ALBERT

Description: Purpose Oil shale is an unconventional petroleum source that can be produced domestically in the USA. Oil shale resources are primarily located in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, within the Colorado River Basin. In this paper, we analyze the life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale production and its impacts on water resources of the Colorado River Basin. Methods The study is focused on life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale development. Consumptive water use is defined as “water that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment.” The analysis includes direct consumptive water requirements to extract, process, and refine shale oil, as well as indirect consumptive water use for generating the electricity associated with the extraction and processing. From the results, strategies for water supply certainty are discussed, and strategies for implementation are suggested. In addition, refining the shale oil outside of the oil shale region (removing the need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water) are evaluated. Results and discussion Life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale is significant and could impact water availability for consumers in the lower Colorado River Basin. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant: between 140 and 305 billion gallons (0.4 and 0.9 million acre-ft.) of water per year if surface mining and retorting is done, or between 150 and 340 billion gallons (0.5 and 1 million acre-ft.) of water per year if the Shell in situ process is used. Strategies could be implemented to provide water supply certainty including refining the shale oil outside of the region (removing some need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water). Conclusions Water supply in the Colorado River Basin could be a primary constraint to the development of oil shale. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant. Energy companies or governments may want to invest in water management and supply strategies that would eliminate the uncertainty associated with the water availability in the Colorado River Basin for oil shale development.

Description: Purpose In the transportation sector, reducing vehicle weight is a cornerstone strategy to improve the fuel economy and energy efficiency of road vehicles. This study investigated the environmental implications of lightweighting two automotive parts (Ford Taurus front end bolster, Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy assist step) using glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) instead of steel alloys. Methods The cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments (LCAs) for these studies consider a total service life of 150,000 miles for two applications: a 46 % lighter GFRP bolster on the 2010 Ford Taurus that replaced the 2008 steel and GFRP bolster, and a 51 % lighter GFRP running board for the 2007 Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy that replaced the previous steel running board including its polymer fasteners. The life cycle stages in these critically reviewed and ISO-compliant LCA studies include the production of upstream materials and energy, product manufacturing, use, and the end-of-life treatment for all materials throughout the life cycle. Results and discussion The results show that the lighter GFRP products performed better than the steel products for global warming potential and primary energy demand for both case studies. In addition, the GFRP bolster performed better for acidification potential. The savings of fuel combustion and production during the use stage of a vehicle far outweigh the environmental impacts of manufacturing or end-of-life. An even greater benefit would be possible if the total weight reduction in the vehicle would be high enough to allow for the reduction of engine displacement or an elongation of gear ratio while maintaining constant vehicle dynamics. These so-called secondary measures allow the fuel savings per unit of mass to be more than doubled and are able to offset the slightly higher acidification potential of the GFRP running board which occurs when only the mass-induced fuel savings are considered. Conclusions The lightweight GFRP components are shown to outperform their steel counterparts over the full life cycle mainly due to the reduced fuel consumption of the vehicle in the use phase. To harvest the benefits of light weighting to their full extent, it is recommended that the sum of all mass reductions in the design process be monitored and, whenever feasible, invested into fuel economy by adapting the drive train while maintaining constant vehicle performance rather than leveraging the weight reduction to improve vehicle dynamics.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool for quantifying the overall environmental impacts of a product, process, or service. The scientific scope and boundary definition are important to ensure the accuracy of LCA results. Defining the boundary in LCA is difficult and there are no commonly accepted scientific methods yet. The objective of this research is to present a comprehensive discussion of system boundaries in LCA and to develop an appropriate boundary delimitation method. Methods A product system is partitioned into the primary system and interrelated subsystems. The hierarchical relationship of flow and process is clarified by introducing flow- and process-related interventions. A system boundary curve model of the LCA is developed and the threshold rules for judging whether the system boundary satisfies the research requirement are proposed. Quantitative criteria from environmental, technical, geographical and temporal dimensions are presented to limit the boundaries of LCA. An algorithm is developed to identify an appropriate boundary by searching the process tree and evaluating the environmental impact contribution of each process while it is added into the studied system. Results and discussion The difference between a limited system and a theoretically complete system is presented. A case study is conducted on a color TV set to demonstrate and validate the method of boundary identification. The results showed that the overall environmental impact indicator exhibits a slow growth after a certain number of processes considered, and the gradient of the fitting curve trends to zero gradually. According to the threshold rules, a relatively accurate system boundary could be obtained. Conclusions It is found from this research that the system boundary curve describes the growth of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results as processes are added. The two threshold rules and identification methods presented can be used to identify system boundary of LCA. The case study demonstrated that the methodology presented in this paper is an effective tool for the boundary identification.

Description: Purpose Land use is a main driver of global biodiversity loss and its environmental relevance is widely recognized in research on life cycle assessment (LCA). The inherent spatial heterogeneity of biodiversity and its non-uniform response to land use requires a regionalized assessment, whereas many LCA applications with globally distributed value chains require a global scale. This paper presents a first approach to quantify land use impacts on biodiversity across different world regions and highlights uncertainties and research needs. Methods The study is based on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) land use assessment framework and focuses on occupation impacts, quantified as a biodiversity damage potential (BDP). Species richness of different land use types was compared to a (semi-)natural regional reference situation to calculate relative changes in species richness. Data on multiple species groups were derived from a global quantitative literature review and national biodiversity monitoring data from Switzerland. Differences across land use types, biogeographic regions (i.e., biomes), species groups and data source were statistically analyzed. For a data subset from the biome (sub-)tropical moist broadleaf forest, different species-based biodiversity indicators were calculated and the results compared. Results and discussion An overall negative land use impact was found for all analyzed land use types, but results varied considerably. Different land use impacts across biogeographic regions and taxonomic groups explained some of the variability. The choice of indicator also strongly influenced the results. Relative species richness was less sensitive to land use than indicators that considered similarity of species of the reference and the land use situation. Possible sources of uncertainty, such as choice of indicators and taxonomic groups, land use classification and regionalization are critically discussed and further improvements are suggested. Data on land use impacts were very unevenly distributed across the globe and considerable knowledge gaps on cause–effect chains remain. Conclusions The presented approach allows for a first rough quantification of land use impact on biodiversity in LCA on a global scale. As biodiversity is inherently heterogeneous and data availability is limited, uncertainty of the results is considerable. The presented characterization factors for BDP can approximate land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA studies that are not intended to directly support decision-making on land management practices. For such studies, more detailed and site-dependent assessments are required. To assess overall land use impacts, transformation impacts should additionally be quantified. Therefore, more accurate and regionalized data on regeneration times of ecosystems are needed.

Description: Purpose The paper introduces the publication on “Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment Databases”; it focuses on the development of training material and other implementation activities on the publication. Methods The document is the output of the “Shonan Guidance Principles” workshop. The publication provides guidance principles for life cycle assessment (LCA) databases; this includes how to collect raw data, how to develop datasets, and how to manage databases. The publication also addresses questions concerning data documentation and review, coordination among databases, capacity building, and future scenarios. As a next step, the publication is used to prepare training material and other implementation activities. Results The publication was launched at the LCM 2011 Conference. Since then outreach activities have been organized in particular in emerging economies. Further developments with regard to the guidance principles are foreseen as part of a flagship project within phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Training material is being developed that will include how to set up databases and develop datasets. The topic has been taken up by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains. Conclusions The adoption of the “Global Guidance Principles” publication as a de facto global standard is expected to facilitate the work of database teams, especially, in developing countries, and the collaboration in regional networks. These efforts are supported by the development of training material and other implementation activities.

Description: Purpose The paper provides a late report from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative workshop “Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)—where we are, trends, and next steps;” it embeds this report into recent development with regard to the envisaged development of global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators and related methodologies. Methods The document is the output of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative’s workshop on “Life Cycle Impact Assessment—where we are, trends, and next steps.” The presentations and discussions held during the workshop reviewed the first two phases of the Life Cycle Initiative and provided an overview of current LCIA activities being conducted by the Initiative, governments and academia, as well as corporate approaches. The outcomes of the workshop are reflected in light of the implementation of the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Results The range of views provided during the workshop indicated different user needs, with regards to, amongst other things, the required complexity of the LCIA methodology, associated costs, and the selection of LCIA categories depending on environmental priorities. The workshop’s results signified a number of potential focus areas for Phase 3 of the Initiative, including capacity building efforts concerning LCIA in developing countries and emerging economies, the preparation of training materials on LCIA, the production of global guidance on LCIA, and the potential development of a broader sustainability indicators framework. Conclusions These suggestions have been taken into account in the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative in two flagship projects, one on global capability development on life cycle approaches and the other on global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators. In the context of the latter project, first activities are being organized and planned. Moreover, UNEP has included the recommendations in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and SETAC through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains.

Description: Purpose Substantial evidence from numerous studies indicate that Uganda is already experiencing the negative impacts attributed to climate change, manifested by changing and unpredictable weather patterns, with implications to food production, water, and livelihood. Therefore, reducing carbon footprints is a key ingredient in mitigating climate change. However, this requires availability of adequate knowledge and human resource capacities to analyze and manage the carbon dynamics as well as energy-related aspects at all levels of organizations. It is against this background that training activities were designed to equip participants with knowledge and skills on the subject of carbon footprints. Results Participants were exposed to current techniques and methods of estimating and reducing carbon footprints; and equipped with knowledge on pathways for realizing carbon neutral resilient systems. In addition, participants formed a carbon footprint network with a view of sharing experience with other actors elsewhere in this field, and periodically organize similar trainings and other avenues for experience and knowledge sharing.

Description: Purpose This study analyzes the influence of value choices in impact assessment models for human health, such as the choice of time horizon, on life cycle assessment outcomes. Methods For 756 products, the human health damage score is calculated using three sets of characterization factors (CFs). The CFs represent seven human health impact assessment categories: water scarcity, tropospheric ozone formation, particulate matter formation, human toxicity, ionizing radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate change. Each set of CFs embeds a combination of value choices following the Cultural Theory, and reflects the individualist, hierarchist, or egalitarian perspective. Results We found that the average difference in human health damage score goes from 1 order of magnitude between the individualist and hierarchist perspectives to 2.5 orders of magnitude between the individualist and egalitarian perspectives. The difference in damage score of individual materials among perspectives depends on the combination of emissions driving the impact of both perspectives and can rise up to 5 orders of magnitude. Conclusions The value choices mainly responsible for the differences in results among perspectives are the choice of time horizon and inclusion of highly uncertain effects. A product comparison can be affected when the human health damage score of two products differ less than a factor of 5, or the comparing products largely differ in their emitted substances. Overall, our study implies that value choices in impact assessment modeling can modify the outcomes of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and thus the practical implication of decisions based on the results of an LCA.

Description: Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC). Methods Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders. Results and recommendations Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development. Discussion, conclusions, and outlook The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009.

Description: Purpose This study discusses the significance of the use of non-renewable fossil cumulative energy demand (CED) as proxy indicator in the beverage packaging sector, in order to detect those situations in which companies can benefit from the use of proxy indicators before a full life cycle assessment (LCA) application. Starting from a case study of two milk containers, the objectives of this paper are to assess if the use of this inventory indicator can be a suitable proxy indicator both (1) to decide which is the packaging alternative with the lowest environmental impact and (2) to identify the most impacting process units of the two products under study. Method The analysis was made according to ISO14040-44. The goal of the comparative LCA was to evaluate and to compare the potential environmental impacts from cradle to grave of a laminated carton container and a HDPE bottle. The results of the comparative LCA obtained with the non-renewable CED indicator are compared with a selection of impact categories: climate change, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, fossil depletion, photochemical oxidant formation. A further analysis is made for the two products under study in order to determine which are the environmental hot spots in terms of life cycle stages, by the means of a contribution analysis. Results and discussion From the comparative LCA, the use of non-renewable CED revealed to be useful for a screening as the results given by the non-renewable CED indicator are confirmed by all the impact categories considered, even if underestimated. If the aim of the LCA study was to define which is the packaging solution with a lower environmental impact, the choice of this inventory indicator could have led to the same decision as if a comprehensive LCIA method was used. The contribution analysis, focusing on the identification of environmental hot spots in the packaging value chain, revealed that the choice of an inventory indicator as non-renewable CED can lead to misleading results, if compared with another impact category, such as climate change. Conclusions As in the future development of beverage packaging system, LCA will be necessarily integrated in the design process, it is important to define other ways of simplifying its application and spread its use among companies. The LCI indicator non-renewable fossil CED can effectively be used in order to obtain a preliminary estimation of the life cycle environmental impacts of two or more competing products in the beverage packaging sector.

Description: Purpose There has been lively debate, especially in Finland and Sweden, on the climate impacts of peat fuel. Previous studies of peat fuel's life-cycle climate impacts were controversial in their interpretation. The aim of this paper is conclusive examination of the issues of LCA methodology, derived from critical review of previous studies and recalculation based on the latest knowledge of greenhouse gas balances related to peat fuel’s utilisation and the radiative forcing impacts of greenhouse gases. Methods The most recent findings on emissions and the gas fluxes between soil, vegetation and atmosphere were used in calculation of the life-cycle climate impacts of the various peat fuel utilisation chains by means of LCA methodology. In the main, the calculation methods and rules were the same as in the previous studies, with the aim being to distinguish the impact of peat fuel’s utilisation from that of the natural or semi-natural situation. A dynamic method was employed for assessing changes in radiative forcing. The results of alternative peat fuel utilisation chains were compared to the corresponding result for coal. Results There are many steps in peat fuel LCA, where different assumptions lead to different outcomes. Determining the functional unit, reference situations and system boundaries, as well as the emission calculation methods, is important from this point of view. Determination of the initial reference situation emerged as one of the critical points in the calculations. Time scale can strongly affect the final outcomes in a study where effects of long-term land-use change are considered. Conclusions Each peatland area is unique. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions in the initial reference situation, the greater is the climate impact of the area and the more suitable the area is for peat extraction. The study showed that more greenhouse gas flux measurements are needed, for better assessment of the climate impacts of different potential peat extraction sites. Climate change mitigation requires quick actions, and uncertainties related to emissions are higher for longer time spans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a perspective spanning more than 100 years is inappropriate in peat fuel's life-cycle climate impact assessments.

Description: Purpose Political interest in the future availability of natural resources has spiked recently, with new documents from the European Union, United Nations Environment Programme and the US National Research Council assessing the supply situation of key raw materials. As resource efficiency is considered a key element for sustainable development, suitable methods to address sustainability of resource use are increasingly needed. Life cycle thinking and assessment may play a principal role here. Nonetheless, the extent to which current life cycle impact assessment methods are capable to answer to resource sustainability challenges is widely debated. The aim of this paper is to present key elements of the ongoing discussion, contributing to the future development of more robust and comprehensive methods for evaluating resources in the life cycle assessment (LCA) context. Methods We systematically review current impact assessment methods dealing with resources, identifying areas of improvement. Three key issues for sustainability assessment of resources are examined: renewability, recyclability and criticality; this is complemented by a cross-comparison of methodological features and completeness of resource coverage. Results and discussion The approach of LCA to resource depletion is characterised by a lack of consensus on methodology and on the relative ranking of resource depletion impacts as can be seen from a comparison of characterisation factors. The examined models yield vastly different characterisations of the impacts from resource depletion and show gaps in the number and types of resources covered. Conclusions Key areas of improvement are identified and discussed. Firstly, biotic resources and their renewal rates have so far received relatively little regard within LCA; secondly, the debate on critical raw materials and the opportunity of introducing criticality within LCA is controversial and requires further effort for a conciliating vision and indicators. We identify points where current methods can be expanded to accommodate these issues and cover a wider range of natural resources.

Description: Purpose The purse seine fishery for sardine is the most important fishery in Portugal. The aim of the present study is to assess the environmental impacts of sardine fished by the Portuguese fleet and to analyse a number of variables such as vessel size and time scale. An additional goal was to incorporate fishery-specific impact categories in the case study. Methods Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied, and data were collected from nine vessels, which represented around 10 % of the landings. Vessels were divided into two length categories, above and below 12 m, and data were obtained for the years 2005 to 2010. The study was limited to the fishing phase only. The standard impact categories included were energy use, global warming potential, eutrophication potential, acidification potential and ozone depletion potential. The fishery-specific impact categories were overfishing, overfishedness, lost potential yield, mean trophic level and the primary production required, and were quantified as much as possible. Results and discussion The landings from the data set were constituted mainly by sardine (91 %), and the remainders were other small pelagic species (e.g. horse mackerel). The most important input was the fuel, and both vessel categories had the same fuel consumption per catch 0.11 l/kg. Average greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) were 0.36 kg CO 2 eq. per kilo sardine landed. The fuel use varied between years, and variability between months can be even higher. Fishing mortality has increased, and the spawning stock biomass has decreased resulting in consequential overfishing for 2010. A correlation between fuel use and stock biomass was not found, and the stock condition does not seem to directly influence the global warming potential in this fishery. Discards were primarily non-target small pelagic species, and there was also mortality of target species resulting from slipping. The seafloor impact was considered to be insignificant due to the fishing method. Conclusions The assessment of the Portuguese purse seine fishery resulted in no difference regarding fuel use between large and small vessels, but differences were found between years. The stock has declined, and it has produced below maximum sustainable yield. By-catch and discard data were missing but may be substantial. Even being difficult to quantify, fishery impact categories complement the environmental results with biological information and precaution is need in relation to the stock management. The sardine carbon footprint from Portuguese purse seine was lower than that of other commercial species reported in.

Description: Purpose Proper recycling of mobile phones and other electronic products is important in order to reduce the generation of large amounts of hazardous waste, lessen environmental and social problems associated to the extraction of minerals and primary production of materials, and also minimize the depletion of scarce materials that are often difficult to substitute. Current material recovery processes are used to recycle electronic waste of various compositions. Methods Based on a review of the recycling processes and material flow analysis (MFA), we attribute the material and energy required to recover metals from 1 tonne of discarded mobile phones. Results and discussion We estimate that the recovery rates of gold, palladium, silver, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, and tin from the recycling processes described are 80 to 99 % (16.4 % of the phone in weight). The two main industrial processes used at present time (pyrometallurgical and combined pyro-hydrometallurgical) have similar energy consumptions (7,763 and 7,568 MJ/tonne of mobile phones, respectively). An average tonne of used mobile phones represents a potential of 128 kg of copper, 0.347 kg of gold, 0.15 kg of palladium, 3.63 kg of silver, 15 kg of nickel, 6 kg of lead, 1 kg of antimony, and 10 kg of tin as well as other metals that are not yet profitable to recover but might be in the future. Conclusions We find that the energy consumed to recover copper from mobile phones is half of that needed for copper primary extraction and similar or greater energy savings for precious metal refining. Nevertheless, only 2.5 % of mobile phones arrive to industrial recovery facilities. There is a great potential to increase the amount of metals being recovered, thereby reducing energy consumption and increasing resource efficiency.

