic products of the Villavecchia test with sesame oil prepared from different varieties of sesame seeds gave different absorbance intensities at 520 nm, and the absorbance intensities were positively correlated with the content of sesamolin in sesame oil. Roasting conditions affected the content and concentration of lignans in sesame oil, and consequently the corresponding chromogenicity of the Villavecchia test. Roasting seeds at 230 °C for 5 min caused a significant loss of sesamolin in oil, the level of sesamol increased, and the absorbance intensity at 520 nm of the corresponding Villavecchia testing product also increased. Roasting seeds at 280 °C for 5 min caused loss of sesamin and the disappearance of sesamolin from the resultant oil, whereas the level of sesamol increased. These results provide guidance for determining the utility of the Villavecchia test for detecting sesame oil in mixtures of other foods.

Description: Three populations of Pistacia lentiscus fruits were analyzed for their contents, classes and different molecular species of glycerophospholipids (PL) in order to promote their production and marketability. The LC–ESI–TOF–MS and MS/MS were used to accomplish this analysis. Only four classes of PL were detected at different retention times—phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylinositol (PI). There was a significant difference in the relative observed abundance of various glycerophospholipid classes. PI was found to be the dominant class in the all provenances of lentisc fruit, followed by the PG class in the KO and RM populations. Within the TB population, the PA class is more abundant than PG and PE. The major molecular specie in the PA class is PA-C16:0/18:2 followed by PA-C18:1/18:2; and the minor species were determined to be PA-C16:0/18:3, and PA-C18:3/18:2. In the PE class of phospholipids PE-C18:1/18:1 and PE-C18:2/18:2 are the major species identified. The phospholipids PG-C18:2/18:2, PG-18:2/18:1, PI-C16:0/18:2 and PI-C16:0/18:1 are the most abundant species within the PG and PI classes. PG-C18:1/18:1, PI-C18:0/18:1 and PI-C16:0/18:3 are found to be only relatively minor chemical species. In conclusion, it is clear that the predominant molecular species of PL are those containing C16:0, C18;1, C18:2 fatty acids and the minor species are those containing C18:0 and C18:3.

Description: Two different vinyl ester resin monomers derived from dimer fatty acids (DA), dimer fatty acids polymerized glycidyl methacrylate (DA-p-GMA) resin and maleic anhydride modified dimer fatty acids polymerized glycidyl methacrylate (MA-m-DA-p-GMA) resin were prepared via simple ring-opening and esterification. FTIR, 1 H-NMR and GPC results demonstrated that these two target products have been successfully synthesized. Moreover, DA-based vinyl ester resin–styrene copolymers with different weight ratios were also prepared by a thermal polymerization, and their mechanical, morphological and thermal properties were investigated. Mechanical tests displayed that the prepared copolymers had excellent mechanical properties, and even at a low styrene content of 30 wt%, the copolymers still had excellent flexural strength of 29.14 MPa and tensile strength of 15.99 MPa. Micro-morphological investigation displayed that the copolymers had glossy and smooth impact resistance fractured surfaces, indicating distinctive fast brittle fracture features. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) revealed that the copolymers’ glass-transition temperatures were within a broad range from 44 to 72 °C. Thermogravimetric results demonstrated that the copolymers had excellent thermal stability, as all copolymers showed a high thermal initial decomposition temperature above 390 °C.

Description: The objective was to evaluate the quality of soybean and canola oils packaged in PET bottles during their shelf life. Considering the limit for the peroxide value established by Brazilian legislation the soybean and canola oils were outside the specification at between 75 and 165 days of storage, respectively, that is, before the end of the period of validity established by the producer (6 months and 1 year, respectively). The sensory analysis revealed alterations in the oil attributes of ‘aroma’ and ‘taste’ at between 180 and 300 days of storage, although the grades did not reveal significant alterations or a reduction in the acceptance of the products. The results obtained indicate that the physico-chemical quality parameters of soybean and canola oils produced in Brazil are outside the specification before the end of the validity period declared by the producers, the critical parameters being the peroxide and acid indices.

Description: An aqueous extraction process was developed consisting of aqueous contact with dehulled yellow mustard flour to recover protein followed by dissolution of the released emulsion in dimethylformamide (DMF) or isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to recover the released oil in the form of single-phase oil–solvent miscellae suitable for industrial applications. Only some 38 ± 3 % of the oil in the yellow mustard emulsion was extracted using DMF even at high weight ratios since DMF is widely miscible with water, preventing separation of the oil from the emulsion. A ternary phase diagram of DMF/oil/water was prepared and confirmed the limited solubility of the oil in DMF in the presence of water. The use of 31:1 IPA:oil weight ratio could effectively recover over 94 % of the oil in the emulsion; however, multiple-stage treatment of the emulsion was proven to be more efficient with lower volumes of IPA required to achieve high oil extraction yields. The results suggest that the optimal conditions for multiple-stage process were four stages using 2:1 IPA:oil weight ratio, with 96 ± 1 % oil recovery from the emulsion.

Description: Sacha inchi ( Plukenetia volubilis ) oil has high polyunsaturated fatty acids content. The hydrolysis of this oil is an efficient way to obtain desirable free fatty acids (FFA). The optimization of parameters was carried out according to the maximum production of FFA using two enzymatic hydrolysis processes. The effect of enzyme concentration (5–40 % based on weight of oil), temperature (40–60 °C), and oil:water molar ratio (1:5–1:70) were studied for the conventional enzymatic hydrolysis process, while pressure (10–30 MPa) and oil:water molar ratio (1:5–1:30) were studied for the enzymatic hydrolysis in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO 2 ) media. The hydrolysis in SC-CO 2 media resulted in higher production of FFA (77.98 % w/w) at 30 MPa and an oil:water molar ratio equal to 1:5 compared to the conventional process (68.40 ± 0.98 % w/w) at 60 °C, oil:water molar ratio equal to 1:70, and 26.17 % w/w, enzyme/oil. The only significant parameter on the production of FFA for conventional enzymatic hydrolysis was enzyme concentration, while for the hydrolysis in SC-CO 2 media both pressure and the molar ratio of oil:water were significant. Lipid class analyses showed that with both methods, FFA, monoglycerides, and diglycerides content in the final product increased compared to pure oil, while triglycerides content decreased. Fatty acid composition analysis showed that the content of fatty acids in the FFA form were similar to their triglyceride form.

Description: Carbonated soybean oil was synthesized from epoxidized soybean oil and CO 2 at atmospheric pressure and with tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr) as catalyst. Kinetic parameters, i.e., rate constants, activation energy and pre-exponential factors were determined. The effects of catalyst concentration and water content were studied. The reaction followed first-order kinetics with respect to epoxide at 100–140 °C. A steep increase in conversion (ca. 30 %) was obtained by increasing the amount of catalyst from 3 to 5 %. Further increasing the amount of catalyst to 7 % increased the conversion less than 10 %. The reaction proceeded faster when water was added; reaction times with water were ca. 70 % of the reaction times without water. Titration, FTIR and 1 H-NMR analyses indicated ca. 90 % conversion and ca. 88 % selectivity towards the carbonate after 70 h at 120 °C with 5 % mol TBABr and 1:3 molar ratio of water to epoxide.

Description: The lipase (Lipozyme IM from Rhizomucor miehei ) catalyzed acidolysis reaction of terebinth ( Pistacia terebinthus L.) fruit oil with caprylic and palmitic acid in hexane was investigated in a batch system. The effect of reaction conditions and relationship among them were analyzed and optimized by response surface methodology with a four-factor five-level central composite rotatable experimental design. The four major factors chosen were enzyme load (10–20 wt%), reaction time (12–20 h), reaction temperature (45–60 °C) and substrate mol ratio (TO:PA:CA, 1:2.3–4.1:1.15–2.05). Optimum reaction conditions for reaction time, temperature, enzyme load and substrate mole ratio were 12 h, 45 °C, 10 wt% and 1:4.1:2.05, respectively. The maximum yield of desired triacylglycerols (TAG) obtained at these optimum conditions was 50.87 %. Produced structured lipid had a caloric value which was 1.5 % lower than that of terebinth fruit oil. Its solid fat content was found comparable with commercially available margarines. The relative activity of lipase was well maintained in up to 10 repeated cycles.

Description: Arachidonoyl ethanolamide is an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter that potentially has therapeutic properties. In this study, we report an enzymatic method to synthesize this bioactive ethanolamide. First, free fatty acids were obtained from arachidonic acid-rich oil and then arachidonic acid was enriched by urea inclusion and AgNO 3 solution fractionation. Arachidonic acid content was increased from 40.2 to 78.4 % with 27.6 ± 1.8 % total fatty acid mass yield (w/w, relative to total free fatty acid) after urea inclusion. Purification of arachidonic acid by AgNO 3 solution fractionation was optimized, and under the optimal conditions, a product with 90.7 % arachidonic acid was obtained with 80.4 % mass yield (w/w, relative to total free fatty acid). Finally, arachidonoyl ethanolamide was synthesized by reacting the purified arachidonic acid with ethanolamine in hexane using Novozym 435 lipase of Novozymes America (Blair, NE), which resulted in the formation of 88.4 ± 0.6 % arachidonoyl ethanolamide with 72.7 ± 2.2 % mass yield. The main novelties of this study are the enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids by AgNO 3 solution fractionation which has received little attention in recent years, and this is the first time the synthesis of arachidonoyl ethanolamide is reported.

Description: The aim of this study was to produce stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) omega-3 concentrates from 25 % SDA soybean oil (SDASO) by enzymatic acidolysis. Substrates were prepared by chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of SDASO. A 62 % SDA free fatty acid mixture (SDA-FFA) was obtained by low temperature crystallization of the chemical hydrolyzate while partial hydrolysis of SDASO by non-immobilized lipase AY 30 ( Candida rugosa ) yielded a 51 % SDA acylglycerol mixture (SDA-GLY). Reaction conditions for acidolysis between SDA-FFA and SDA-GLY were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Incorporation of SDA into SDA-GLY by immobilized Lipozyme RM IM ( Rhizomucor miehei ) and non-immobilized Lipomod 34P-LO34P ( C. cylindracea [rugosa] ) lipases were modeled under varying levels of the substrate molar ratio ( S r ), temperature ( T ), and time ( t ). Optimal conditions for production of a 60 % SDA concentrate were predicted to be S r  = 4.8, T  = 65 °C and t  = 8 h for Lipozyme RM IM and S r  = 5.0, T  = 43 °C and t  = 48 h for Lipomod 34P-L034P. The model was verified experimentally by gram scale synthesis under optimal conditions which resulted in the production of 59.98 and 58.98 % SDA concentrates (≥96 % triacylglycerols) by Lipozyme RM IM and Lipomod 34P-L034P, respectively.

Description: A genetic variability study of oil content, fatty acid composition and karanjin content of seeds was carried out in candidate plus trees of Pongamia pinnata from selected agro-ecological zones of southern peninsular India. Significant zonal variation ( P  〈 0.01) for biochemical traits was recorded. Significant positive correlation ( P  〈 0.05) was recorded for latitude with oleic acid. Longitude showed significant negative correlation with palmitic acid and oleic acid. Altitude positively correlated with oleic acid and linolenic acid; negatively correlated with linoleic acid and seed oil content. Phenotypic co-efficient of variation was higher than the genotypic co-efficient of variation for all the biochemical traits. The oleic acid positively correlated with seed oil content ( P  〈 0.05) and negatively correlated with linoleic acid and linolenic acid ( P  〈 0.01). The zone 1, zone 2, zone 3 and zone 4 showed high heritability and genetic advance for oleic acid, linoleic acid and oleic to linoleic acid ratio. Based on Ward's method, the pongamia accessions were grouped into three major clusters and four sub-groups depending on their geographical locations. Further, the results obtained in this study could be used as background information for biofuel programs in India and other tropical countries.

Description: The transfer of the phenolic compounds from olive mill wastewater (OMW) to oil extracted under microwave from olive cake (OC) was carried out by using the following operations: mixing of the olive mill wastewater with the olive cake, drying of the mixture and recovery by solvent of the olive cake oil enriched by phenolic compounds. In the first part of this work, we made a screening design using a Hadamard matrix to quickly locate the factors influencing the process. Among five potentially influential parameters, we found that only three were actually active (OMW/OC ratio noted R , mixing velocity of mixture Vm and mixing time Tm). In the second part, fractional factorial design (2 5−1 ) was performed to evaluate the effects of five variables (three of them being selected by screening with exposition time Te and radiation power P ) and their eventual interactions. The p value ( p  〈 0.05) indicated that R, P,Te, Vm and Tm had significant effects on the response followed by the interaction effects between R-P, P-Te, R-Vm, Te-Vm, Te-Tm, and Vm-Tm. Under optimal conditions, the addition of OMW to OC increased the phenolic compounds content in the oil from 0.04 ± 0.01 to 0.13 ± 0.02 g/L.

Description: Camellia seed oil with high nutritional value is widely used in southern China and southeastern Asia for cooking. Due to the high price of camellia seed oil, fraudulent traders blended the oil with inexpensive oils to increase profits. In this paper, a new method was introduced to detect the adulteration of camellia seed oil with soybean oil by GC–MS with consideration of a parameter which was defined by the total content of oleic and linoleic acid, the oleic to linoleic acid ratio and the content of linolenic acid. Oils samples were prepared by blending pure camellia seed oil with pure soybean oil at levels from 1 to 50 %. Fatty acids esterified by TMSH and TBME in seconds were separated and identified by GC–MS. The detection limit of adulteration was as low as 5 %, and even much lower than 5 % for most kinds of camellia seed oil, which was lower than those measured by other methods. All the results indicated that this simple, accurate and rapid method can also be recommended for the authentication of olive oil with some modification.

Description: Antioxidant activity of sesamol was investigated in soybean oil using a miniaturized frying experiment with potato cubes fried at 180 °C. Oxidation of soybean oil was determined by gel permeation chromatography for polymerized triacylglycerols and by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy for reactions at reactive sites of soybean oil molecules including olefinic, bisallylic and allylic protons during frying. Sesamol showed lower antioxidant activity than 0.02 % (w/w) tert -butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at the same molar concentration. Higher concentrations of sesamol provided better antioxidant effects indicating that no prooxidant activity occurred. Sesamol in this frying test showed better results than 0.02 % TBHQ when the concentration was as high as 0.66 % by weight. An HPLC experiment showed that the concentration of sesamol decreased sharply during frying. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that sesamol is highly volatile and easily oxidizes when exposed to air. To overcome this problem, two multiple addition methods were evaluated in which sesamol was added portion by portion every hour. The multiple additions of divided portions of 0.66 % (w/w) sesamol maintained the concentration of sesamol at the minimum of 0.04–0.06 % throughout the frying process and showed improved antioxidant activity compared to one single addition of 0.66 % sesamol at the beginning of frying. One of the multiple addition methods showed 28, 18, 59, and 27 % less polymerized triacylglycerols and losses of olefinic, bisallylic and allylic protons, respectively, than 0.02 % TBHQ after 8-h frying. This study shows that sesamol can be used as an alternative for synthetic antioxidants for frying oil.

Description: Total hydrocarbon composition and content of whole peanuts from three Tunisian varieties of peanut (two cultivars: AraC (Virginia type), AraT (Valencia type) and a wild one: AraA) were investigated during maturation. The results show that 30 hydrocarbons were identified from the wild AraA species, while only 27 hydrocarbon were detected in the cultivar ones. The hydrocarbon fraction is essentially composed of squalene, n -alkenes especially n C 14= , n C 16= , n C 18= , n C 20= and n C 22= , n -alkanes such as n C 16 , n C 17 , n C 18 , n C 25 , n C 26 and n C 27 , and branched saturated hydrocarbon noted (HC 1 , HC 2 and HC 3 ). Among the hydrocarbon components, generally the wild variety AraA presents the highest content of phytochemical squalene during maturation, whereas a maximum was detected from cultivar AraT at 12 days after podding (815.45 mg/100 g of oil). At maturity, the maximum level is reached at about 346.74 mg/100 g of oil for AraA. During maturity, wild AraA is considered to be an excellent source of squalene like olive and pumpkin oil.

Description: The objectives of this study were to determine a suitable level of phytostanols for addition to canola oil and to investigate the performance of the supplemented oil during frying. The frying oil was supplemented with 5, 10, 15, 20 % w/w phytostanols and two suitable levels (5 and 10 %) were selected. Dough frying was performed for 5 consecutive days at 180 °C for 5 h/day. The ranges of analytical measurements in the treatment groups were; free acidity (0.12–10.07 %), conjugated dienes (0.47–1.37 %), total polar material with probe (9.00–51.25 %), viscosity (46.27–195.51 cP), turbidity (0.82–1.80 NTU), and smoke point (202.75–274.25 °C). The results indicated that 5 % phytostanol enriched oil was superior in terms of oil stability and sensory quality of the fried dough among all the enriched oils. Samples with 10 % added phytostanols were high in free acidity, conjugated dienes and smoke points. Sterol composition analysis showed that the fried dough absorbed total sterols of 49.9 and 95 g/kg in 5 and 10 % supplemented oils, respectively. Hence, some health benefits could be achieved through consuming products which have been fried in phytostanol supplemented canola oil.

Description: Cucurbitin extracted from pumpkin ( Cucurbita pepo ) oil cake was enzymatically hydrolysed with three different enzymes viz. alcalase, flavourzyme and pepsin. Antioxidative and functional properties of cucurbitin hydrolysates with different degrees of hydrolysis (DH) were investigated. The antioxidant activity of the hydrolysates was strongly dependent on the enzyme used. The hydrolysates obtained by alcalase and pepsin showed antioxidative potential whereas flavourzyme hydrolysates did not demonstrate these activities. Reducing power and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) scavenging activity of cucurbitin hydrolysate were positively related to DH. The highest antioxidant activity was found in the hydrolysate obtained by alcalase at DH 25.6 % [reducing power of 0.25 ± 0.01 A700 nm and ABTS scavenging activity of 3.34 ± 0.02 mmol/L Trolox equivalent antioxidant coefficients (TEAC)]. Hydrolysis by all enzymes increased the protein solubility within the studied pH range. The best emulsion activity and stability index (EAI = 143.28 ± 3.05 m 2 /g and ESI = 87.5 ± 1.96 min) have hydrolysates produced by flavourzyme (DH 9.2 %) whereas alcalase produced hydrolysates with the best foaming capacity (FC = 242 ± 3.21). The results demonstrate that hydrolysates produced in the present study have good functional properties as well as antioxidant activity indicating their possible use in different food systems.

Description: γ-Oryzanol, a natural mixture of ferulic acid esters of triterpene alcohols and sterols, are an important bioactive components present in rice bran oil. In light of the recent increase in the popularity of wild rice among consumers, and the possibility of a direct relationship between γ-oryzanol composition and its bioactivity, the oryzanol profile of major wild rice ( Zizania palustris ) grown in North America was studied and compared to regular brown rice ( Oryza sativa L.). A total of twenty-three γ-oryzanol components were separated, identified and quantified by HPLC coupled to an Orbitrap MS. The distribution of individual γ-oryzanols was similar for all the wild rice but significantly different from those of the regular brown rice. Unlike in the regular brown rice, a significant amount of steryl caffeate and cinnamate were found in the wild rice samples. Generally, the amounts of γ-oryzanol in the wild rice were higher compared to the regular brown rice, 1,352 vs. 688 μg/g. The results from this study showed that wild rice had a more diverse γ-oryzanol composition and the higher amounts compared to the regular brown rice.

Description: Changes in olive properties and oil quality, oxidative stability, phenolic and chemical composition of two common Turkish varieties (Memecik and Edremit) during maturation were investigated. Olive samples were collected in their own growing region for five different harvest dates and processed to oil with a laboratory scale mill. Metabolic behaviors of these two varieties along with the maturation were different in terms of some compositional parameters. Oleic acid, triolein, β-sitosterol, oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, and tyrosol contents of olive or olive oils fluctuated with maturation. However, changes in average weight, flesh/pit ratio, water and oil contents of the olives were observed. Phenolics such as trans cinnamic acid contents of both olive fruits decreased whereas cyanidin 3- O -glucoside and cyanidin 3- O -rutinoside anthocyanins increased. Free fatty acids of virgin olive oils were found independent of maturity although some slight changes were determined in peroxide value, dien and trien conjugations. Some compositional parameters such as pigment concentration, tocopherols, stearic acid, linolenic acid, palmitodiolein and monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio decreased while linoleic acid, dioleolinolein, palmitooleolinolein and Δ-5-avenasterol percentages increased with the maturation. A clear discrimination was observed with principal component analysis. The data obtained can also be considered useful for providing information to determine the ideal maturity stage.

Description: Enzymatic interesterification has been shown to be an alternative for the production of structured lipids resembling human milk fat. The knowledge of the physical properties of fat is an important tool for the implementation of this fat in a food matrix. The enzymatic interesterification reaction modifies the composition of triacylglycerols changing the crystallization properties and polymorphic form of fats. Blends containing different proportions of lard and soybean oil (80:20, 70:30, 40:60, 30:70 and 20:80) were enzymatically interesterified in a continuous flow tubular reactor and analyzed for crystalline structure by polarized light microscopy, the polymorphic form using X-ray diffraction and thermal properties by differential scanning calorimetry. The structural modifications resulting from continuous enzymatic interesterification changed the crystallization behavior and thermal profile of the samples, reducing enthalpy values. Structural changes were also evident on polarized light microscopy images, disclosing an increase in the crystallization rate among the samples after the continuous enzymatic reaction.

Description: The minimal refining method described in the present study made it possible to neutralize crude canola oil with Ca(OH) 2 , MgO, and Na 2 SiO 3 as alternatives to NaOH. After citric acid degumming, about 98 % of the phosphorous content was removed from crude oil. The free fatty acid content after minimal neutralization with Ca(OH) 2 decreased from 0.50 to 0.03 %. Other quality parameters, such as peroxide value, anisidine value, and chlorophyll content, after traditional and minimal neutralization were within industrial acceptable levels. The use of Trisyl silica and Magnesol R60 made it feasible to remove the hot-water washing step and decreased the amount of residual soap to 〈10 mg/kg oil. There were no significant changes in chemical characteristics of canola oil after using wet and dry bleaching methods. During traditional neutralization, the total tocopherol loss was 19.6 %, while minimal refining with Ca(OH) 2 , MgO, and Na 2 SiO 3 resulted in 7.0, 2.6, and 0.9 % reductions in total tocopherols. Traditional refining removed 23.6 % of total free sterols, while after minimal refining free sterols content did not change. Both traditional and minimal refining resulted in almost complete removal of polyphenols from canola oil. Total phytosterols and tocopherols in two cold-pressed canola oils were 774 and 836 mg/100 g, and 366 and 354 mg/kg, respectively. The minimal refining method described in the present study was a new practical approach to remove undesirable components from crude canola oil meeting commercial refining standards while preserving more healthy minor components.

Description: For application of n-3 fatty acids, distribution of the fatty acid compositions of different parts of (head, tail, fins and skin = HTFS, liver, viscera and muscle tissue) five commercially important fish species from the Persian Gulf ( Scomberomorus commersoni , Thunnus tonggol , Euthynnus affinis , Scomberomorus guttatus and Dussumieria acuta ) as good sources of n-3 PUFA were studied. The richest source of n-3 were HTFS in S. guttatus and S. commersoni , liver in S. guttatus , total body of D. acuta , liver of E. affinis and T. tonggol , followed by viscera of E. affinis . The content of these fatty acids were the same in viscera of tonggol , liver of S. commersoni , and HTFS of E. affinis . Moreover, muscle of E. affinis and HTFS of T. tonggol and also muscle of S. guttatus and T. tonggol had the same n-3 contents as the viscera of S. commersoni . So, it was concluded that HTFS and viscera (which are discarded as residues) are as useful as muscle and liver and can be a source of economically available n-3 PUFA. Muscle had the lowest proportion of n-3 in E. affinis , T. tonggol , and S. guttatus in comparison with other organs of these fish species. The highest n-3:n-6 ratio was observed in D. acuta . Finally, the cluster analysis showed that with respect to n-3 and other PUFA contents, HTFS of S. commersoni and D. acuta with S. guttatus on the one hand, and HTFS of T. tonggol and E. affinis on the other hand were similar to each other. In addition, viscera of S. commersoni and S. guttatus were similar followed by T. tonggol and different from E. affinis and D. acuta . In the case of muscle, T. tonggol and S. guttatus had good similarity followed by E. affinis and had no significant similarity with S. commersoni and D. acuta . With regard to liver, the highest similarity was observed between T. tonggol and E. affinis followed by D. acuta and S. guttatus , while S. commersoni did not show similarity with the others.

Description: Vegetable oil based lubricants typically have improved lubricity and biodegradability over their mineral oil based counterparts. However, vegetable oil lubricants often fail to meet the performance standards of mineral based oils with respect to cold temperature and resistance to oxidation. Olefins are an oxidatively weak point for vegetable based compounds. Removal of the olefin in a vegetable based lubricant through functionalization may increase resistance to oxidation. If the added functionality also causes branching of the alkyl chain, cold temperature properties may be improved. Any chemical modifications considered must be scalable and cost-effective to be useful in a commercial application. In this study, methyl oleate was functionalized into a chloro alkoxy derivative. Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) and calcium hypochlorite were both used to generate hypochlorous acid in situ. Hypochlorous acid and a series of alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and butanol) were reacted with methyl oleate to make chloro alkoxy compounds in 29.8–77.9 % yields. In an effort to make a branched saturated ether we removed the chlorine moiety of the chloro alkoxy compounds. Dehalogenation was achieved under basic conditions over a Pd/C catalyst in 2-propanol. Reaction times increased substantially as the size of the adjacent alkoxy group increased. The reaction rate could be improved by heating the reactions above 100 °C in a pressure reactor. Increased reaction temperature also resulted in an increase in ketone side products from the competing elimination reactions. Saturated ether yields were 4.1–43.2 %.

Description: Photoirradiation has been used to synthesize 20 % conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in soy oil with an iodine catalyst. CLA yields are affected by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation time, Magnesol ® adsorbent treatment, iodine concentration and mixed tocopherols. However, these factors in combination had not been studied. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the effect of (1) a combination of photoirradiation time, Magnesol ® adsorbent treatment and added mixed soy tocopherols on CLA yields and the oxidative stability of CLA-rich soy oil, (2) UV light on mixed tocopherol stability, as tocopherols enhance CLA yields during photoirradiation. Soy oil was initially treated with 5 % Magnesol ® . Iodine at 0 and 0.35 % was mixed with Magnesol ® -treated soy oil and irradiated for 12 and 6 h. The irradiated oil was again treated with Magnesol ® , mixed with 0, 0.35 or 0.175 % iodine; 1400 MT and irradiated for 12 or 6 more hours. CLA content in soy oil was determined by conventional gas chromatography-flame ionization detector. The oxidative stability of the oil was determined by measuring peroxide value (PV). The tocopherols stability was determined by high performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that increasing photoirradiation time increased CLA yields and lowered PV. Magnesol ® adsorption produced highest CLA yield for all treatments by removing peroxides in RBD soy oil. The γ-tocopherols exhibited highest stability during UV irradiation. The order of tocopherol degradation was α-tocopherol 〉 δ-tocopherol 〉 γ-tocopherols.