Description: Strengths or bias in social LCA? Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0309-3 Authors Alessandra Zamagni, LCA & Ecodesign Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Oscar Amerighi, Research & Study Unit, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), Lungotevere Thaon di Revel 76, 00196 Rome, Italy Patrizia Buttol, LCA & Ecodesign Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Most life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) approaches in life cycle assessment (LCA) are developed for western countries. Their LCIA approaches and characterization methodologies for different impact categories may not be necessarily relevant to African environmental conditions and particularly not for the timber sector in Ghana. This study reviews the relevance of existing impact categories and LCIA approaches, and uses the most relevant for the timber sector of Ghana. Materials and methods   The study reviewed 23 life cycle inventories (LCIs) and LCAs on forestry, timber, and wood products for relevant impact categories and LCIA approaches for their relevance to the specific conditions in Ghana. This study uses an earlier LCI study of the timber industry as a starting point for an additional LCIA. We next performed a correlation and regression analysis to learn whether wood wastes may function as a reasonable single indicator for land use as proxy for biodiversity loss and the other impact categories. Results and discussion   The literature review shows that no LCI or LCA studies were developed for Africa or the tropics. The LCIA approaches in the reviewed LCAs are indeed shown to take their basis in the environmental problems in western countries and characterization methodologies relating to how these problems manifest themselves in the western world. Characterization methodologies for different impact categories in CML-2000 and other LCIA approaches may not be necessarily relevant to African tropical environmental conditions and particularly not for the timber sector in Ghana. This situation hampers the reliability of our LCIA and points to a serious research gap in LCIA development in general. We applied the scientifically well-recognized CML 2000 to the earlier LCI results and characterized the preliminary selected impact categories of global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation, and human toxicity. The correlation analysis indicated that wood waste is indeed strongly correlated with land use as proxy for biodiversity loss and also positively correlated with the other five potential impact results. It can be concluded that wood waste production is a major driving force for biodiversity loss and a sufficiently good single indicator for all other environmental performance indicators in the timber sector of Ghana. Conclusions   This study and the previous LCI paper are pioneering a field not yet explored, since the correct environmental performance indicators are not yet developed or adapted to tropical conditions. The development of LCIA approaches in the tropics may be the start of a never-ending journey in LCA research in Africa, particularly Ghana. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0307-5 Authors John Frank Eshun, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands José Potting, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands Rik Leemans, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Introduction   Alternative ways and means of transportation are necessary in order to reduce the environmental impacts of mobility. In the recent years, biofuels were first seen as a main option and then LCA showed also possible hazards of this development. Recently, public interest is rapidly shifting towards electromobility. Therefore it is necessary to also gain better knowledge about the environmental impacts of this technology. This includes a modelling of the pathways of the necessary increase in electricity supply and an appropriate modelling of battery manufacture. Summary of data presented   At this forum most recent results of life cycle assessment studies of electric car driving compared to driving fossil- and agro-fuelled cars were presented. The environmental performance of individual and public electric mobility was discussed in view of promising win–win strategies. Policy implications and research needs derived from current LCA work were highlighted. Conclusion   The 43rd LCA forum profited from the input of several topical experts, covering aspects such as electricity demand of electric vehicles in everyday life, marginal electricity supply mixes, design, performance and manufacture of batteries as well as resource and raw materials availability. The following main conclusions were drawn: The main areas of improvement identified during the day are: weight of the car, battery manufacture, electricity mix used to load the batteries, technological dynamics (efficiency gains) and societal dynamics (changes in mobility habits, changing status symbols). All presentations shown during the day are available for download ( www.lcaforum.ch ). Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-5 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0306-6 Authors Rolf Frischknecht, ESU-Services Ltd., Kanzleistrasse 4, 8610 Uster, Switzerland Karin Flury, ESU-Services Ltd., Kanzleistrasse 4, 8610 Uster, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Determination of the ecotoxicity effect factor (EF) in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is based on test data reporting the total dissolved concentration of a substance. In spite of the recognised influence of chemical speciation and physico-chemical characteristics of the aquatic systems on toxicity of dissolved metals, these properties are not considered when calculating characterization factors (CFs) for metals. It is hypothesised that the main cause of the variation in reported EC50 values of Cu among published test results lies in different speciation patterns for Cu in the test media, and that the toxicity of Cu is predominantly caused by the free Cu 2+ ion. Hence, the free Cu 2+ ion concentration should substitute the total dissolved metal concentration when determining the EF. Materials and methods   The study was based on a review of published ecotoxicity studies reporting acute and chronic EC50 data for Cu to Daphnia magna and to different species of fish and algae. The speciation pattern of Cu in the different media applied in the studies was calculated using the Visual MINTEQ model. EFs were calculated according to the expression applied in the USEtox™ characterization model. Results and discussion   Reported EC 50 values for Cu show variations of one to several orders of magnitude for the same organism, but the study indicates that the large variation is caused by differences in water chemistry of the test media influencing the metal speciation. The relationship between the calculated free Cu 2+ ion concentration and reported EC 50 values indicates that the aquatic ecotoxicity of Cu to D. magna can be predicted from the free ion concentration. Other results confirm that the free Cu 2+ ion concentration depends on the [Cu]/[DOC] ratio since the majority of the total dissolved Cu is present as Cu-DOC complexes when the media contains more than 1 mg/L of DOC, and since Cu in such complexes has limited availability to the test organisms. Conclusions   These results suggest that speciation should be taken into account in the modelling of both EFs and fate factors for LCIA, and the EF for Cu in the aquatic environment should be based on the concentration of the free Cu 2+ ion. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0305-7 Authors Karen S. Christiansen, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Peter E. Holm, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Ole K. Borggaard, Department of Basic Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild, Section of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, DTU Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The conversion of electricity in Thailand is mainly based on fossil fuels that account more than 90% of electricity generated in the country. The use of fossil fuels has large environmental impacts, and being largely imported, also affects the energy security of the country. From the oil shock situation in 1970s, there has been interest in renewable energy in Thailand resulting in the policy goal for the year 2020 to increase the portion of renewable energy to 20% of energy used in the country. Now, hydropower contributes a significant portion of the renewable energy in Thailand, and mini-hydropower (run-of-river type with capacity between 200 to 6000 kW) tends to be most attractive. This is particularly suitable for Thailand, and it is being applied at several locations. Thus, the overall life cycle assessment (LCA), from cradle to gate, of mini-hydropower plants needs to be assessed for quantitative evaluation. Materials and methods   There are five mini-hydropower plants in this study. The inputs and outputs of materials and energy used since before construction stage to demolition stage are inventoried and assessed via LCA using the CML 2001 baseline methodology for impact assessment. The impact categories considered in this study are global warming (GWP), abiotic depletion (ADP), acidification (ACP), fresh water aquatic toxicity (FWAP), human toxicology (HTP), photochemical oxidation (POP), and fossil fuel resource depletion (FRP) potential. The functional unit used is 1 MWh electricity produced from mini-hydropower plants in Thailand, and the life span of the power plants is 50 years. Results   For each of the environmental impact categories considered, the impact potentials were evaluated for each of the five mini-hydropower plants; 76.39–151.55 g Sb eq/MWh for ADP, 57.28–116.94 g SO 2 eq/MWh for ACP, 11.01–23.01 kg CO 2 eq/MWh for GWP, 23.01–52.05 kg 1,4-DB eq/MWh for HTP, 4.58–9.08 kg 1,4-DB eq/MWh for FWAP, 2.93–7.47 g C 2 H 4 eq/MWh for POP, and 35.11–79.13 g Sb eq/MWh for FRP. Results and discussion   The main contributors to the impacts are the huge amount of materials used for construction of the mini-hydropower plant; sand, gravel, cement, reinforcement steel, pressure pipeline steel, iron, copper, and electric equipment and energy used for construction activities, construction equipment, and transportation. The remoteness of the mini-hydropower plants and the requirement of importing electric equipment technology from overseas are significant contributors to the environmental impacts. Conclusions and perspectives   The environmental “hot spots” are construction and transportation stage because of remoteness, huge amount of materials and energy use in construction period, and the use of imported equipment. Mini-hydropower plants do not only generate power, but being in hilly regions that are often quite scenic, can serve as public knowledge centers for renewable energy. Thus, the multiple purposes of mini-hydropower power plants should be utilized in the future. The proper management of environmental and social issues throughout the project cycle is essential taking into consideration the hydrological cycle and seasonal variations. Fresh water is a necessary resource for many living things and hence necessary to be managed wisely. These study results would serve as basic information for decision makers, environmentalists, and all stakeholders and provide a general picture of environmental impacts from mini-hydropower plants in Thailand. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0311-9 Authors Wannarat Suwanit, The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachauthit Rd., Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok, 10140 Thailand Shabbir H. Gheewala, The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachauthit Rd., Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok, 10140 Thailand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The USEtox model was developed in a scientific consensus process involving comparison of and harmonization between existing environmental multimedia fate models. USEtox quantitatively models the continuum from chemical emission to freshwater ecosystem toxicity via chemical-specific characterization factors (CFs) for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). This work provides understanding of the key mechanisms and chemical parameters influencing fate in the environment and impact on aquatic ecosystems. Materials and method   USEtox incorporates a matrix framework for multimedia modeling, allowing separation of fate, exposure, and ecotoxicity effects in the determination of an overall CF. Current best practices, such as incorporation of intermittent rain and effect factors (EF) based on substance toxicity across species, are implemented in the model. The USEtox database provides a dataset of over 3,000 organic chemicals, of which approximately 2,500 have freshwater EFs. Freshwater characterization factors for these substances, with a special focus on a subset of chemicals with characteristic properties, were analyzed to understand the contributions of fate, exposure, and effect on the overall CFs. The approach was based on theoretical interpretation of the multimedia model components as well as multidimensional graphical analysis. Results and discussion   For direct emission of a substance to water, the EF strongly controls freshwater ecotoxicity, with a range of up to 10 orders of magnitude. In this release scenario, chemical-specific differences in environmental fate influence the CF for freshwater emissions by less than 2 orders of magnitude. However, for an emission to air or soil, the influence of the fate is more pronounced. Chemical partitioning properties between water, air, and soil may drive intermedia transfer, which may be limited by the often uncertain, media-specific degradation half-life. Intermedia transfer may be a function of landscape parameters as well; for example, direct transfer from air to freshwater is limited by the surface area of freshwater. Overall, these altered fate factors may decrease the CF up to 8 orders of magnitude. Conclusions   This work brings new clarity to the relative contributions of fate and freshwater ecotoxicity to the calculation of CFs. In concert with the USEtox database, which provides the most extensive compilation of CFs to date, these findings enable those undertaking LCIA to understand and contextualize existing and newly calculated CFs. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0294-6 Authors Andrew D. Henderson, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 109 South Observatory, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Henrik Fred Larsen, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Stn. Centre-ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas E. McKone, University of California Berkeley, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Jerome Payet, Cycleco, 1011 av. Leon Blum, 01500 Amberieu, France Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 109 South Observatory, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Offshoring of pulpwood production outside Europe is more and more common, which increases transport distances and also changes production technologies, raw material supply and energy production profiles. In this paper, we aim to compare the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of pulp production from Finnish boreal hardwood and from South American eucalyptus. Special emphasis was placed on analysing the contribution of transport to overall climate impacts. Materials and methods   A life cycle assessment (LCA) was used as the system modelling tool. The impact assessment was limited to climate change. Finnish and South American industrial data were combined with data from LCA databases in the life cycle inventory (LCI). Results and discussion   Based on the results, offshoring of pulp production would decrease the global greenhouse gas emissions of pulp production itself. However, transport to Europe outweighs the benefit even if transported by energy efficient ships. In this case study, transportation accounted for 27% of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of South American pulp shipped to Europe. Conclusions   Outsourcing of biomass production offers opportunities for emission reductions. Such a conclusion may be valid if the distances between biomass production and upgrading processes were relatively short. However, this study reveals that the offshoring of biomass production contributes to a significant growth of transport emissions. The trend of offshoring provides challenges for the implementation of emission trading since the responsibility of countries to transoceanic transport is still unclear. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0308-4 Authors Jáchym Judl, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Sirkka Koskela, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Timo Jouttijärvi, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Raw material availability is a cause of concern for many industrial sectors. When addressing resource consumption in life cycle assessment (LCA), current characterisation models for depletion of abiotic resources provide characterisation factors based on (surplus) energy, exergy, or extraction–reserve ratios. However, all indicators presently available share a shortcoming as they neglect the fact that large amounts of raw materials can be stored in material cycles within the technosphere. These “anthropogenic stocks” represent a significant source and can change the material availability significantly. With new characterisation factors, resource consumption in LCA will be assessed by taking into account anthropogenic material stocks in addition to the lithospheric stocks. With these characterisation factors, the scarcity of resources should be reflected more realistically. Materials and methods   This study introduces new characterisation factors—the anthropogenic stock extended abiotic depletion potentials—for the impact category depletion of abiotic resources. The underlying characterisation model is based on the conventional model but substitutes ultimate reserves by resources and adds anthropogenic material stocks to the lithospheric stocks. Results and discussion   A fictional life cycle inventory, consisting of 1 kg of several metals, was evaluated using different characterisation factors for depletion of abiotic resources. Within this analysis it is revealed that materials with relatively large anthropogenic stocks, e.g. antimony and mercury , contribute comparatively less to abiotic depletion when using the new characterisation factors. Within a normalized comparison of characterisation factors, the impact of anthropogenic stock results in relative differences between −45% and +65%, indicating that anthropogenic stocks are significant. Conclusions   With the new parameterisation of the model, depletion of abiotic resources can be assessed in a meaningful way, enabling a more realistic material availability analysis within life cycle impact assessment. However, a larger set of characterisation factors and further research are needed to verify the applicability of the concept within LCA practice. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0313-7 Authors Laura Schneider, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Markus Berger, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Matthias Finkbeiner, Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Technology, Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Office Z1, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The main purpose of this study has been to document the environmental performance of products based on autoline-caught cod and the distribution of environmental impacts in the value chain from fishing to retail. Another aim has been to document the performed environmental improvement analyses. Methods   Standard life cycle assessment methodology has been employed and the following impact categories studied: global warming potential (GWP), acidification, eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation, ozone layer depletion and cumulative energy demand. Results and discussion   Products derived from autoline-caught cod have a GWP in the range of 0.16–7.6/1.7–4.4 kg CO2-eq/kg product delivered to consumer, using economic and mass allocation, respectively. The main impacts come from fuel consumption and release of refrigerants in the fishery. The products studied represent each of the four major processing outputs. The differences between the products can partly be attributed to differences in methodology (system borders, allocation), partly to actual physical differences. A comparison with published results from other studies indicates that seafood products sourced from Northeast Arctic cod fished with the autoline method has a relatively good environmental performance. A number of possible options for improving the environmental performance of the products were identified. The most internal improvement action was stopping leakages in fish freezers. Conclusions   This study has given a detailed overview of the environmental performance of seafood products sourced from Northeast Arctic cod from autoline fisheries in Norwegian territorial waters. This study has demonstrated the usefulness of such results in improving the environmental performance of the products. However, the usefulness of the results in communication to external actors is limited because few data exists on other products fulfilling the same functions and using the exact same methodology and assumptions. In order to achieve comparability between results from competing products, it is necessary to use a standardised and detailed calculation method. At the moment, no such method seems to be available. The literature study indicated that the environmental impact of Northeast Arctic cod products sourced from autoline fisheries compares well with other cod products on the market. Some cod stocks are sustainably managed, others not. Hence, it is recommended to break down results not only to species level but also fish stock level when the aim is to guide seafood customers towards making informed purchasing decisions. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0298-2 Authors Erik Svanes, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Mie Vold, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Ole Jørgen Hanssen, Ostfold Research, Gamle Bedding vei 2b, 1671 Kraakeroey, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: LCA in New Zealand Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0299-1 Authors Barbara Nebel, LCANZ, 11 Rawhiti Road, Pukerua Bay 5026, Wellington, New Zealand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Few studies have examined differing interpretations of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results between midpoints and endpoints for the same systems. This paper focuses on the LCIA of municipal solid waste (MSW) systems by taking both the midpoint and endpoint approaches and uses LIME (Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method based on Endpoint Modeling, version 2006). With respect to global and site-dependent factors, environmental impact categories were divided into global, regional, and local scales. Results are shown as net emissions consisting of system emissions and avoided emissions. Materials and methods   This study is divided into five segments. The first segment develops the LCIA framework and four MSW scenarios based on the current MSW composition and systems of Seoul, considering adaptable results from the hierarchy MSW systems. In addition, two systems are considered: main MSW systems and optional systems. Several “what if” scenarios are discussed, including various compositions and classifications of MSW. In the second segment, life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis is applied to define various inputs and outputs to and from MSW systems, including air (23 categories), water (28 categories) and land (waste) emissions, resource consumption, land use, recovered material, compost, landfill gas, biogas, and heat energy. The third segment, taking the midpoint approach, investigates the nine environmental impacts of the system and avoided emissions. In the fourth segment, this study, taking the endpoint approach, evaluates the damages, dividing the four safeguard subjects affected by 11 environmental impact categories of the system and avoided emissions. In these third and fourth segments, LCIA is applied to analyze various end-of-life scenarios for same MSW materials. The final segment defines the differences from the results in accordance with the two previous life cycle assessment methodologies (the LCIA and interpretations with respect to midpoints and endpoints). Results and discussion   With the respect to midpoints, Scenario 1 (S1) using 100% landfills (L) is the worst performer in terms of global (global warming and resource consumption), regional (acidification, human toxicity, and ecotoxicity), and local (waste: landfill volume) impacts. In terms of all impacts except global warming and waste, Scenario 2 (S2) using 64.2% L and 35.8% material recycling (MR) was found to be the most effective system. With respect to global-scale endpoints, S1 was the worst performer in terms of human health and social assets, whereas the other scenarios with MR were poor and bad performers in terms of biodiversity and primary production. With respect to regional- and local-scale endpoints, S1 was the worst performer in terms of human health, biodiversity, and primary production, whereas Scenario 4 (S4) using 4.2% L (only incombustibles), 35.8% MR, 28.5% biological treatment (BT), and 31.5% incineration (I) was the worst performer in terms of social assets. S4 was the best performer in terms of global-scale endpoints, whereas S2 and Scenario 3 (S3, using 35.7% L, 35.8% MR, and 28.5% BT) were the best on regional- and local-scale endpoints, respectively. With respect to the monetization analysis, which considered net emissions and integrated all endpoints, S3 was found to be “the most effective system,” indicating US $31.6 savings per ton-waste. Conclusions   The results of this study illustrate the differences in the LCIA outcomes and interpretations with respect to the midpoint and endpoint approaches. In addition, it would be possible to interpret the effect of each indicator on safeguard subjects by integrating separate midpoints. The LCIA results of each endpoint for the scenarios were generally consistent with those of each midpoint. However, the results changed dramatically when the main contributor was a new category not included in midpoint categories. The key advantage with respect to grouping impact categories in the midpoint and endpoint approaches can be described as “the simplification of midpoints and the segmentation of endpoints.” Recommendations and perspectives   This research raises many questions that warrant further research. This method does not provide an uncertainty evaluation of input data at the inventory level; it addresses only the main contributor for each impact category to four endpoints. In addition, it would be beneficial to investigate the suitability of midpoints and endpoints for different stakeholders with a low or high level of environmental expertise by comparing previous studies. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-17 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0297-3 Authors Sora Yi, Department of Urban Planning Research, Daejeon Development Institute, 160-20, Wolpyong-dong, Seo-Gu, Daejeon, 302-280 South Korea Kiyo H. Kurisu, Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656 Japan Keisuke Hanaki, Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656 Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of the study was to compare three recent Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models in prioritizing substances and products from national emission inventories. The focus was on ecotoxic and human toxic impacts. The aim was to test model output against expert judgment on chemical risk assessment. Materials and methods   An emission inventory was collected for Finland describing the year 2005. The inventory included publicly reported emissions to air and water and it was complemented by the emissions of tributyltin, benzene, and pesticides from research papers and statistics. The emissions were characterized with three LCIA models: IMPACT 2002+, ReCiPe, and USEtox and priority substances were identified. The results were connected to an environmentally extended input–output model to study priority products and supply chains. A comparison was made with two integrated assessments of the chemical status and human exposure in the Baltic region. Results and discussion   The three assessed models presented very different priorities. In ecotoxicity, IMPACT2002+ and USEtox highlighted heavy metals while ReCiPe focused on tributyltin. The integrated assessment identified both groups. In human toxicity, IMPACT2002+ and the integrated assessment focused on organic air pollutants while USEtox and ReCiPe identified mainly metals. Conclusions   LCIA models can be used for priority setting in chemical emission control and consumption based analyses. However the models give differing prioritizations so care must be taken in model selection. The studied models differed from expert assessment mostly in substances which are bioaccumulative. Further studies in including bioaccumulation to LCIA models of toxic impact are recommended. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0295-5 Authors Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Matti Verta, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Jyri Seppälä, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Mechelininkatu 34a, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper is the second part of a two-paper series dealing with the sustainability evaluation of a new communicative packaging concept. The communicative packaging concept includes a device that allows changing the expiry date of the product as function of temperature during transport and storage: a flexible best-before-date (FBBD). Such device was analysed in a consumer unit consisting of a nanoclay-based polylactic acid tray filled with pork chops. Methods   An economic assessment was made through the use of life cycle costing (LCC) methodology proposed by Bovea and Vidal (Resources, Conservation and Recycling Volume 41, Issue 2, May 2004, Pages 133–145) where both internal and external costs were considered. Furthermore, the social aspects were analysed using a contingent valuation (CV) of the willingness to pay (WTP). The sustainability assessment of FBBD was made through the combination of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCC results, together with the CV of the WTP according to the method proposed by Bovea and Vidal. It was assumed that the use of the FBBD minimizes the food losses from 3.5% to 0.5%. Results and discussion   LCC results show that internal costs related to pork chops and logistic supply chain life cycle represent more than 90% of life cycle cost. The use of FBBD communicative device could increase pork chop selling price between 0.01 and 0.1 € since the purchasing cost of this communicative device is included in this price. WTP results show that FBBD purchasing cost for consumer acceptance is estimated as 0.05 €/FBBD. Therefore, only pork chop selling price for scenarios 1 (0.05 €/device) and 3 (0.01 €/device) could be accepted by consumers. The most sustainable situation is reached when the cost of the FBBD is as less as possible (0.01 €). Conclusions   The use of FBBD communicative device has economic advantages for perishable products since it contributes to the increase in the economic savings due to the reduction of food losses. However, these economic savings represent a small percentage over pork chop selling price, and therefore, an FBBD price less than 0.02 €/device is required. If a lower price for the communicative device is reached, satisfying the WTP of consumers (0.05 €/FBBD), the communicative package will be much more sustainable. Recommendations   It is expected that the competitiveness of FBBD communicative device will be improved in the future. This might be accomplished by reducing FBBD production and distribution costs and increasing their social acceptance, providing more sustainable solutions. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0291-9 Authors Antonio Dobon, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Pilar Cordero, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Fatima Kreft, Agrotechnology & Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research Centre, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen, Postbus 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Søren R. Østergaard, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark Helle Antvorskov, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark Mats Robertsson, Acreo AB, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden Maria Smolander, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Mercedes Hortal, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center—ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, 46980 Paterna, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The demand of PET bottles has increased rapidly in the past decades. The purpose of this study is to understand the environmental impact of PET recycling system, in which used bottles are recycled into both fibre and bottles, and to compare the recycling system with single-use PET. Methods   Consequential LCA modelling was applied to understand four change-oriented effects for the recycling system. These include the effect of multiple-recycling trips, the effect of changing the share of recycled PET pellets used to make bottles or fibre, the effect of changing the reference system and the effect of introducing bio-based PET. The functional unit of the baseline case was determined as 350 kg of bottles and 650 kg of fibre based on the current market demand of PET. The system boundary is cradle to grave excluding the use phase. We applied the “system expansion” method to open-loop recycling. The analysis compares the baseline recycling system, where PET is recycled once, with the reference system, where PET is not recycled. The environmental impacts assessed are non-renewable energy use and global warming. Results and discussion   The baseline recycling system reduces both impacts by 20% when compared to the reference system. Multiple-recycling trips can maximally reduce the impacts by 26% but the additional savings are negligible after three recycling trips. Bottle-to-fibre recycling offers more impact reduction than bottle-to-bottle recycling when more fibre is needed than bottles in a functional unit. The maximal impact reduction of 25% can be achieved when all recycled PET pellets are used to make fibre. If the functional unit is reversed, i.e. changed to 650 kg of bottles and 350 kg of fibre, 30% of the impact reduction can be achieved. Both impacts can be further reduced when the quantity of the recycled PET is maximised. The bio-based PET recycling system, offers at least 36% impact reduction, has the lowest impact among all systems studied. The sensitivity analyses show that the recycled PET content in a recycled bottle is not influential to the overall environmental performance. Conclusions   All PET recycling systems in this study show important impact reduction compared to the reference system. The impact savings are around 20–30% depends on the configurations of the recycling system. We conclude that the system’s environmental impact can be optimised by maximising the amount of recycled PET in the system and by using bio-based polymers. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0296-4 Authors Li Shen, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Evert Nieuwlaar, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Ernst Worrell, Department of Innovation and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Martin K. Patel, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   Nanostructured polymer particles are produced to be used in ball grid array (BGA) and chip scale packaging (CSP). The technology could replace conventional BGA and CSP metal balls, and the hypothesis is that the shift could be eco-efficient as polymer core particles increase the reliability. For the first time, these particles are environmentally evaluated. Materials and methods   The change in GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) scores when replacing traditional component packaging, here quad flat pack to BGA/CSP, was explored both on component and printed circuit board assembly (PCBA) level. This was followed by comparisons between BGA packages using different types of metal-plated monodispersed polymer particle (MPP) balls and conventional balls, respectively. Results and discussion   For BGAs, the silicon (Si) die dominates CO 2 e emissions, but for Eco-Indicator’99(H), solder balls are not negligible. Excluding the Si die and component assembly, the LFBGA-84 to WCSP-64 would reduce CO 2 e by about 98% and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) by about 90%. Overall, for BGA–256 using same size balls, gold-plated MPP technology decreases the Eco-Indicator’99(H) score by about 25% compared to Pb-based or Pb-free balls. Gold production dominated GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) for the gold-plated MPP. Each microsystem is unique, and new environmental impact estimations must be done for the sub-structures of each electronic device. Screening process-sum life cycle assessment (LCA) gives similar understanding of impacts as resource productivity methods. Even though the metal mass per ball is greatly reduced, it is a weak indicator of environmental impacts which are driven by each material’s specific environmental characteristics. Conclusions   The ball share of the BGA-256 GWP100 and Eco-Indicator’99 (H) score is small, and the BGA/CSP producers can marginally improve the environmental performance by focusing on the balls. On a comparable IC packaging basis, the introduction of WCSP packaging technology implies a significant environmental footprint reduction. On PCBA level, the contribution of BGA balls is negligible. Results for metal-plated MPP BGA balls suggest that gold usage is the key environmental performance indicator of interest. Recommendations and perspectives   Even though WCSP clearly reduces the component level impacts, the PCBA (board) level impact could increase as the CSP miniaturisation is paralleled with more PWB layers. This effect should be included in further system expansions. For LCA, in general, update of all LCIA methods, which include ozone depletion, with the latest results for dinitrogen monoxide is needed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0260-3 Authors Anders S. G. Andrae, Huawei Technologies Sweden AB, P.O. Box 54, 16494 Kista, Sweden Otto Andersen, Western Norway Research Institute, P.O. Box 163, 6851 Sogndal, Norway Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There has been an increased interest in utilizing renewable energy sources in district heating systems. District heating systems are centralized systems that provide heat for residential and commercial buildings in a community. While various renewable and conventional energy sources can be used in such systems, many stakeholders are interested in choosing the feasible option with the least environmental impacts. This paper evaluates and compares environmental burdens of alternative energy source options for the base–load of a district heating center in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) using the life cycle assessment method. The considered energy sources include natural gas, wood pellet, sewer heat, and ground heat. Methods   The life cycle stages considered in the LCA model cover all stages from fuel production, fuel transmission/transportation, construction, operation, and finally demolition of the district heating system. The impact categories were analyzed based on the IMPACT 2002+ method. Results and discussion   On a life-cycle basis, the global warming effect of renewable energy options were at least 200 kgeqCO2 less than that of the natural gas option per MWh of heat produced by the base–load system. It was concluded that less than 25% of the upstream global warming impact associated with the wood pellet energy source option was due to transportation activities and about 50% of that was resulted from wood pellet production processes. In comparison with other energy options, the wood pellets option has higher impacts on respiratory of inorganics, terrestrial ecotoxicity, acidification, and nutrification categories. Among renewable options, the global warming impact of heat pump options in the studied case in Vancouver, BC, were lower than the wood pellet option due to BC's low carbon electricity generation profile. Ozone layer depletion and mineral extraction were the highest for the heat pump options due to extensive construction required for these options. Conclusions   Natural gas utilization as the primary heat source for district heat production implies environmental complications beyond just the global warming impacts. Diffusing renewable energy sources for generating the base–load district heat would reduce human toxicity, ecosystem quality degradation, global warming, and resource depletion compared to the case of natural gas. Reducing fossil fuel dependency in various stages of wood pellet production can remarkably reduce the upstream global warming impact of using wood pellets for district heat generation. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0259-9 Authors Saeed Ghafghazi, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2943–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T-1Z4, Canada Taraneh Sowlati, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2931–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T-1Z4, Canada Shahab Sokhansanj, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada Xiaotao Bi, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada Staffan Melin, Delta Research Corporation, Delta, BC V4L 2L5, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Information and communication technology (ICT) has been proposed as a means to facilitate environmental sustainability. Dematerialisation is one potential way of doing this. For books, this could be realized through using e-book readers, which share many of the qualities of printed media and have notably low-energy requirements during use. The main aim of this study was to analyse the environmental impacts of an e-book read on an e-book reader, and to identify key issues determining the magnitude of the impact. A second aim was to compare the e-book product system with a paper book product system using a life cycle perspective. Materials and methods   A screening LCA was performed on an e-book produced and read in Sweden. The e-book reader was assumed to be produced in China. The data used were general data from Ecoinvent 2.0 and site-specific data from companies participating in the study, whenever average data were not available. Results and discussion   The results showed that production of the e-book reader was the life cycle step contributing most to the environmental impact of the system studied, although data on the e-ink screen were lacking. The disposal phase leads to avoided impact as materials are recycled; however, these results are less certain due to limited data availability. When the e-book was compared with a paper book, the results indicated that the number of books read on the e-book reader during its lifetime was crucial when evaluating its environmental performance compared with paper books. The results indicate that there are impact categories and circumstances where paper books are preferable to e-books from an environmental perspective and vice versa. Conclusions   There is no single answer as to which book is better from an environmental perspective according to the results of the current study. To improve the e-book environmental performance, an e-book reader should be used frequently, the life time of the device should be prolonged, as far as possible, and when not in use anymore, the device should be disposed of in a proper way, making material recycling possible. In addition, the production of the e-reader should be energy efficient and striving towards minimisation of toxic and rare substances. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0255-0 Authors Åsa Moberg, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Clara Borggren, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Göran Finnveden, Division of Environmental Strategies Research – fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment, and Centre for Sustainable Communications – CESC, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites is gaining momentum with the pressure to lightweight vehicles; however energy intensity and cost remain major barriers to the wide-scale adoption of this material for automotive applications. This study determines the relative life cycle benefits of two precursor types (conventional textile-type acrylic fibers and renewable-based lignin), part manufacturing technologies (conventional SMC and P4), and a fiber recycling technology. Materials and methods   A representative automotive part, i.e., a 30.8-kg steel floor pan having a 17% weight reduction potential with stringent crash performance requirements, has been considered for the life cycle energy and emissions analysis. Four scenarios—combinations of the precursor types and manufacturing technologies—are compared to the stamped steel baseline part. Results and discussion   The analysis finds the lignin-based part made through P4 technology to offer the greatest life cycle energy and CO 2 emissions benefits. Carbon fiber production is estimated to be about 14 times more energy-intensive than conventional steel production; however, life cycle primary energy use is estimated to be quite similar to the conventional part, i.e., 18,500 MJ/part, especially when considering the uncertainty in LCI data that exist from using numerous sources in the literature. Conclusions   The sensitivity analysis concludes that with a 20% reduction in energy use in the conversion of lignin to carbon fiber and no energy use incurred in lignin production since lignin is a by-product of ethanol and paper production, a 30% reduction in life cycle energy use could be obtained. A similar level of life cycle energy savings could also be obtained with a higher part weight reduction potential of 43%. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0264-z Authors Sujit Das, Energy and Transportation Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2360 Cherahala Blvd, Knoxeville, TN 37934, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    This book provides detailed information about comparative LCA of different solders used in electronics. As Life Cycle Impact Assessment, the Japanese LIME method is used. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-2 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0262-1 Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Methods   The main objective of this study is to combine the environmental evaluation of a basic wood box used to store wine bottles by means of the integration of two environmental methodologies: a quantitative methodology known as life cycle assessment (LCA) and a qualitative methodology which is useful in integrating environmental aspects into design, that is, the design for the environment (DfE). The LCA study covers the life cycle of wood box production from a cradle-to-gate perspective. A wood processing company located in Galicia (NW, Spain) was analysed in detail, dividing the process chain into five stages: cogeneration unit, material assembling, painting, packaging and distribution to clients. Results   Abiotic depletion (AD), acidification, eutrophication, global warming, ozone layer depletion (OD), photochemical oxidant formation (PO), human toxicity (HT) and toxicological impact categories (HT, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, marine aquatic ecotoxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity) were the impact categories analysed in the LCA study. According to the environmental results, the assembling stage contributed more than 57% to all impact categories, followed by the cogeneration unit and packaging. Contributions from packaging are mainly due to transoceanic transport activities related to the rope distribution and wood-based materials production. In addition, it is interesting to remark that all energy requirements were produced by on-site cogeneration boilers using a non-renewable fossil fuel. Several processes were identified as hot spots in this study: medium density fibreboards (MDF) production (with large contribution to ecotoxicity categories), energy production (with contributions to AD, GW and OD) and finally, the transportation of jute fibres (the main contributor to all the impact categories). Concerning the results from the DfE, the proposed eco-design strategies were evaluated from a technological, economic and social point of view by an interdisciplinary team of researchers and enterprise’s workers. The results show that the strategies with more viability of improvement were: reduction of resources used, multifunctional design, substitution of MDF by plywood, substitution of jute fibres, alternatives to the ink, optimization of energy requirement, transport alternatives for the final product and inputs distribution and definition of a protocol for disassembling the product. Conclusions   The results obtained in this work allow forecasting the importance of the chosen raw materials as well as their origin for the environmental burdens associated with the wood-based box manufacture. Future work will focus on the manufacturing of a prototype eco-designed wood-based box. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0261-2 Authors Sara González-García, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Francisco Javier Silva, FINSA, Carretera N-550 km 57, 15890 Santiago de Compostela, Spain María Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Rosario Castilla Pascual, Innovation and Technology Area, CIS MADEIRA, Galician Park of Technology, Avenida de Galicia 5, San Cibrao das Viñas, 32901 Ourense, Spain Raúl García Lozano, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Xavier Gabarrell, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Joan Rieradevall i Pons, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The goal of this paper is to describe the life cycle inventory (LCI) approach of energy produced by ArcelorMittal Steel Power Plant Poland (AMSPPP) in Krakow, Poland. The present LCI is representative for the reference year 2005 by application of ISO 14040: 2006. The system boundaries were labeled as gate-to-gate (it covered full process chain for energy production). Background data of inputs and outputs from the steel power plant have been inventoried as follows: consumption of energy and fuels, including: power coal (domestic), natural gas, blast furnace gas and coke oven gas, emission of air pollutants, emissions of particulate, air emissions from stockpiles, wastes, internal transport, and land use. Main feature   LCI energy generation was developed mainly on the basis of following sources: site-specific measured or calculated data, life cycle assessment (LCA) study carried out by Polish Academy of Science in Kraków, AMSPPP Environmental Impact Report, Company and literature information and expert consultations. The functional unit is represented by 977 MW of generated electric and heat energies, distributed to ArcelorMittal Steel Plant processes and to the Krakow’s grid. Time coverage is 2005. Operating parameters as well as air emissions associated with the power plant boilers were presented. The production data (steams: 9, 1.6, and 0.8 MPa, electric energy, degassing softening water, softening water heat, and blast furnace blow) were given. The emissions of SO 2 , NO x , CO, CH 4 , HCl, dust, heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Mn), pollution factors (BOD 5 , COD) of waste water released from ash, slag, and sludge disposals were estimated. Finally, emission of CO 2 was calculated. Continuous monitoring of air pollutant emissions conducted in two emitter units related to 977 MW energy produced in AMSPPP was discussed. Results and discussion   Related to 977 MW of energy production distributed by AMSPPP, the consumption of blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, and natural gas were 1,279.7, 47,441, and 2,080 Mm 3 /year, respectively. Other fuel consumption, power coal (domestic), was 315,680 Mg/year. The production data of steams: 9, 1.6, and 0.8 MPa were estimated at 3,689,640; 227,642; and 335,010 Mg, respectively. The volume of heat was about 1,529,610 GJ. Degassing softening water and softening water represented 1,066,674 and 2,124,466 m 3 . Electric energy amount was on the order 441,188 MWh, and resulting value of the blast furnace blow was 3,076,606,000 m 3 . Nominal powers of the power plant boilers ranged from 149 to 177 MW. Direct dust, SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO emissions into the air from seven boilers (Nos. 1–7) were 33, 159.9, 134, and 8 kg/h, and from boiler No. 8 (coal-only) were 17.70, 222.6, 112, and 1.11 kg/h, respectively. Total CO 2 emission was 1,802,902 Mg. Direct CO 2 emissions from burning of power coal, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, and finally natural gas were 674,317, 1,084,797, 39,802, and 3,986 Mg, respectively. The amounts of SO 2 , NO x (expressed as NO 2 eq.) CO, CH 4 , HCl and dust emissions were 3,138.1, 2,648.5, 48.1, 575.08, 117.2, and 622.1 Mg, respectively. Contents of Mg, Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Mn in ash were on the order of 19.4, 1.8, 60, 50, 45, and 475 mg/kg, respectively (max. values, 28.4, 2.3, 75, 68, 59, 682, respectively). COD and BOD 5 ranged 1.2 to 17 and 10.9 to 42.7 mg O 2 /dm 3 , respectively. Contribution of power coal stockpiles to heavy metal emissions was relatively small. The amounts of ash–sludge mixtures and carbon volatile ash during stock of power coal were 53,078.1 and 11,272 Mg, respectively. Data concerning pollutants into air from continuous monitoring were not included due to a limitation of the available data. The time coverage of the data collected from continuous monitoring is 2006. Conclusions   This is the first tentative study to express energy generation in industry in Poland in terms of LCA/LCI for the energy power in steel industry. The results of the study suggest that reduction of the amount of power coal leads to saving of primary resources and reduction of SO 2 emissions, decrease land occupation caused by power coal stockpiles, and increase recovery of the blast furnace gas, as well as, coke oven gas surplus. The results may help ArcelorMittal Steel Plant government make decisions in policy making. Presentation of the study in this paper is suitable for the energy production processes, as well as other industries. Recommendations and outlook   The LCI offers environmental information consisting on the list of environmental loads. The impact assessment phase aims the results from the inventory analysis to be more understandable and life cycle impact assessment will be the direction for future research. Another issue to discuss is integration of LCA and risk assessment for industrial processes. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0292-8 Authors Boguslaw Bieda, Management Department, AGH University of Science and Technology, ul. Gramatyka 10, Krakow, 30-067 Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There has been an increasing use of plastic motor car fuel tanks in recent decades with the expected benefits of lighter weight, shape flexibility and lower cost. In this paper, the environmental life cycle assessments of mild steel and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) car fuel tanks in Japan are compared for two cases, namely the current average processes (base case), and for the same processes with the maximum currently feasible pollution control technology installed. Materials and methods   Primarily, data from Japan are used for a life cycle inventory analysis, followed by an impact assessment based on the Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method Based on Endpoint Modelling and five other indicators. Results and discussion   Mild steel shows a notably higher inventory for resources iron, manganese, zinc, coking coal, combustion coal, dolomite, limestone; for the air pollutants nitrogen oxides (NOx) from mobile sources, PM 10 , sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons; and for solid waste (slag). HDPE has a higher inventory for resources liquefied natural gas reserves, oil reserves, for the air pollutants carbon dioxide, NO x from non-mobile sources and sulphur oxides. The base case environmental impact assessment results for six indicators show HDPE and steel to have similar impacts for all but one of the indicators. With pollution control, the feasible reductions in respective pollutant inventories range from 0% to 97%, while the corresponding impact assessment shows indicator values reduced by 0% to 29%, with slightly improved performance of mild steel relative to HDPE. Conclusions   Accounting for a 62-year period of use and recycling for the mild steel would show a further decrease in the impact of the mild steel relative to HDPE. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0277-7 Authors Ndumiso G. Dlamini, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Kenta Fujimura, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Eiji Yamasue, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Hideyuki Okumura, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Keiichi N. Ishihara, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606–8501 Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As new alternative automotive fuels are being developed, life cycle assessment (LCA) is being used to assess the sustainability of these new options. A fuel LCA is commonly referred as a “Well To Wheels” analysis and calculates the environmental impacts of producing the fuel (the “Well To Tank” stage) and using it to move a car (the “Tank To Wheels” stage, TTW). The TTW environmental impacts are the main topic of this article. Materials and methods   Renault’s cars pollutant emissions are measured on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) to comply with Euro regulations. The results have been used to show the variability of the emissions in the TTW stage. Five E85 flex-fuel vehicles were also tested to check their compliance with Euro standards, enabling to show the effect of an alternative fuel such as ethanol on pollutant emissions. Finally, Euro standard emission thresholds were transposed into environmental impacts to see how they affect TTW results. Results and discussion   The TTW stage is very significant for the environmental impacts selected. The results show the unpredictable variability of the impacts between vehicles and when switching from gasoline to ethanol (E85). However, this variability is inferior compared with the differences between cars complying with different Euro standards. Conclusions   Measured emissions on a car on NEDC cycle may not be suitable as the input data for TTW calculations. Euro standards associated with average fuel consumptions may be used as the basis for TTW impacts and should be chosen carefully in order to be relevant with the scope of the study. This leads to a functional unit, which is defined as the quantity of fuel needed to move a car that is representative of the average fleet that uses the fuel on 1 km. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0273-y Authors Florent Querini, Institut Pprime CNRS - Université de Poitiers (IRIAF), ENSMA UPR 3346 Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA - Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Jean-Christophe Béziat, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Stéphane Morel, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Valérie Boch, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Patrick Rousseaux, Institut Pprime CNRS - Université de Poitiers (IRIAF), ENSMA UPR 3346 Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA - Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper describes part of the first detailed environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of Australian red meat (beef and sheep meat) production. The study was intended to assist the methodological development of life cycle impact assessment by examining the feasibility of new indicators for natural resource management (NRM) issues relevant to soil management in agricultural LCA. This paper is intended to describe the NRM indicators directly related to agricultural soil chemistry. Materials and methods   Three nutrient management indicators—nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) balances—were estimated on the basis of 1 kg of hot standard carcass weight (HSCW) for three grazing properties in Australia. We also examined a soil acidification indicator based on the effects of agricultural practices. Results and discussion   The N balance for the grazing properties varied from a loss of 28 g N/kg HSCW to an accumulation of 170 g N/kg HSCW. For comparison, the N content of cattle is about 24 g/kg liveweight. The main contributors to these changes were the growth of N-fixing pastures (or lack thereof) and the application of fertilisers. The P and the K balances showed similar results, varying from a 3.9-g loss to a 19-g accumulation of P and a 4-g loss to a 95-g accumulation of K per kilogram HSCW. Decisions about pasture management were also reflected in the results of the soil acidification indicator. We also identified that soil erosion at the grazing properties is a significant component of nutrient losses. Conclusions   The results suggest that reducing the leaching of soil N might be the best way to balance the N budget without causing acidification. The NRM indicators developed can be benchmarked against other production systems as the application of these indicators progresses. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0279-5 Authors Gregory M. Peters, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Stephen Wiedemann, FSA Consulting, Toowoomba, QLD Australia Hazel V. Rowley, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Robyn Tucker, FSA Consulting, Toowoomba, QLD Australia Andrew J. Feitz, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Matthias Schulz, Sustainability Assessment Program, Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Over the past two decades, consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) has emerged as a modeling approach for capturing environmental impacts of product systems beyond physical relationships accounted for in attributional LCA (ALCA). Put simply, CLCA represents the convergence of LCA and economic modeling approaches. Method   In this study, a systematic literature review of CLCA is performed. Results   While initial efforts to integrate the two modeling methods relied on simple partial equilibrium (PE) modeling and a heuristic approach to determining affected technologies, more recent techniques incorporate sophisticated economic models for this purpose. In the last 3 years, Multi-Market, Multi-Regional PE Models and Computable General Equilibrium models have been used. Moreover, the incorporation of other economic notions into CLCA, such as rebound effects and experience curves, has been the focus of later research. Since economic modeling can play a prominent role in national policy-making and strategic/corporate environmental planning, developing the capacity to operate LCA concurrent to, or integrated with, these models is of growing importance. Conclusions   This paper outlines the historical development of such efforts in CLCA, discusses key methodological advancements, and characterizes previous literature on the topic. Based on this review, we provide an outlook for further research in CLCA. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0275-9 Authors J. Mason Earles, University of Maine, 5755 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA Anthony Halog, University of Maine, 5755 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In general, pentachloroaniline (PCA) biodechlorination is specific to the conditions of a system; such conditions include the type and concentration of electron donors and oxidizing agents as well as nutrient availability, pH, and temperature. In the bioremediation of contaminated sediments and soil, most researchers have focused on the ability of various electron donors to remove target compounds. However, the amended electron donors and the byproduct of the anoxic/anaerobic systems may cause more environmental impact. Therefore, methods for consistently evaluating the environmental effects of such electron donors and byproducts are highly needed. Accordingly, life cycle assessment (LCA) was carried out to estimate the environmental effect of PCA biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions through laboratory-scale experiments. Four scenarios, intended to assess the influence of electron donors on the environment and develop laboratory experimental research, were compared. In these scenarios, four compounds were used: acetate, lactate, methanol, and glucose + methanol. Materials and methods   The LCA was carried out using IMPACT2002+ to estimate the environmental impact of PCA biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions. To add credibility to the study, sensitivity analysis was also conducted. Results and discussion   In all scenarios, the technologies significantly contributed to respiratory inorganics, global warming, as well as increased the adverse impact of nonrenewable energy on the environment. Specifically, the emissions from the electron donor production processes played an important role in the scenarios. PCA dechlorination and methanogenic processes substantially contributed to the aquatic/terrestrial ecotoxicity and global warming, respectively. Optimizing the concentration of amended electron donors and increasing the population size of dechlorinating microorganisms are highly important in reducing the environmental burden by PCA bioremediation. Conclusions   Results showed that the methanol scenario was the most suitable option determined in this research. In addition, results indicate amended electron donors can cause fewer environmental impacts in carcinogens and noncarcinogens categories. By contrast, the amended electron donors can significantly increase environmental impacts in respiratory inorganics, global warming, and nonrenewable energy categories. Increasing the population size of dechlorinating microorganisms and optimizing the concentration of amended electron donors are highly recommended to reduce adverse environmental impacts. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0338-y Authors Jinglan Hong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100 Shandong, People’s Republic of China Xiangzhi Li, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, 250012 Shandong, People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Best agricultural practices can be adopted to increase crop productivity and lower carbon footprint of grain products. The aims of this study were to provide a quantitative estimate of the carbon footprint of selected oilseed crops grown on the semiarid northern Great Plains and to determine the effects of N fertilization and environments on the carbon footprint. Materials and methods   Five oilseed crops, Brassica napus canola, Brassica rapa canola, Brassica juncea canola, B. juncea mustard, and Sinapis alba mustard, were grown under the N rates of 0, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 kg N ha −1 at eight environsites (location × year combinations) in Saskatchewan, Canada. Straw and root decomposition and various production inputs were used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprints. Results and discussion   Emissions from the production, transportation, storage, and delivery of N fertilizer to farm gates accounted for 42% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, and the direct and indirect emission from the application of N fertilizer in oilseed production added another 31% to the total emission. Emissions from N fertilization were nine times the emission from the use of pesticides and 11 times that of farming operations. Straw and root decomposition emitted 120 kg CO 2 eq ha −1 , contributing 10% to the total emission. Carbon footprint increased slightly as N rates increased from 0 to 50 kg N ha −1 , but as N rates increased from 50 to 250 kg N ha −1 , carbon footprint increased substantially for all five oilseed crops evaluated. Oilseeds grown at the humid Melfort site emitted 1,355 kg CO 2 eq ha −1 , 30% greater than emissions at the drier sites of Scott and Swift Current. Oilseeds grown at Melfort had their carbon footprint of 0.52 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed, 45% greater than that at Scott (0.45 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed), and 25% greater than that at Swift Current (0.45 kg CO 2 eq kg −1 of oilseed). Conclusions   Carbon footprint of oilseeds was a function of the rate of N fertilizer, and the intensity of the functionality varied between environments. Key to lower carbon footprint in oilseeds is to improve N management practices. Content Type Journal Article Category CARBON FOOTPRINTING Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0337-z Authors Yantai Gan, Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory for Aridland Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China Chang Liang, Pollutant Inventory and Reporting Division, Environment Canada, 9th floor, Fontaine Building, 200 Sacré-Coeur, Gatineau, QC K1A 0H3, Canada Gaobao Huang, Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory for Aridland Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China Sukhdev S. Malhi, Research Farm, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 1240, Melfort, SK S0E 1A0, Canada Stewart A. Brandt, Research Farm, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Box 10, Scott, SK S0K 4A0, Canada Felicitas Katepa-Mupondwa, Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0X2, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   To construct future visions of how innovative technologies should be used in the envisioned sustainable society while being aware of system-wide environmental impacts, consequential life cycle assessment (c-LCA) is useful. To systematically evaluate the technologies being aware of uncertainties in choice of technologies made in the future, in this article, we propose a novel graphical representation for theoretical range of impacts that contain results from c-LCA studies. This approach allows analyses of the consequences of the technology introduction without conducting detailed modeling of consequences. Methods   We stand on an assumption that the future environmental impacts reduced by a new technology depends on (1) how much the efficiency of the technology is improved, (2) how much of less-efficient technology is directly and indirectly replaced by the new technology, and (3) how much product is needed in the envisioned future. The difficulty in c-LCA is that items 2 and 3 are uncertain from various socioeconomic reasons that are often difficult to predict. By organizing the results from product LCAs in a systematic way, the proposed methodology allows exhibiting the range of consequential changes in environmental impact associated with a technology innovation, taking into account of those uncertainties on a plain coordinated by the amount of product needed in the future and environmental impact on horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. Results   Part 1 describes the methodological framework in detail, whereas part 2 elaborates on the applications of the methodology. By taking transportation technologies assuming various energy sources in Taiwan, choices of technologies and evaluation of technology improvements serve as the case studies to demonstrate the application of the methodological framework. Conclusions   By using the proposed method to organize the assumptions in c-LCA, discussions on different choices of technologies are made more systematic. In this way, stakeholders can focus on visions of the future society, which lead to different choices of technologies. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0356-9 Authors I-Ching Chen, Department of Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Environment Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Rd., Tainan City, 701 Taiwan Yasuhiro Fukushima, Department of Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Environment Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Rd., Tainan City, 701 Taiwan Yasunori Kikuchi, Department of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Masahiko Hirao, Department of Chemical System Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Water use in the livestock sector has featured in the debate about sustainable food systems. Most evidence has come from virtual water calculations which lack impact assessment and adequate consideration of the heterogeneity in livestock production. This study sought new evidence, using a recently developed life cycle impact assessment method for water use to assess six geographically defined beef cattle production systems in New South Wales, Australia, a major production region. Methods   The livestock production systems were diverse in farm practice (grass and feedlot finishing), product (yearling to heavy steers), environment (high-rainfall coastal to semi-arid inland) and local water stress. Life cycle inventories were developed from representative farm enterprise budgets. The farm water use inventories sought to describe the impact of the production system on catchment water resources and included irrigation water use as well as the reduction in flows due to the operation of stock dams. Results and discussion   The normalised life cycle impact category results for water use, referred to as the water footprint, ranged from 3.3 to 221 L H 2 Oe kg −1 live weight at farm gate. Due to variation in local water stress, the impact category results were not correlated with the inventory results. Conclusions   The substantial variability in water footprint between systems indicates that generalisations about livestock and livestock products should be avoided. However, many low input, predominantly non-irrigated, pasture-based livestock production systems have little impact on freshwater resources from consumptive water use, and the livestock have a water footprint similar to many broad-acre cereals. Globally, the majority of beef cattle are raised in non-irrigated mixed farming and grazing systems. Therefore, the general assertion that meat production is a driver of water scarcity is not supported. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0346-y Authors Bradley G. Ridoutt, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, Victoria, 3169 Australia Peerasak Sanguansri, CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences, Private Bag 16, Werribee, Victoria, 3030 Australia Michael Freer, CSIRO Plant Industry, GPO Box 1600, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia Gregory S. Harper, CSIRO Livestock Industries, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study’s aim was to understand the effect of mine characteristics on cradle-to-gate life cycle impacts of surface coal mining in the USA. Five bituminous coal strip mines were used as case studies. The study assessed the life cycle water use, land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts. Methods   The study employed the general principles of the ISO 14040-49 series LCA standards, modifying them where necessary. The functional unit was defined as “one tonne of processed coal at the mine gate.” The relative mass–energy–economic value method, with some modification, was used to scope the product system. Data were obtained from environmental impact statements, coal mining permit applications, government reports, and published literature. Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) included classification and characterization but no normalization, grouping, or weighting, to avoid ambiguity. In this work, mid-point characterization models were preferred over damage-oriented (end-point) characterization models because of their high levels of uncertainties. The LCIA also included sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion   For the studied mines, life cycle potential water use impact is 178 l/tonne of processed coal at the mine gate. The potential land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts range from 3 to 10 m 2  year/tonne, 97 to 181 MJ/tonne, 7.8 to 9.4 kg Sb-eq./tonne, and 38 to 92 kg CO 2 -eq./tonne, respectively. Land use impacts depend mainly on land for coal extraction activities and the climatic conditions of a region, which affects the vegetation recovery rate, following reclamation. Economies of scale significantly influence land use, energy use, abiotic resource depletion, and climate change impacts. Geology, which determines stripping ratio, coal quality, and coalbed methane, affects land use, climate change, and energy use impacts, particularly energy for overburden removal, reclamation, and beneficiation. Conclusions   The data show that large-scale mining operations have lower life cycle impacts due to economies of scale, which results in lower energy use. Also, land use impacts, measured by land occupation, are affected by geologic conditions. This study provides insight into sources of variability in life cycle impacts of coal mining. The authors recommend timely reclamation to minimize land occupation impacts, as well as adoption of large-scale production, where appropriate, for efficient use of land occupied by mine facilities. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0354-y Authors Ofentse Ditsele, Department of Mines, Ministry of Minerals, Energy And Water Resources, Private Bag 0049, Gaborone, Botswana Kwame Awuah-Offei, Department of Mining & Nuclear Engineering, Missouri University of Science & Technology, 226 McNutt Hall, 1870 Miner Circle, Rolla, MO 65409, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A workshop on Product Category Rule (PCR) alignment was organized by the American Center for LCA PCR Committee. PCR alignment refers to the process of assuring that PCRs (rules for developing LCA-based claims like EPDs) developed by different parties are consistent within product categories. Methods   The workshop was held as a special session in the LCA XI conference. The goals of the workshop were to identify the state of progress on PCR development worldwide, to establish consensus on the need for PCR alignment, and to propose the actions towards global alignment of PCRs. Speakers presented on these topics and a moderated discussion was held to discuss the implications of PCR alignment, to determine the scale on which alignment is appropriate, and to identify the actions and institutional roles to promote alignment. Results and conclusions   Approximately 120 persons from EPD programs, industry associations, standards organizations, LCA consulting firms, government agencies, NGOs and academia participated. The discussion was engaging and positive feedback was received. The American Center for LCA PCR Committee intend to use the outcomes of this workshop to engage others in the PCR community, make recommendations for best practices for PCR development, and to promote harmonization of PCRs both within the US and globally. Content Type Journal Article Category CONFERENCE REPORT Pages 1-6 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0357-8 Authors Wesley Ingwersen, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., MS-483, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA Vairavan Subramanian, School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, PO Box 875502, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA Rita Schenck, Institute for Environmental Research & Education, PO Box 2449, Vashon, WA 98070, USA Lindita Bushi, Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, 119 Ross Avenue, Suite 100, Ottawa, ON K1Y 0N6, Canada Amy Costello, Armstrong World Industries, Inc., 2500 Columbia Avenue, P.O. Box 3001, Lancaster, PA 17603, USA Laura Draucker, World Resources Institute, 10 G St. NE, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20002, USA Cashion East, PRé Consultants, 1250 24th Street NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20037, USA Connie Hensler, Interface, Inc., 2859 Paces Ferry Road, Suite 2000, Atlanta, GA 30339, USA Holly Lahd, Northstar Initiative for Sustainable Enterprise, University of Minnesota–Twin Cities, 1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA Sven-Olof Ryding, Swedish Environmental Management Council, Vasagatan 15-17, 111 20 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Inclusion of land use-related environmental aspects into LCA methodology has been under active development in recent years. Although many indicators have been developed and proposed for different aspects of land use (climate change, biodiversity, resource depletion and soil quality), many of indicators have, as yet, not been tested and compared in LCA applications. The aim of this study is to test the different LCIA indicators in practice in a case study of beer production. Materials and methods   Nine different indicators were selected to represent three different impact endpoints of land use: resource depletion, soil quality and biodiversity. The beer production system included all life cycle stages from barley cultivation and the production of energy and raw materials to the serving of beer at restaurant. Several optional system expansions were studied to estimate the possible impacts of substituting feed protein (soybean, rapeseed and silage) with mash coproduct from brewing. A comparison with wine production was also made for illustrative purposes. Results and discussion   The majority of the land use impacts occurred in the cultivation phase, but significant impacts were also found far down the supply chain. The system expansions influenced the overall results markedly, especially for land transformation, soil organic carbon (SOC) and several of the biodiversity indicators. Most of the land use indicators led to results that were consistent with each other. In the inventory and impact assessment phase, challenges were faced in obtaining reliable data. Additionally, the lack of reliable, regional characterization factors limits the usability of the land use indicators and the reliability of the LCIA results, especially of the SOC indicator. None of the studied indicators fulfills all the criteria for an effective ecological indicator, but most have many positive features. Conclusions   All tested land use indicators were applicable in LCIA. Some indicators were found to be highly sensitive to assumptions on land transformation, which sets high requirements for LCI data quality. Scarcity of land use LCI data sources limits validation and cross-comparison. Interpretation of indicator results is complicated due to the limited understanding of the environmental impact pathways of land use. Recommendations   None of the tested indicators describes the full range of environmental impacts caused by land use. We recommend presenting land occupation and transformation LCI results, the ecological footprint and at least one of the biodiversity indicators. Regarding soil quality, the lack of reliable regional data currently limits application of the proposed methods. The criteria of effective ecological indicators should be reflected in further work in indicator development. Development of regionalized characterization factors is of key importance to include land use in LCA. Content Type Journal Article Category LAND USE IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0353-z Authors Tuomas Mattila, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Tuomas Helin, Sustainability Assessment, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tekniikantie 2, Espoo, P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT, Finland Riina Antikainen, Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This report presents two case studies, one for both the screening approach and the in-depth approach, demonstrating the application of the life cycle assessment-oriented methodology for systematic inventory analysis of the machine tool use phase of manufacturing unit processes, which has been developed in the framework of the CO 2 PE! collaborative research programme (CO 2 PE! 2011 ) and is described in part 1 of this paper (Kellens et al. 2011 ). Screening approach   The screening approach, which provides a first insight into the unit process and results in a set of approximate LCI data, relies on representative industrial data and engineering calculations for energy use and material loss. This approach is illustrated by means of a case study of a drilling process. In-depth approach   The in-depth approach, which leads to more accurate LCI data as well as the identification of potential for environmental improvements of the manufacturing unit processes, is subdivided into four modules, including a time study, a power consumption study, a consumables study and an emissions study, in which all relevant process in- and outputs are measured and analysed in detail. The procedure of this approach, together with the proposed CO 2 PE! template, is illustrated by means of a case study of a laser cutting process. Results   The CO 2 PE! methodology aims to provide high-quality LCI data for the machine tool use phase of manufacturing unit processes, to be used in life cycle inventory databases and libraries, as well as to identify potential for environmental improvement based on the in-depth analysis of individual manufacturing unit processes. Two case studies illustrate the applicability of the methodology. Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0352-0 Authors Karel Kellens, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven, 3001 Belgium Wim Dewulf, Group T—International University College Leuven, K.U.Leuven Association, Andreas Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven, Belgium Michael Overcash, College of Engineering, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount Street, Wichita, KS 67260, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Joost R. Duflou, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven, 3001 Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study is to develop and analyse a life cycle inventory of construction and demolition waste (C&DW) management systems based on primary data collected directly from Spanish enterprises involved in the life cycle of this type of waste material. Special emphasis is placed on assessing the environmental profile of inert waste sorting and treatment (IWST) facilities. Methods   Taking the management of 1 t of C&DW as the functional unit, this study describes the boundaries of the C&DW management system and the scope of the research, which includes all stages from the temporary storage of waste in containers to its recovery or disposal on landfills. Primary data were collected directly from some Spanish enterprises involved in the life cycle of C&DW management: two firms that manufacture containers and bags, two companies responsible for the temporary storage of waste and transporting it, five firms devoted to sorting and treating the waste and two enterprises that operate inert landfills. Special attention was given to the IWST facilities, whose inventory data were related to four phases: pre-treatment and the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. Finally, indicators were obtained for different impact categories. Results   The environmental profiles of IWST facilities for mixed C&DW show that the greatest environmental impacts are produced in primary and tertiary sectors. From the life cycle analysis of C&DW management, it can be seen that transport, sorting and disposal make a net contribution to the environmental impact. Savings are due to the recycling of plastics, metals, aggregates and wood for all the impact assessment categories, except global warming in the case of wood and cardboard. Conclusions   Impact of IWST can be reduced by selective collection at source, since it avoids the separation of light fractions at plants. Life cycle assessment of C&DW shows that transportation stage plays a decisive role and recycling is not always beneficial. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0350-2 Authors Irma T. Mercante, CEIRS, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, M5502JMA Argentina María D. Bovea, INGRES, Departamento Ingeniería Mecánica y Construcción, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain Valeria Ibáñez-Forés, INGRES, Departamento Ingeniería Mecánica y Construcción, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain Alejandro P. Arena, CLIOPE, Facultad Regional Mendoza, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Mendoza, Argentina Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that influence the sustainability of disposable baby diapers (nappies) using life cycle assessments (LCAs). Size 4 Pampers® Cruisers (North American name) and ActiveFit (European name) from 2007 are compared to new versions made in 2010 to determine if the design and materials changes intended to improve performance also lead to reductions in the most relevant environmental indicators. Materials and methods   Cradle-to-grave LCAs, consistent with ISO 14040/14044 Standards, are conducted. The functional unit is “the number of diapers needed to collect excreta over a child’s diapering lifetime.” Input data come from P&G, suppliers, trade association reports, Franklin and ecoinvent databases, and Google. SimaPro 7 is used to model the LCA. Several life cycle impact assessments (LCIA) methods, sensitivity analyses, normalization to annual consumption, and Monte Carlo analysis are used to produce and check results. Results and discussion   The consumption normalization identified that the diaper’s “environmental footprint” should include the IMPACT2002+ indicators: nonrenewable energy, global warming potential (GWP), respiratory effects from inorganics, total solid waste, and cumulative energy demand (CED). Other indicators are insignificant. Contribution analysis shows that the sourcing and production of diaper materials contribute most to the environmental indicators evaluated, accounting for ∼84% of all non-renewable energy uses and ∼64% of global warming potential. Diaper disposal is a small contributor (1–12%) to potential environmental impacts. Reductions observed for the 2010 US product are: CED—8%, solid waste—12%, non-renewable energy—1%, GWP 500 —4%, and respiratory inorganics—6%. For the European product, reductions are: CED—11%, solid waste—8%, non-renewable energy—3%, GWP 500 —5%, and respiratory inorganics—14%. Conclusions   The new Pampers® diapers sold in the USA and Europe have a reduced environmental footprint versus the previous versions (2007). Significant reductions are achieved in non-renewable energy use and global warming potential, as well as other environmental indicators by optimizing the diaper design and the materials. Although some of the results are single digit reductions, Monte Carlo analysis indicates that there is a high probability that the differences are real. The use of multiple LCIA methods to compare products is helpful to confirm consistency of results. Normalizing the LCIA scores to annual consumption also helps prioritize which environmental indicators can be impactful and affected by changing a product. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0343-1 Authors Anne V. Weisbrod, The Procter & Gamble Company, 6280 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA Gert Van Hoof, The Procter & Gamble Company, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Chain efficiency is currently a key issue for evaluating the sustainability of products and processes. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate how the overall efficiency process improvement carried out in the upstream manufacturing chain of LPB (Liquid Packaging Board) has affected the environmental profile over the last 10 years. Methods   The method employs a life cycle methodology in a cradle-to-gate approach as the material can be used for obtaining beverage containers for different purposes. The scope of this study includes data from forest to rolls of finished cartons. Results and discussion   Due to a current slightly larger boundary and more detailed data collection, the following improvements (at the minimum) over the last decade can be observed: a) energy consumption has been reduced by 38% reaching the value of 36,700 MJ/t LPB paperboard; b) water consumption has been reduced by 30% reaching a level of 45.85 m 3 /t LPB paperboard; c) wood consumption has been reduced by 40%, mainly as a result of the introduction of high yield CTMP (chemithermomechanical pulp) along with the increased overall efficiency of the production process and d) land use has been reduced by 69% due to increased forest productivity along with greater efficiency in the use of wood. Significant reductions have also been found related to environmental impacts such as global warming (49% less), photochemical ozone creation (14 times less), acidification (10 times less), eutrophication (8 times less) and human toxicity (6 times less). Conclusions   The results have clearly shown how important it is to invest in new technologies and more efficient processes to achieve better sustainable levels. This historical perspective is also a benefit from Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology that allows these types of comparisons and also shows the importance of using new inventories for environmental decisions. Content Type Journal Article Category PULP AND PAPER Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0347-x Authors Anna Lúcia Mourad, Packaging Technology Center, Institute of Food Technology (CETEA/ITAL), Av. Brasil, P.O. Box 139, 13070-178 Campinas, SP, Brazil Henrique Luvison Gomes da Silva, Klabin S/A, Fazenda Monte Alegre, S/N, ZIP 84275-000 Telêmaco Borba, PR, Brazil Júlio César Batista Nogueira, Klabin S/A, Fazenda Monte Alegre, S/N, ZIP 84275-000 Telêmaco Borba, PR, Brazil Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this paper is to take steps towards a life cycle assessment that is able to account for changes over time in resource flows and environmental impacts. The majority of life cycle inventory (LCI) studies assume that computation parameters are constants or fixed functions of time. This assumption limits the opportunities to account for temporal effects because it precludes consideration of the dynamics of the product system. Methods   System dynamics methods are used in a consequential, fleet-based LCI that accounts for some aspects of the dynamics of the wider system. The LCI model compares the life-cycle energy consumption of car body-in-whites (BIWs) in Australia made from steel and aluminium. It incorporates two dynamic processes: the flow of BIWs into and out of the fleet, and the recycling of aluminium from end-of-life BIWs back into new BIW production. The dynamical model computes both product-based and fleet-based estimates. Results and discussion   The product-based computations suggest that an aluminium BIW consumes less energy than a steel BIW over a single life cycle. The fleet-based computations suggest that the energy benefits of aluminium BIWs do not begin to emerge for some time. The substitution of aluminium for steel is a low-leverage intervention that changes the values of a few parameters of the system. The system has a delayed, damped response to this intervention because the large stock of BIWs is a source of high inertia, and the long useful life leads to a slow decay of steel BIWs out of the fleet. The recycling of aluminium back into BIW production is a moderate-leverage intervention that initially strengthens a reinforcing feedback loop, driving a rapid accumulation of energy benefits. Dominance then shifts to a balancing loop, slowing the accumulation of energy benefits. Both interventions result in a measureable reduction in life-cycle energy consumption, but only temporarily divert the underlying growth trend. Conclusions   The results suggest that product-based LCIs overestimate the short-term energy benefits of aluminium by not accounting for the time required for the stock of preexisting steel components to decay out of the fleet, and underestimate the long-term energy benefits of aluminium components by not accounting for changes in the availability of recycled aluminium. The results also suggest that interventions such as lightweighting and other efficiency measures alone can slow the growth of energy consumption, but are probably inadequate to achieve sustainable energy consumption levels if the fleet is large. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA IN TRANSPORTATION Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0344-0 Authors Peter Stasinopoulos, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Paul Compston, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Barry Newell, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Haley M. Jones, Research School of Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This report proposes a life-cycle analysis (LCA)-oriented methodology for systematic inventory analysis of the use phase of manufacturing unit processes providing unit process datasets to be used in life-cycle inventory (LCI) databases and libraries. The methodology has been developed in the framework of the CO 2 PE! collaborative research programme (CO2PE! 2011a ) and comprises two approaches with different levels of detail, respectively referred to as the screening approach and the in-depth approach. Methods   The screening approach relies on representative, publicly available data and engineering calculations for energy use, material loss, and identification of variables for improvement, while the in-depth approach is subdivided into four modules, including a time study, a power consumption study, a consumables study and an emissions study, in which all relevant process in- and outputs are measured and analysed in detail. The screening approach provides the first insight in the unit process and results in a set of approximate LCI data, which also serve to guide the more detailed and complete in-depth approach leading to more accurate LCI data as well as the identification of potential for energy and resource efficiency improvements of the manufacturing unit process. To ensure optimal reproducibility and applicability, documentation guidelines for data and metadata are included in both approaches. Guidance on definition of functional unit and reference flow as well as on determination of system boundaries specifies the generic goal and scope definition requirements according to ISO 14040 ( 2006 ) and ISO 14044 ( 2006 ). Results   The proposed methodology aims at ensuring solid foundations for the provision of high-quality LCI data for the use phase of manufacturing unit processes. Envisaged usage encompasses the provision of high-quality data for LCA studies of products using these unit process datasets for the manufacturing processes, as well as the in-depth analysis of individual manufacturing unit processes. Conclusions   In addition, the accruing availability of data for a range of similar machines (same process, different suppliers and machine capacities) will allow the establishment of parametric emission and resource use estimation models for a more streamlined LCA of products including reliable manufacturing process data. Both approaches have already provided useful results in some initial case studies (Kellens et al. 2009 ; Duflou et al. (Int J Sustain Manufacturing 2:80–98, 2010 ); Santos et al. (J Clean Prod 19:356–364, 2011 ); UPLCI 2011 ; Kellens et al. 2011a ) and the use will be illustrated by two case studies in Part 2 of this paper (Kellens et al. 2011b ). Content Type Journal Article Category DATA AVAILABILITY, DATA QUALITY IN LCA Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0340-4 Authors Karel Kellens, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven 3001, Belgium Wim Dewulf, Group T—International University College Leuven, K.U.Leuven Association, Andreas Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven, Belgium Michael Overcash, College of Engineering, Wichita State University, Wichita, 1845 Fairmount Street, 67260 Kansas, USA Michael Z. Hauschild, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Joost R. Duflou, Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Centre of Industrial Management, Celestijnenlaan 300 A, Bus 2422, Heverlee, Leuven 3001, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Outdoor lighting is facing major changes due to the EU legislation on ecodesign of energy-related products, such as the ban of high-pressure mercury (HPM) lamps widely used in outdoor lighting. This article presents life cycle costs (LCC) of three examples of replacing HPM lamps in street lighting in Finland. The purpose of the article is to assess how the development of light-emitting diode (LED) technology affects LCCs and how the division of LCCs differentiates in the cases. Methods   Two of the cases change from HPM lamps to high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. In the third one, HPM lamps are replaced by LED luminaires. LED technology predictions of price and luminous efficacy are included in different scenarios. The calculations consider investment and operating costs and residual value. Results and discussion   Each replacement reduces the energy costs approximately by half compared to the original HPM lamp luminaires. Energy costs dominate the LCCs of the HPS lamp installations while investment cost is the dominating one in LED luminaire case. The changes from HPM to HPS technology have payback times lower than 9 years, while changing to LED luminaires is not economic. However, the electricity price is low in this case. The payback times of LED installations can be as low as 6 years if the luminaires are installed in 2015 and an average electricity price is used. Conclusions   The LCCs of real-life case studies cannot be directly compared, since their luminous properties vary. There is a need for a method for including luminous properties in LCC calculations. Content Type Journal Article Category SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0345-z Authors Leena Tähkämö, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Anne Ylinen, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Marjukka Puolakka, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Liisa Halonen, Lighting Unit, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13340, 00076 Aalto, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Herein is reported an application of life cycle analysis (LCA), using the Methodology for the Ecodesign of Energy Using Products (MEEUP), in order to assess the influence of some design parameters in the environmental impact of three-phase induction motors. A motor design procedure to minimize the total environmental impact, based on data obtained from commercial motors, is presented. This procedure is specially intended for the low power range due to the greater potential for energy savings in motors having an output power of 0.75 to 4 kW. Methods   A procedure has been developed, based on previously acquired data, to determine the parameters required for application of the MEEUP methodology. These comprise the quantity of each of the motor's main constituent materials used in the production phase, and the two operating variables that directly influence the LCA results: output power and efficiency. Results and discussion   The procedure was applied to two 1.5 kW induction motors of different efficiency (according to standard IEC60034-2-1). The calculation results were compared satisfactorily with the laboratory test results. The total environmental impact of the two real motors and of the proposed motor was determined in the production, service life, and end-of-life phases. Conclusions   Given the potential for energy savings in electric motors, LCA-based environmental impact assessment should be incorporated into motor design. Content Type Journal Article Category LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0332-4 Authors Marcel Torrent, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Eusebi Martínez, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Pere Andrada, Departament d’Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EPSEVG, Avda Víctor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   At present, many urban areas in Mediterranean climates are coping with water scarcity, facing a growing water demand and a limited conventional water supply. Urban design and planning has so far largely neglected the benefits of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in the context of a sustainable management of this resource. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the most environmentally friendly strategy for rainwater utilization in Mediterranean urban environments of different densities. Materials and methods   The RWH systems modeled integrate the necessary infrastructures for harvesting and using rainwater in newly constructed residential areas. Eight scenarios were defined in terms of diffuse (D) and compact (C) urban models and the tank locations ((1) underground tank, (2) below-roof tank, (3) distributed-over-roof tank, and (4) block tank). The structural and hydraulic sizing of the catchment, storage, and distribution subsystems was taken into account using an average Mediterranean rainfall, the area of the harvesting surfaces, and a constant water demand for laundry. The quantification of environmental impacts was performed through a life cycle assessment, using CML 2001 Baseline method. The necessary materials and processes were considered in each scenario according to the lifecycle stages (i.e., materials, construction, transportation, use, and deconstruction) and subsystems. Results and discussion   The environmental characterization indicated that the best scenario in both urban models is the distributed-over-roof tank (D3, C3), which provided a reduction in impacts compared to the worst scenario of up to 73% in diffuse models and even higher in compact ones, 92% in the most dramatic case. The lower impacts are related to the better distribution of tank weight on the building, reducing the reinforcement requirements, and enabling energy savings. The storage subsystem and the materials stage contributed most significantly to the impacts in both urban models. In the compact density model, the underground-tank scenario (C1) presented the largest impacts in most categories due to its higher energy consumption. Additionally, more favorable environmental results were observed in compact densities than in diffuse ones for the Global Warming Potential category along with higher water efficiencies. Conclusions   The implementation of one particular RWH scenario over another is not irrelevant in drought-stress environments. Selecting the most favorable scenario in the development of newly constructed residential areas provides significant savings in CO 2 emissions in comparison with retrofit strategies. Therefore, urban planning should consider the design of RWH infrastructures using environmental criteria in addition to economic, social, and technological factors, adjusting the design to the potential uses for which the rainwater is intended. Recommendations and perspectives   Additional research is needed to quantify the energy savings associated with the insulation caused by using the tank distributed over the roof. The integration of the economic and social aspects of these infrastructures in the analysis, from a life cycle approach, is necessary for targeting the planning and design of more sustainable cities in an integrated way. Content Type Journal Article Category WATER USE IN LCA Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0330-6 Authors Sara Angrill, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Ramon Farreny, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Carles M. Gasol, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Xavier Gabarrell, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Bernat Viñolas, Department of Geotechnical Engineering and Geosciences, School of Civil Engineering (ETSECCPB), Technical University of Catalonia—Barcelona Tech (UPC), Campus Nord, C/ Jordi Girona 1-3, Building D2, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Alejandro Josa, Department of Geotechnical Engineering and Geosciences, School of Civil Engineering (ETSECCPB), Technical University of Catalonia—Barcelona Tech (UPC), Campus Nord, C/ Jordi Girona 1-3, Building D2, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Joan Rieradevall, Sostenipra (ICTA-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering (EE), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus of the UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The purpose of this study was to evaluate the environmental impacts linked to fish extraction on a temporal basis, in order to analyze the effect that stock abundance variations may have on reporting environmental burdens. Inventory data for the North-East Atlantic Mackerel (NEAM) fishing season were collected over an 8-year period and used to carry out a life cycle assessment (LCA). The selected fishery corresponds to the Basque coastal purse seining fleet. Materials and methods   The functional unit (FU) was set as 1 t of landed round fish in a Basque port during the NEAM fishing season for each of the selected years. The selected data for the life cycle inventory were gathered from personal communication from ship owners and from a fish first sale register in the Basque Country. A series of fishery-specific impact categories and indicators were included in the evaluation together with conventional impact categories. Results and discussion   Conventional LCA impact categories showed that the environmental impact is dominated by the energy use in the fishery, despite of the low fuel effort identified with respect to other purse-seining fisheries. Nevertheless, strong differences were identified between annual environmental impacts, attributed mainly to remarkable variations in NEAM stock abundance from 1 year to another, whereas the fishing effort remained relatively stable throughout the assessed years. Fishery-specific categories, such as the discard rate or seafloor impact showed reduced impacts of this fishery respect to other small pelagic fish fisheries. Finally, the fishery in balance (FiB) index identified the evolution of NEAM stock abundance for this particular fishery. Conclusion   To our knowledge, this is the first fishery LCA study in which there is sufficient inventory data in order to conduct the methodology throughout a wide period of time. The outstanding variance in environmental impacts from one season to another evidences the need to expand fishery LCAs in time, in order to attain a more integrated perspective of the environmental performance of a certain fishery or species. The extension of LCA inventories in the timeline may be an important improvement for activities that rely entirely on the extraction of organisms from wild ecosystems. For instance, future research will have to determine the importance of increasing the timeline in fishery LCAs for species that do not show large stock abundance variations through time, unlike NEAM. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0304-8 Authors Saioa Ramos, Food Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 48160 Derio, Spain Ian Vázquez-Rowe, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Iñaki Artetxe, Marine Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 20110 Pasaia, Spain Maria Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Jaime Zufía, Food Research Division, AZTI-Tecnalia, 48160 Derio, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   USEtox ™ (Rosenbaum et al. 2008 ) is a new model which can be used to calculate characterization factors for human and ecotoxicity impact categories used in life cycle assessment. The French ADEME-AFNOR ( http://affichage-environnemental.afnor.org/ ) is currently considering this model to develop a new environmental labelling standard for consumer goods. The objective of this short study is to compare USEtox ™ impact scores with critical dilution volume (CDV) scores from the European Ecolabel ( http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel ), a well-established tool widely used in Europe aiming at discriminating environmental friendly products. Material and methods   The same range of chemicals (high scores to low scores) listed in both the USEtox ™ database and the EU Ecolabel detergent ingredient database (DID-list) were used for the comparison. The DID-list is a reference list, which contains agreed and verified fate and ecotoxicity data. The ranking was made based on two different ranking parameters, one from each model: the environmental impact score from USEtox ™ and the CDV from the EU Ecolabel. Additionally, a Spearman’s rank correlation ( ρ ) coefficient was calculated. Results and discussion   Sixty-nine chemicals common in personal care and cleaning products were selected for the comparison between USEtox ™ and EU Ecolabel methods. A “fair” agreement was found between the two models with a Spearman correlation coefficient ρ of 0.74, but a significant number of chemicals was ranked rather differently. The presence of outliers (i.e., different ranking) may be explained by several factors, which include the use of discrete versus continuous values to estimate the substance’s degradation constant. Another factor could be that the substances are grouped under classes in the DID-list, thus having average parameter values. The main factor though probably lays in the different sources of the physico-chemical, fate and ecotoxicity data within the two model databases and the different way they are used for the ranking parameter calculation. Conclusions   Provided there is scientific consensus (and full transparency) on the raw data, both USEtox ™ and EU Ecolabel methods are relevant for ranking chemicals based on their physico-chemical and toxicological properties, and therefore for calculating product environmental impact scores related to their hazard. However, the presence of a number of chemicals with different ranking scores creates the risk of inconsistent consumer product information when either the CDV (EU ecolabel) or USEtox ™ (French “Affichage Environnemental”) is used for environmental labelling. To date, and for sake of consistency with an existing and used labelling scheme, the CDV appears much easier to implement with less uncertainty to calculate ecotoxicity impact score of products. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0314-6 Authors Erwan Guy Saouter, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Chiara Perazzolo, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Laure Delphine Steiner, Science & Environment, ICC 20, route Prè-Bois, CP1863, 1215 Genève, Switzerland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As liquid crystal display (LCD) flat-screen televisions increase in popularity, their potential contribution to global warming has received wide attention. This study presents global warming impacts resulting from the life cycle assessment (LCA) of LCD flat-screen televisions for key global warming contributors from the “cradle-to-gate” and use stages of the product’s life cycle. The emissions from nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ), a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) 17,000 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), are not monitored in the Kyoto Protocol. Emissions in the cradle-to-gate and use stages were modeled in this study according to their GWP (kg CO 2 equivalent), focusing and analyzing the most significant source of NF 3 emissions. Materials and methods   NF 3 is used during the manufacturing process of LCDs to clean the vacuum chambers. In this study, a system diagram of the cradle-to-gate stage and use stage of a 40-in. LCD television was proposed using the software package Gabi®, particularly investigating NF 3 to determine its possible effects on global warming based on a typical LCA. Results and discussion   The energy inputs in the use stage of the LCD flat-screen television resulted in major global warming impacts, while the contribution of GWP resulting from NF 3 was trivial. However, as energy efficiency continuously improves over time, the GWP resulting from NF 3 may become significant. Findings in this study allow industry to focus on those critical stages of the production life cycle that most directly affect global warming while permitting government agencies to enact proper regulations to help decrease CO 2 equivalent emissions. Conclusions   The preliminary assessment of our LCA also offers manufacturers the ability to determine the largest sources of greenhouse gases and their connection in the life cycle analysis of a product. This extension may help guide legislation and industrial management in the future. For further decision making, an in-depth sensitivity analysis may be needed to strengthen the results. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA) Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0341-3 Authors Nicholas J. Thomas, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Ni-Bin Chang, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Cheng Qi, Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Building is one of the main factors of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission from building is urgent for environmental protection and sustainable development. The objective of this study is to develop a life cycle assessment (LCA) model for an office building in China to assess its energy consumption and CO 2 emission, determine the whole life cycle phases, and the significant environmental aspects that contribute most to the impact. Methods   A process-based LCA has been used to identify and quantify the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of the office building. The LCA is conducted in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency, The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, and the International Organization for Standardization standards for life cycle assessments. The entire life cycle including building materials production, construction, operation, and demolition of the building is studied. A service life of 50 years is assumed and the major construction materials such as concrete, cement, brick, steel, timber, glass, and plastic are selected for the building. Results and discussion   The results show that building operation uses the largest share of energy and contributes most to CO 2 emission. The cooling and heating system in building operation strongly influence the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of the building. In addition, the large quantity use of concrete and steel in materials production, and the treatment of end-of-life building materials are also the important aspects impacting the environmental performance of the building. Based on the results of the study, some environmental improvements aiming at reducing energy consumption and CO 2 emission throughout the life cycle of the building are provided. Conclusions   This study provides an LCA of the energy consumption and CO 2 emission of a typical office building in China. It determines the whole life cycle phases that contribute most to the impact and defines the significant environmental aspects of the building. This study also shows the importance of using a life cycle perspective when evaluating energy consumption and CO 2 emission of building and also lays the groundwork for LCA studying of other office buildings in China. Content Type Journal Article Category LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0342-2 Authors Huijun J. Wu, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Zengwei W. Yuan, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Ling Zhang, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Jun Bi, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210046 People’s Republic of China Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There is a need to assess social impacts of products along the full life cycle, not only to be able to address the “social dimension” in sustainability, but also for potentially improving the circumstances of affected stakeholders. This paper presents a case study for a social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) based on the recently published “Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products” developed by the United Nations Environment Programme/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (UNEP/SETAC) working group. General aim is to “try out” the proposed method. The case study itself compares the impacts of rose production in Ecuador with the Netherlands. Furthermore, the objective is to identify differences and similarities in environmental and social life cycle modelling and both social and environmental hot spots in each of the life cycles. Methods   The study considers the production of rose blossoms and the cutting and packaging process in two fictitious companies in Ecuador and the Netherlands. Both rose bouquets are delivered to the European market and auctioned in Aalsmeer, the Netherlands. The social assessment is based on the UNEP/SETAC guidelines for S-LCA. Data are mainly obtained from governmental and non-governmental organisations. For the calculation of the environmental burden, a screening-type LCA is conducted, including midpoint impact assessment. Results and discussion   This paper asserts that rose production in Ecuador is associated with many negative social effects, e.g. child labour, unfair salary, or bad impairment to health. The rose production in the Netherlands has no obvious negative social impacts but rather ecological consequences. Responsible for this is the high-energy consumption of the greenhouses. Conclusions   Application of the UNEP/SETAC guidelines in case studies can be encouraged based on results of this case study. The consideration of different stakeholder groups with corresponding, very diverse themes allows a comprehensive analysis of the actual conditions. However, finding suitable indicators to measure the status of the subcategories may be challenging. Moreover, the case study shows that results can be completely different for the environmental and for the social dimension, so that it often will be needed to perform both assessments if a complete picture is required. Recommendations and perspectives   It will be interesting to apply the UNEP/SETAC approach of S-LCA to other products; products with a more complex life cycle will be a special challenge. As with any new method, getting experience on data collection and evaluation, building a data stock, integrating the method in software, and finding ways for effective communication of results are important steps until integrating S-LCA in routine, recognized decision support. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0266-x Authors Juliane Franze, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, 10437 Berlin, Germany Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Lignocellulosic ethanol has received special research interest, driven by concerns over high fuel prices, security of energy supplies, global climate change as well as the search of opportunities for rural economic development. A well-to-wheel analysis was conducted for ethanol obtained from black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) by means of the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. This study assesses the environmental profile of using ethanol in mixtures E10 and E85 as transport fuel in comparison with conventional gasoline (CG). In addition, the best model of black locust cultivation was analysed under an environmental point of view. Methods   The standard framework of LCA from International Standards Organisation was followed. To compare the environmental profiles, the study addressed the impact potentials taking into account the distance travelled by vehicles with the fuel tank full of CG. The product system includes all the processes involved from the black locust cultivation to the final use of fuels in a vehicle. The transport of all the chemicals and products is also included in the system boundaries. Results   According to the results, fuel ethanol derived from black locust biomass may help to reduce the contributions to global warming, acidification, eutrophication and fossil fuels use specifically due to the low input production regime of the agricultural stage. These reductions would be increased with the increasing ratio of ethanol in the blend. Moreover, the use of lignin, biogas and other solid waste as fuel to meet the energy requirements of the plant, positively contribute to the environmental profile of cellulosic ethanol. On the contrary, ethanol blends are less environment friendly that CG in terms of photochemical oxidants formation. The cultivation of black locust following a low-input production regime, without agrochemicals application and extra irrigation is an important reason for the environmental improvement. Conclusions   Efforts should be made to promote the production of black locust according to principles of sustainable cultivation. Moreover, technological development in ethanol production could help to improve the environmental profile in the life cycle of ethanol-based fuels. It could be interesting to develop a strategic planning which allows identifying the potential regions not only in Italy but also in other European countries in order to increase the black locust biomass yield. The cultivation of short rotation forestry and/or short rotation coppices under low-input regimes presents potential environmental benefits and advantages for the future of second-generation ethanol production in Europe. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0272-z Authors Sara González-García, Division of Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College of London, London, SW7 2AZ UK Carles Martinez Gasol, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Maria Teresa Moreira, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Xavier Gabarrell, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Joan Rieradevall i Pons, SosteniPrA (UAB-IRTA-Inèdit), Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), School of Engineering, Campus de la UAB, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain Gumersindo Feijoo, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper aims at spelling out the area of protection (AoP), namely the general concept of human well-being and the impact categories in social life cycle assessment (SLCA). The applicability of the so-called capabilities approach—a concept frequently used for evaluating human lives—is explored. It is shown how the principles of the capabilities approach can be transferred to the impact assessment within SLCA. Methods   The literature concerning the AoP and the impact assessment has been critically reviewed from an applied philosophy perspective. The capabilities approach has been adopted for defining both the AoP and the impact categories. Results   The main results are the following: (1) The AoP is defined as autonomy, well-being freedom and fairness; (2) using the dimensions which constitute well-being together with the concept of fairness eight impact categories are proposed: life, knowledge and aesthetic experience, work and play, friendship, self-integration, self-expression, transcendence and fairness itself and (3) by examining the ‘Guide to Social LCA: Methodological Sheets’, it is demonstrated that our proposed framework can be used for structuring the previous work on impact assessment. Conclusions   The capability approach is one possibility for addressing the question ‘what is of importance in a human life?’ When applied in a practical field, like SLCA, this framework is not only useful for structuring data but also for disclosing our own normative assumptions about what counts as valuable in a human life. Thus, the normative evaluation is more coherent. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0265-y Authors Claudia Reitinger, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Matthias Dumke, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Mario Barosevcic, Harvard University, Pforzheimer House 12, 56 Linnaen Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA Rafaela Hillerbrand, Human Technology Center, Ethics for Energy Technology, Theaterplatz 14, 52062 Aachen, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   Lubricants are used in numerous applications in our society, for instance, as hydraulic fluids. When used in forestry, 60–80% of these hydraulic fluids are released into the environment. This is one of the reasons for the growing interest for developing and utilising hydraulic fluids with good environmental performance. Another driving force in the development of hydraulic fluids is to replace fossil products with renewable ones. The aim of this paper is to investigate the environmental impact of two types of hydraulic fluids, one based on mineral oil and one on vegetable oil. The difference in environmental impact of using chemical or biocatalytic production methods is also assessed. Materials and methods   This life cycle assessment is from cradle-to-gate, including waste treatment. A complementary, laboratory, biodegradability test was also performed. The functional unit is 1 l of base fluid for hydraulic fluids, and mass allocation is applied. A sensitivity analysis is performed to assess the impact of the energy used and of the allocation method. The impact categories studied are primary energy consumption, global warming potential (GWP), eutrophication potential (EP), acidification potential (AP), photooxidant creation potential (POCP) and biodegradability. Results and discussion   The contribution to GWP and primary energy consumption was higher for the mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid than the vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluids. The contributions to EP and AP were higher for the vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid than the mineral oil-based one. The vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid had better biodegradability than the one based on mineral oil. The impact of production method was minor, thus the biocatalytic method gives no significant advantage over chemical methods concerning energy and environmental performance. Conclusions   For the environmental impact categories GWP, POCP and primary energy consumption, hydraulic fluids based on rapeseed oil make a lower contribution than a mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. For EP and AP, the contributions of TMP oleate are higher than the contribution of mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. The difference between the chemically catalysed method and the ezymatically catalysed method is negligible because the major environmental impact is due to the production of the raw materials. The vegetable oil-based hydraulic fluid, TMP oleate, was more biodegradable than the mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0263-0 Authors Anna Ekman, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden Pål Börjesson, Environmental and Energy System Studies, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Introduction   “Food and drink” products are the basis of life. However, it is recognised that their supply also contributes to the environmental impacts associated with production and consumption. Recently, an increasing number of food chain partners and public authorities have introduced a widening range of initiatives to provide information about the environmental performance of food and drink products. These initiatives show a high degree of diversity in terms of their chosen scope, assessment methodologies and means of communication, which has the potential to confuse or even mislead consumers and other stakeholders. In this context, the European Food Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) Round Table was launched by food supply chain partners and the European Commission with the vision of promoting a science-based, coherent approach to sustainable consumption and production in the European food sector. Objectives   This article presents this European initiative by introducing its Guiding Principles and summarizing the proceedings of the scientific workshop held in Ispra on 14–15 June 2010. The aim of the workshop was to identify scientific inputs for developing the harmonised framework methodology for assessing the environmental issues of food and drink products. In this context, the main purpose was to provide a common understanding of what is involved in reliable and robust environmental assessments of the food chain, current limitations, and how to go from detailed assessments to more focused criteria, guidance and tools. Conclusion   The current experiences presented in the workshop demonstrate that much advancement has already been made towards the measurement and management of the environmental performance of food and drink products. Detailed methodologies and tools are already being used by various players. According to the workshop speakers, the definition of methodological choices concerning the functional unit, system boundaries, cut-off criteria, allocation rules and environmental impact categories are some of the key issues to be fixed in the harmonised framework methodology. The Round Table process has the potential to make a substantial contribution to the sustainable consumption and production of food and drink products. This model might be proposed and reiterated for other sectors as well. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0250-5 Authors Nina Peacock, Landmark Europe, Rue du Collège 27, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Camillo De Camillis, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy David Pennington, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy Herbert Aichinger, European Commission, DG Environment, Avenue de Beaulieu 5, 1049 Brussels, Belgium Alberto Parenti, European Commission, DG Environment, Avenue de Beaulieu 5, 1049 Brussels, Belgium Jean-Pierre Rennaud, Danone Institute, Route Départementale 128, 91767 Palaiseau, France Andrea Raggi, University “G. D’Annunzio”, viale Pindaro 42, 65127 Pescara, Italy Frank Brentrup, Yara International, Hanninghof 35, 48249 Dülmen, Germany Balázs Sára, FEBE Ecologic, Via Canalazzo 44, 48123 Ravenna, Italy Urs Schenker, Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland Nicole Unger, Unilever Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK40 1LQ UK Friederike Ziegler, SIK, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, PO Box 5401, 40229 Gothenburg, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   The interest in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling is quite recent, but it has been growing steadily over the past few years. In this context, the aim of this paper is to assess the eco-profile, the energy savings and the environmental benefits of the use of recycled raw materials to manufacture products for thermal insulation of buildings in Italy (i.e., PET bottles post-consumer). Materials and methods   The life cycle analysis is developed according to ISO 14040/44. In this paper, based on the LCA, the main types of environmental impact of a thermal insulation product have been outlined. This study is specifically focused on polyester nonwovens, produced by a company located in Italy. The cradle-to-gate life cycle inventory is performed for the mass of product needed to give a thermal resistance R of 1 (m 2 K/W). The calculation of the impacts is done with SimaPro software. With an environmental product declaration-oriented approach, a set of impact categories is used for the classification and characterisation of the life cycle impact assessment. Results   The results of the impact assessment for 1m 2  K/W of thermal insulation panels made with recycled PET are then compared with similar products made with virgin PET. The lower impact associated with the recycled PET for each category is underlined: the percentage reduction is around 46% in the GWP category. In the production process, the fiber-spinning phase results as the most relevant in terms of energy consumption. In addition, the energy saved when applying the thermal insulation in a building is estimated at 87 MJ/m 2 per unit area per year in Rome. All the energy used during the production of a thermal insulation panel is recovered in about 2 years. Conclusions   The product shows significantly low environmental impacts thanks to the use of non-virgin PET, thus maintaining high mechanical and physical properties. If the recovery of PET from separate waste collection in Italy increases, this would reduce the share of waste PET purchased from foreign countries and would therefore reduce further the impact of transports for the production of the thermal insulation panel under investigation. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0267-9 Authors Francesca Intini, Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics, University of Basilicata, Via Rocco Lazazzera, 75100 Matera, Italy Silvana Kühtz, Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics, University of Basilicata, Via Rocco Lazazzera, 75100 Matera, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   The aim of this study has been to estimate the carbon footprint of bread produced and consumed in the UK. Sliced white and wholemeal bread has been considered for these purposes and the functional unit is defined as “one loaf of sliced bread (800 g) consumed at home”. The influence on the carbon footprint of several parameters has been analysed, including country of origin of wheat (UK, Canada, France, Germany, Spain and USA), type of flour (white, brown and wholemeal) and type of packaging (plastic and paper bags). The effect on the results of the type of data (primary and secondary) has also been considered. Materials and methods   The carbon footprint has been estimated in accordance with the PAS 2050 methodology. The results have also been calculated following the ISO 14044 methodology to identify any differences in the two approaches and the results. Primary data for the PAS 2050-compliant study have been collected from a UK bread supply chain. Secondary data have been sourced from the UK statistics, life cycle inventory databases and other published sources. Results and discussion   The carbon footprint results range from 977 to 1,244 g CO 2 eq. per loaf of bread. Wholemeal thick-sliced bread packaged in plastic bags has the lowest carbon footprint and white medium-sliced bread in paper bag the highest. The main hot spots are wheat cultivation and consumption of bread (refrigerated storage and toasting), contributing 35% and 25% to the total, respectively. Conclusions   The carbon footprint could be reduced on average by 25% by avoiding toasting and refrigerated storage of bread. Further reductions (5–10%) could be achieved by reducing the amount of waste bread discarded by consumers. The contribution of transport and packaging to the overall results is small. Similar trends in the results are also found in the study based on the secondary data and following the ISO 14044 methodology. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-15 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0271-0 Authors Namy Espinoza-Orias, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room F30, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Heinz Stichnothe, Institute for Agricultural Technology and Biosystems Engineering, vTI Braunschweig, Bundesallee 50, Braunschweig, 38116 Germany Adisa Azapagic, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim, and scope   This paper presents a study related to the application of the reliability-based life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess different alternatives for solid waste management in the Setúbal peninsula, Portugal. The current system includes waste collection, transport, sorting, recycling, and mechanical and biological treatment (MBT) by means of aerobic treatment and landfill. In addition, some future expansion plans are discussed. Materials and methods   The proposed 18 alternatives were examined with respect to six impact categories based on a customized life cycle inventory (LCI). All the alternatives are designed to comply with the targets prescribed in the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive and the Landfill Directive. These 18 alternatives were eventually assessed by using the reliability-based LCA methodology with respect to some uncertain parameters and scenarios. Results and discussion   The results show that solutions based on anaerobic digestion at the MBT followed by energy recovery are the most advantageous options. Overall, recycling may help to avoid most environmental impacts. Alternatives which treat massively biodegradable municipal waste are also competitive. In addition to the recycling options, electricity production is also an influential determinant which affects the results. The uncertainty analysis focused on testing different energy-from-waste options (like landfill and MBT biogas electricity production) and different recycling substitution ratios. Such a quantitative analysis is proved effective to confirm the reliability of the LCI in the study. Conclusions   In order to improve the sustainability of the solid waste management (SWM) system, final suggestions may concentrate on the closure of aerobic MBT, the enhancement of anaerobic digestion MBT treatment, and the maximization of energy recovery from high calorific fractions of the waste streams. However, the option of stabilized residue applications cannot be encouraged at this stage, especially due to the absence of Portuguese regulations to control the quality of organic products issuing from biological treatment units. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-22 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0269-7 Authors Ana Pires, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal Ni-Bin Chang, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816, USA Graça Martinho, Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Calculating the carbon footprint (CF) of food is becoming increasingly important in climate change communication. To design effective CF labelling systems or reduction measures, it is necessary to understand the accuracy of the calculated CF values. This study quantified the uncertainty in the CF of wheat and of a common refined wheat-based product, pasta, for different resolutions of farm-level in-data to gain an increased understanding of the origins and magnitude of uncertainties in food CFs. Methods   A ‘cradle-to-retail’ CF study was performed on Swedish pasta and wheat cultivated in the region of Skåne on mineral soils. The uncertainty was quantified, using Monte Carlo simulation, for wheat from individual farms and for the mixture of wheat used for pasta production during a year, as well as for the pasta production process. Results and discussion   The mean pasta CF was 0.50 kg CO 2 e/kg pasta (0.31 kg CO 2 e/kg wheat before the milling process). The CF of wheat from one farm could not be determined more accurately than being in the range 0.22–0.56 kg CO 2 e/kg wheat, even though all farm-level primary data were collected. The wheat mixture CF varied much less, approximately ±10–20% from the mean (95% certainty) for different years. Reducing farm-level data collection to only the most influential parameters—yield, amount of N and regional soil conditions—increased the uncertainty range by between 6% and 19% for different years for the wheat mixture. The dominant uncertainty was in N 2 O emissions from soil, which was also the process that contributed most to the CF. Conclusions   The variation in the wheat mix CF uncertainty range was greater between years, due to different numbers of farms being included for the different years, than between collecting all farm-level primary data or only the most influential parameters. More precise methods for assessing soil N 2 O emissions are needed to decrease the uncertainty significantly. Recommendations   Due to the difficulties in calculating accurate values, finding other ways of differentiating between producers than calculating numerical CFs might be more fruitful and fair. When legislation requires numerical CF values, CF practitioners have little option but to continue using existing methods and data collection strategies. However, they can provide input on improvement, contribute to standardisation processes and help raise awareness and knowledge of the associated uncertainty in the data through studies like this one. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0270-1 Authors Elin Röös, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Cecilia Sundberg, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Per-Anders Hansson, Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper presents the results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) study for integrated systems (IS) of mixed municipal waste (MMW) management in the Czech Republic. The seven IS categories assessed were: (a) incineration with slag recovery, (b) incineration without slag recovery, (c) landfills with incineration of the landfill gas by flaring, (d) landfills with recovery of the landfill gas, (e) mechanical–biological treatment (MBT) with aerobic treatment, (f) MBT biodrying with co-incineration of refuse-derived fuel, and (g) MBT biodrying with incineration of refuse-derived fuel from a monosource. Methods   The environmental impacts were evaluated using the CML 2001 methodological approach. The methodology from EDIP 2003 was used for performing the sensitivity analysis on the selection of the methodologies for characterization. The treatment of 1 t of MMW was the functional unit selected. Data was collected from both within the Czech Republic (for incineration plants and landfills), as well as from abroad (for the MBTs). The IS assessed were modelled on the basis of available data and using the best processes and data available from the LCA software. Results and discussion   We established that the integrated system of mixed municipal waste management (IS) of landfills without energy recovery of the landfill gas, as well as the aerobic MBT have the highest environmental impacts. On the other hand, the lowest environmental impacts were found for the MBT biodrying IS. An overall assessment of this IS, both with and without the toxicity and ecotoxicity impact category pollutants and emissions indicators, were compared. Conclusions   A comparison of the environmental impacts of IS landfills to the other IS categories should be made, using both a detailed and long-term inventory. Further, this should also include the closures of the landfill sites, as well as all of the future environmental impacts. It would also be appropriate to include several additional aspects (such as social, technical, and economic factors) for a fully objective assessment and in making the optimal choice of an IS. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0251-4 Authors Vladimir Koci, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Prague Institute of Chemical Technology, Technicka 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic Tatiana Trecakova, ETC Consulting Group s.r.o., Kunesova 18, 13000 Prague 3, Czech Republic Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In recent years, a new perspective for food packaging has emerged as a result of several issues like quality, safety, competitive prices or providing of useful information to consumers. This new perspective is called communicative packaging. Communicative packaging may influence consumers/companies on purchasing decisions. Since the environmental evaluation of such systems has not yet been performed, this paper is focused on the environmental evaluation of a flexible best-before-date (FBBD) communicative device on a packaging consumer unit and its implications on reducing environmental impacts related to fresh products. This consumer unit consists of a nanoclay-based polylactic acid tray filled with pork chops. Methods   The environmental assessment of the consumer unit was made through life cycle assessment (LCA) using a cradle-to-gate approach. Environmental impacts were assessed according to the Eco-Indicator 99 v 2.1 methodology in Individualist (I) perspective. Results and discussion   Several results were obtained from the LCA. With regard to environmental impacts of the FBBD, most of them were due to the paper substrate used for the manufacture of this communicative packaging concept as well as to the transports for delivering the components of the FBBD communicative device. On the other hand, when environmental impacts of packaging system with and without FBBD were compared, a large environmental load was detected for the system that has the communicative device affixed as a result of the higher weight of the package. However, the environmental load caused by the use of the FBBD was minimal in comparison with the total environmental load of the whole packaging system. On the contrary, the consumer unit that has the communicative device affixed showed less environmental burden than the consumer unit that has not affixed the device. This was due to the environmental benefits that the communicative device provides by reducing the amount of out-of-date packaged products at retailer outlets. Conclusions   The use of a FBBD contributes to minimize environmental burdens related to the production, packaging and delivery of pork chops since it facilitates a dynamic control of out-of-date products even though the consumer unit with FBBD weighs 1 g more than the consumer unit that does not use the communicative device. Recommendations   The results presented in this paper are estimated results of a specific case study for a prototype of communicative packaging device. Consequently, these results must be considered as a first approach according to future developments on communicative packaging. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0257-y Authors Antonio Dobon, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Pilar Cordero, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Fatima Kreft, Agrotechnology & Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research Centre, Bornsesteeg 59, 6708 PD Wageningen Postbus 17, Wageningen, 6700 AA The Netherlands Søren R. Østergaard, Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej, Taastrup, 2630 Denmark Mats Robertsson, Acreo AB, Norrköping, 602 21 Sweden Maria Smolander, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, Espoo, FI-02044 VTT Finland Mercedes Hortal, Packaging, Transport and Logistics Research Center–ITENE, Parque Tecnológico, C/Albert Einstein 1, Paterna, 46980 Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This study compares environmental impacts of two primary packaging alternatives used for injectable drugs: the traditional method based on glass vials and the method developed by Aseptic Technologies based on polymer vials. A critical review by an external LCA expert was made. Methods   The boundaries of the systems include the packaging production, the product assembly, the filling process, the distribution and the packaging end-of-life by incineration. The study was made in accordance with the international standards ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Some data were obtained in the scientific literature or by interview with packaging producers. Ecoinvent databases were also used. The LCA study was made using two methodologies: IMPACT 2002+ and ReCiPe. Some sensibility analyses were performed on different points of uncertainty both on method and on systems (polymer vial body and transport conditions). Results and discussion   Results show an environmental gain using a polymer vial over glass. The impact is reduced by 23% for global warming, 25% for primary energy and 32% for respiratory inorganics. For each production step, the environmental impact of both technologies is nearly the same except for the material production, the filling step and the transportation of the finished goods. The production of the polymer vials, made of fuel, leads to a more important environmental impact, especially concerning global warming and primary energy. On the contrary, the two others steps, i.e. filling and transport of the finished goods are more favourable for the polymer vials. This technology allows the elimination of preparation and sterilisation steps which are highly energy consuming and mandatory in the case of the glass vials filling which are supplied unclean and unsterile. The major source of energy consumption comes from water heating, in order to clean the glass vial components. In addition, the filling process, made with a needle through the cork followed by laser re-sealing, is strongly simplified with additional beneficial impact as reduction of energy consumption and pollutants emissions. The transportation step has shown a more positive impact especially when exported over long distance. The sensitivity analyses show that the hypotheses made in both scenarios are rather conservative. Conclusions   The life cycle assessment methodology has been successfully applied to both systems of production, filling, distribution and end-of-life of vials for injectable drugs. For identical disclosers, the polymer vials system has lower environmental impacts than the glass vials system. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0248-z Authors Sandra Belboom, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Robert Renzoni, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Benoît Verjans, Aseptic Technologies, 7-9 Rue Camille Hubert, 5032 Gembloux, Belgium Angélique Léonard, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Albert Germain, Department of Chemical Engineering, Processes and Sustainable Development, University of Liège, 3 Allée de la Chimie, 4000 Liège, Belgium Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: 7th International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector (LCA Food 2010), 22–24 September 2010, Bari (Italy) Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0256-z Authors Bruno Notarnicola, II Faculty of Economics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Lago Maggiore ang. via Ancona, 74121 Taranto, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Among other regional impact categories in LCA, land use still lacks a suitable assessment method regarding the least developed “soil ecological quality” impact pathway. The goals of this study are to scope the framework addressing soil ecological functions and to improve the development of regionalized characterization factors (CFs). A spatially explicit approach was developed and illustrated for the Canadian context using three different regional scales and for which the extent of spatial variability was assessed. Materials and methods   A model framework based on the multifunctional character of soil and the ecosystem services defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is suggested. This framework includes land use impacts on soil ecological quality evaluated regarding the change in soil capacity to fulfill a range of soil ecological functions. Four impact indicators, namely erosion resistance, groundwater recharge, mechanical, and physicochemical filtration, proposed by the functional method of Baitz ( 2002 ), were used to assess three major degraded regulating services: erosion regulation, freshwater regulation, and water purification. Spatially differentiated CFs were calculated based on the principles proposed by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative for two Canadian spatial models (15 ecozones, 193 ecoregions) along with a non-spatial one (one generic). Seven representative land use types were tested. Results and discussion   Using the ecozone-based scale, an overall result comparison between the non-spatial and spatial models indicates significant differences between ranges across land use types and results up to four times larger than what the generic scale can capture. This highlights the importance of introducing a regionalized assessment. When considering the impacts from a specific land use type, such as urban land use, generic CFs fail to adequately represent spatial CFs because they tend to be highly dependent on the biogeographical conditions of the location. When comparing all three resolution scales, CF results calculated using the ecoregions spatial scale generally show a larger spread across each land use type. Interesting variations and extreme scenarios are revealed which could not be observed using a coarser scale-based model such as the ecozone resolution scheme. Conclusions   This work demonstrates the accomplishment of developing spatially differentiated CFs addressing impacts of different land use types on soil ecological functions. For a large territorial area spreading over many biomes, such as Canada, accounting for ecological unit boundaries proves to be necessary since the generic scale is not sufficiently representative. An evaluation of the extent of spatial differentiation emphasized the influence on the variability of regionalized CFs. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0258-x Authors Rosie Saad, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas Koellner, Professorship of Ecological Services PES, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry and Geosciences, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Bastian Wittstock, Abteilung Ganzheitliche Bilanzierung, Lehrstuhl für Bauphysik, Universität Stuttgart, 70771 Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany Louise Deschênes, CIRAIG, Chemical Engineering Department, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3A7, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description:    In a recent letter to the editor, Jørgensen et al. questioned that life cycle costing (LCC) is relevant in life cycle-based sustainability assessment (LCSA). They hold the opinion that environmental and social aspects are sufficient. We argue that sustainability has three dimensions: environment, economy, and social aspects in accordance with the well-accepted “three pillar interpretation” of sustainability, although this is not verbally stated in the Brundtland report (WCED 1987). An analysis of the historical development of the term “sustainability” shows that the economic and social component have been present from the beginning and conclude that LCSA of product systems can be approximated by LCSA = (environmental) LCA + (environmental) LCC + S-LCA where S-LCA stands for social LCA. The “environmental” LCC is fully compatible with life cycle assessment (LCA), the internationally standardized (ISO 14040 + 14044) method for environmental product assessment. For LCC, a SETAC “Code of Practice” is now available and guidelines for S-LCA have been published by UNEP/SETAC. First examples for the use of these guidelines have been published. An important practical argument for using LCC from the customers’ point of view is that environmentally preferable products often have higher purchasing costs, whereas the LCC may be much lower (examples: energy saving light bulbs, low energy houses, and cars). Also, since LCC allows an assessment for different actor perspectives, the producers may try to keep the total costs from their perspective below those of a conventional product: otherwise, it will not succeed at the market, unless highly subsidized. Those are practical aspects whichfinally decide about success or failure of “sustainable” products. Whether or not an analysis using all three aspects is necessary will depend on the exact question. However, if real money flows are important in sustainability analysis of product systems, inclusion of LCC is advisable. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0249-y Authors Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstr. 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The paper presents a discussion on the possibilities of using life cycle assessment (LCA) in identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems based on the requirements of the international ISO14001 standard and the European Union EMAS regulation. Some modifications of LCA methodology are proposed in part 1, while the results of a review of environmental aspects for 36 organisations with implemented environmental management systems (EMS) are presented in part 2 of the article. Materials and methods   The scope of the systems analysed in EMS and in LCA is different. This comes as the result of the fact that both ISO 14001 and EMAS are focused on an organisation contrary to ISO14040x, which are focused on a product life cycle. For the present work, this resulted in a need of adjusting the LCA methodology to EMS specificity, and vice versa. Some suggestions of such modifications are presented and discussed in the paper. Results   A preliminary analysis was carried out on 36 organisations, which have EMS compliant with the ISO14001 or EMAS regulations. It has found a certain disproportion between input and output-related environmental aspects included in most of the analysed registers. The probable reasons for such disproportion could be the fact that the output-related environmental aspects are easier to manage by organisation and are often regulated by laws. Legal requirements are a significant criterion in the environmental aspects assessment. Discussion   Based on the assessments carried out and the observations made, some conclusions have been drawn with regard to weaknesses and strengths and usefulness of LCA, as a result of a comparison to the traditional approaches used in EMS in the discussed area. LCA has evident advantages like: standardised methodology; possibility of inclusion of the quantitative information; presence of some methodological steps enabling the verification of the collected data; ability to generate of reproducible results. At the same time, the following potential weak points can be observed: a complexity of the procedure; higher time and cost requirements (especially related to an inventory phase); difficulties with assessing of environmental aspects with the qualitative character and these related to emergency situations; limitation related to the lack of relevant characterisation factors in the currently used LCIA methods. Conclusions   LCA ought to be considered as a tool used for identification and assessment of environmental aspects in EMS. The listed limitations do not disqualify its suitability to be used. After certain simplifications, LCA seems to be a valuable alternative to the methodologies currently in use. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0253-2 Authors Anna Lewandowska, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The paper presents a discussion on the possibilities of using LCA in identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems based on the requirements of the international ISO14001 standard and the European Union EMAS regulation. Some modifications of LCA methodology are proposed in Part 1 while the results of a review of environmental aspects for 36 organisations with implemented EMS are presented in Part 2 of the article. Materials and methods   The scope of the systems analysed in EMS and in LCA is different. This comes as the result of the fact that both ISO 14001 and EMAS are focused on an organisation on contrary to ISO14040x which are focused on a product life cycle. For the present work, this resulted in a need of adjusting the LCA methodology to EMS specificity and vice versa. Some suggestions of such modifications are presented and discussed in the paper. Results   A preliminary analysis was carried out on 36 organisations which have environmental management systems compliant with the ISO14001 or EMAS regulations. A certain disproportion between input and output related environmental aspects included in most of the analysed registers was found. The probable reasons for such disproportion could be the fact that the output related environmental aspects are easier to manage by organisation and are often regulated by laws. Legal requirements are a significant criterion in the environmental aspects assessment. Discussion   Based on the assessments carried out and the observations made, some conclusions have been drawn with regard to weaknesses and strengths and usefulness of LCA, as a result of a comparison to the traditional approaches used in EMS in the discussed area. LCA has evident advantages like: standardised methodology, possibility of inclusion of the quantitative information, presence of some methodological steps enabling the verification of the collected data, and ability to generate of reproducible results. At the same time, the following potential weak points can be observed: a complexity of the procedure, higher time, and cost requirements (especially related to an inventory phase); difficulties with assessing of environmental aspects with the qualitative character and these related to emergency situations; and limitation related to the lack of relevant characterisation factors in the currently used life cycle impact assessment methods. Conclusions   LCA ought to be considered as a tool used for identification and assessment of environmental aspects in environmental management systems. The listed limitations do not disqualify its suitability to be used. After certain simplifications, LCA seems to be a valuable alternative to the methodologies currently in use. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0252-3 Authors Anna Lewandowska, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Alina Matuszak-Flejszman, Department of Standardized Management Systems, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Katarzyna Joachimiak, Product Ecology Department, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, Niepodleglosci av. 10, 61-875 Poznan, Poland Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstrasse 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The sale and distribution of books are activities that have changed through increased use of the internet. The main aim of this paper was to determine the potential environmental impacts of paper books and identify key issues determining the magnitude of those impacts. A second aim was to study the environmental difference between a paper book bought in a traditional bookshop and through an internet bookshop. In addition, areas with a lack of data and major uncertainties were to be noted. Materials and methods   A screening life cycle assessment was performed on an average hardback novel produced and read in Sweden. The data used were general data from Ecoinvent 2.0 and site-specific data from companies participating in the study, whenever average data were not available. Results and discussion   The results showed the most important processes to be pulp and paper production. However, if a substantial distance was travelled by car, to buy a book or collect it, this had a major influence on the environmental performance. Comparing the two bookshop alternatives, the results showed a slight benefit for the internet bookshop due to fewer books being returned to the publisher and the avoidance of energy use at the traditional bookshop. The buyer of a book could significantly influence the total impact by choosing to walk to the bookshop or to combine the trip with several other activities to decrease the impact of the travel per activity performed. When books ordered via the internet were sent by postal services directly to the end consumer, the climate change impact was lowered. Conclusions   This study showed that, in addition to the paper used, the way books are bought and distributed, including possible personal transportation, can significantly affect the total environmental impact of paper books. The impact per book read can be significantly decreased by sharing books with others. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0254-1 Authors Clara Borggren, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Åsa Moberg, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Göran Finnveden, Division of Environmental Strategies Research—fms, Department of Urban Planning and Environment and Centre for Sustainable Communications, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinas väg 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Previous methods of estimating characterization factors (CFs) of metals in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) models were based on multimedia fate, exposure, and effect models originally developed to address the potential impacts of organic chemicals. When applied to metals, the models neglect the influence of ambient chemistry on metal speciation, bioavailability and toxicity. Gandhi et al. ( 2010 ) presented a new method of calculating CFs for freshwater ecotoxicity that addresses these metal-specific issues. In this paper, we compared and assessed the consequences of using the new method versus currently available LCIA models for calculating freshwater ecotoxicity, as applied to two case studies previously examined by Gloria et al. ( 2006 ): (1) the production of copper (Cu) pipe and (2) a zinc (Zn) gutter system. Methods   Using the same inventory data as presented by Gloria et al. ( 2006 ), we calculated and compared the LCIA outcomes for freshwater ecotoxicity of each case study using four models: USES-LCA 1.0, USES-LCA 2.0, USEtox™ using the previous approach, and USEtox™ using the new method. Since the new method requires specification of water chemistry for the freshwater compartment, we explored the effect of using seven freshwater archetypes. We analyzed the freshwater ecotoxicity outcomes of the two case studies with respect to the different models, infinite versus 100 years time scales for calculating impacts after metal emissions, and water chemistries representing environmental variability. Results and discussion   Significant differences in CFs, overall freshwater ecotoxicity score (Σ CF × emissions) and the contributions of individual metals to the overall score were traced back to differences in modeling methods (e.g., variations in compartments included in the fate model), the choice of metal partition coefficients versus those explicitly calculated based on water chemistry (USEtox™ (new)), and the calculation of effect factors. Metal CFs calculated using USES-LCA 1.0 ranked Co 〉 Ni 〉 Cd ≈ Cu 〉 Zn 〉 Pb, but changed using USEtox™ (new) to Cd 〉 Co 〉 Ni 〉 Zn 〉 Cu 〉 Pb for the archetype of hard alkaline water and Cd 〉 Ni 〉 Co 〉 Cu ≈ Zn 〉 Pb for the archetype of soft, acidic water. For the Cu pipe, total freshwater ecotoxicity scores for metal emissions into air and water ranged from 0.01 to 0.02 for USES-LCA1.0, ~1 for USEtox™ (previous) to 0.0002–0.01 1, 4-dichlorobenzene (DCB) eq. for USEtox™ (new) depending on the archetype. Whereas Cu followed by Ni emissions contributed most to total freshwater ecotoxicity estimated by USES-LCA1.0, Cu, Cd, Ni, and Zn, emissions were all important contributors towards freshwater ecotoxicity with USEtox™ (new), with differences in contributions dependent on the freshwater archetype. For the Zn gutter case study, the total scores varied from 10 for USEtox™ (previous) to 0.008 for USES-LCA 2.0 and 0.02–0.11 equal to 1, 4-DCB for USEtox™ (new). Zn contributed ~98% towards the freshwater ecotoxicity scores of metals in all models. For both case studies, differences in ecotoxicity scores were not significant for the infinite vs. 100 years time scale. Conclusions   Accounting for metal bioavailability and speciation by using USEtox™ (new) when calculating CFs decreased by 1–4 orders of magnitude the total metal freshwater ecotoxicity scores (Σ CF × emissions) attributable to metal emissions tallied for Cu pipe and Zn gutter system case studies (Gloria et al. 2006 ). This broad range came from the model used in comparison to USEtox™ (new) and the choice of freshwater archetype. Additionally, contributions of each metal to the total score of the Cu pipe case study changed significantly from the use of previous CFs (Huijbregts et al. 2000 ) versus the revised CFs (Gandhi et al. 2010 ). Practical implications   Metal CFs calculated using the method proposed by Gandhi et al. ( 2010 ) significantly lowers the total freshwater ecotoxicity impact of metal emissions. It is suggested that this lower estimate of potential impact from metal emissions is consistent with our understanding of metal chemistry. The magnitude of the potential freshwater ecotoxicity of metals depends on the chemistry of the modeled freshwater compartment, similarly to the dependence of acidification potential on regionally variant freshwater chemistry. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-14 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0317-3 Authors Nilima Gandhi, Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 45 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2E5, Canada Miriam L. Diamond, Department of Geography, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 1, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Jeroen B. Guinée, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Willie J. G. M. Peijnenburg, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 1, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In order to provide more sustainable fuels and address the depletion of oil as a feedstock, the automotive industry must adapt to a growing market share of alternative fuels. The environmental impacts of the automotive industry to date would suggest that these alternatives will be more environmentally friendly than petroleum-based fuels. This is nonetheless an assumption that cannot be confirmed without a systematic life cycle assessment (LCA). This article explores the feasibility of USEtox to provide information needed for automotive-fuel LCA. Materials and methods   USEtox is tested on three energy pathways: gasoline, diesel fuel and hard coal electricity. The studied emissions are mainly volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and heavy metals. USEtox being dependent on the physicochemical and toxic properties of the studied species, a speciation of all VOCs emitted was performed. Moreover, since USEtox allows a distinction between rural and urban emissions, a geographical information system was developed in order to distinguish these emissions. Finally, because crude oil comes from various countries, characterization factors have been calculated for new regional compartments. Results and discussion   Human health issues are caused by aldehydes and heavy metals while ecotoxicity is caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes and heavy metals. For organic compounds, a clear distinction is observed between urban and rural emissions while inorganic mechanisms are independent of this distinction. Among the three energy pathways, urban diesel is the more impacting. Conclusions   USEtox can be used for the assessment of automotive fuels, though it only addresses specific aspects of human health and ecotoxicity. The LCA practitioner must keep in mind that USEtox has to be used in conjunction with other indicators, such as ReCiPe or CML, to comprehensively cover the toxic and ecotoxic impacts of fuels. The level of analysis is dependent on the accuracy of the inventory, aldehydes and PAH playing a crucial role. Inorganic impacts are highly uncertain, contrary to organic compounds. The distinction between rural and urban emissions allows a better assessment of internal combustion engine-powered cars compared with electric and hybrid cars, which is especially useful for the automotive industry now that these technologies are clearly being developed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-12 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0319-1 Authors Florent Querini, Institut Pprime CNRS-Université de Poitiers (IRIAF)-ENSMA UPR 3346, Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA-Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Stéphane Morel, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Valérie Boch, Technocentre Renault, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France Patrick Rousseaux, Institut Pprime CNRS-Université de Poitiers (IRIAF)-ENSMA UPR 3346, Département Fluides, Thermique, Combustion, ENSMA-Téléport 2, 1 avenue Clément Ader, BP 40109, 86961 Futuroscope Chasseneuil Cedex, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The aim of this paper is to provide science-based consensus and guidance for health effects modelling in comparative assessments based on human exposure and toxicity. This aim is achieved by (a) describing the USEtox™ exposure and toxicity models representing consensus and recommended modelling practice, (b) identifying key mechanisms influencing human exposure and toxicity effects of chemical emissions, (c) extending substance coverage. Methods   The methods section of this paper contains a detailed documentation of both the human exposure and toxic effects models of USEtox™, to determine impacts on human health per kilogram substance emitted in different compartments. These are considered as scientific consensus and therefore recommended practice for comparative toxic impact assessment. The framework of the exposure model is described in details including the modelling of each exposure pathway considered (i.e. inhalation through air, ingestion through (a) drinking water, (b) agricultural produce, (c) meat and milk, and (d) fish). The calculation of human health effect factors for cancer and non-cancer effects via ingestion and inhalation exposure respectively is described. This section also includes discussions regarding parameterisation and estimation of input data needed, including route-to-route and acute-to-chronic extrapolations. Results and discussion   For most chemicals in USEtox™, inhalation, above-ground agricultural produce, and fish are the important exposure pathways with key driving factors being the compartment and place of emission, partitioning, degradation, bioaccumulation and bioconcentration, and dietary habits of the population. For inhalation, the population density is the key factor driving the intake, thus the importance to differentiate emissions in urban areas, except for very persistent and mobile chemicals that are taken in by the global population independently from their place of emission. The analysis of carcinogenic potency (TD 50 ) when volatile chemicals are administrated to rats and mice by both inhalation and an oral route suggests that results by one route can reasonably be used to represent another route. However, we first identify and mark as interim chemicals for which observed tumours are directly related to a given exposure route (e.g. for nasal or lung, or gastrointestinal cancers) or for which absorbed fraction by inhalation and by oral route differ greatly. Conclusions   A documentation of the human exposure and toxicity models of USEtox™ is provided, and key factors driving the human health characterisation factor are identified. Approaches are proposed to derive human toxic effect factors and expand the number of chemicals in USEtox™, primarily by extrapolating from an oral route to exposure in air (and optionally acute-to-chronic). Some exposure pathways (e.g. indoor inhalation, pesticide residues, dermal exposure) will be included in a later stage. USEtox™ is applicable in various comparative toxicity impact assessments and not limited to LCA. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-18 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0316-4 Authors Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Andrew D. Henderson, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Manuele Margni, Department of Chemical Engineering, CIRAIG, École Polytechnique de Montréal, 2900 Édouard-Montpetit, P.O. Box 6079, Stn. Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada Thomas E. McKone, University of California Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Dik van de Meent, Department of Environmental Science, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Michael Z. Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet, Building 426, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Shanna Shaked, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Ding Sheng Li, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Lois S. Gold, University of California Berkeley, and Children’s Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI), Oakland, CA, USA Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Spatial differentiation is a topic of increasing interest within life cycle assessment (LCA). For chemical-related impacts, in this paper, we evaluate the relative influence of substance properties and of environmental characteristics on the variability in the environmental fate of chemicals using an advanced, spatially resolved model. The goal of this study is to explore spatial distribution and spatial variability of organic chemicals, assessing the variability of the removal rate from air with a multimedia spatially explicit model Multimedia Assessment of Pollutant Pathways in the Environment (MAPPE) Global with a resolution of 1 × 1°. This provides basis to help identify chemicals for which spatial differentiation will be important in LCAs, including whether differentiation will have added benefits over the use of global generic default values, such as those provided by the USEtox model. Methodology   A methodology was developed to explore spatial distribution and spatial variability of the fate of organic chemicals. Firstly, guidelines were developed to assign a hypothetical spatial distribution to chemicals which were clustered on the basis of their physical–chemical properties and persistence. Secondly, a test set of 34 representative organic chemicals was used to run MAPPE Global and USEtox model. The results of MAPPE Global were used to highlight spatial variability of removal rate from air amongst different chemicals and their related patterns of variability. A comparison between USEtox and MAPPE Global removal rates from air was performed for each chemical in order to highlight whether spatial differentiation is relevant for the assessment or not. Results and discussion   Hypothetical spatial distribution of chemical fate was assigned to each combination of physical–chemical properties and persistence. Besides, spatial variability of removal rates from air was assessed running MAPPE model for the test set of 34 chemicals. The variability of results spans from less than one to over four orders of magnitude, showing differences in variability for each cluster of chemicals. Furthermore, different patterns of spatial variability are associated to each cluster of chemical as the spatial pattern is driven by a specific component of the overall removal rate. The comparison between MAPPE and USEtox removal rates from air shows that for 14 out of 34 chemicals within the test set, USEtox values are close to the median of the results of MAPPE. For 11 out of 34, USEtox underestimates the removal rate from air and the results are close to the fifth percentile of MAPPE ones. This is mainly related to how wet/dry deposition and gas exchange are accounted in the two models. Conclusions and outlook   This work has made further progress towards understanding and implementing how to develop a tailored-made guidance for assessing spatial differentiation in LCA. Results on spatial distribution and spatial variability of chemical are presented as a basis for defining patterns of variability and supporting further development of spatial scenarios and archetypes to be used for life cycle impact assessment. This provides insights into whether using generic global default factors is likely to result in high uncertainty depending on the type of chemical, as well as whether pattern-specific factors would reduce the uncertainty. Uncertainties related to spatial differentiation are presented and discussed. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0312-8 Authors Serenella Sala, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy Dimitar Marinov, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy David Pennington, European Commission—Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability—Sustainability Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, TP 270, 21027 Ispra, Varese, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted on winter wheat, based on real agricultural practices databases, on a sample divided into four production scenarios. The main objectives of this study are (1) to assess the environmental impact of winter wheat, using an LCA covering field practices, and the transport and storage of grain until it is sold to a miller; (2) to use the USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. in Int J Life Cycle Assess 13:532–546, 2008 ) to assess the part of the total freshwater ecotoxicity impact due to pesticide use, its variability among plots, and to identify the active ingredients with the strongest impact; (3) and with the help of fungicide, insecticide, herbicide experts, to identify active ingredients to replace these high-impact pesticides and estimate the effect of such a substitution on total freshwater ecotoxicity. Materials and methods   InVivo (the authors’ company) is a French union of agricultural cooperatives that produces and sells, amongst other products and services, decision-making tools to help farmers manage fertilization and pesticide applications. With the help of cooperatives and with the help of these tools, pedologic, climatologic and agronomic (in particular for fertilization and pesticide applications practices) data can be collected for each agricultural plot of a farm. Results and discussion   The main conclusions of this study are that : (1) when considering freshwater ecotoxicity impacts, pesticide use is predominant on the whole life cycle of winter wheat, (2) there is a huge scattering of the results observed between fields when compared to the low scattering of the results between the four production scenarios, (3) it is feasible, with the USEtox model, to identify the active ingredients with the strongest impact and to potentially decrease this average impact by 50% by substituting only three active ingredients. Conclusions   A further step to improve ecotoxicity assessment in LCA would be to develop a model to better estimate the pesticide emissions pattern on field, taking into account pedo-climatic conditions and farmers’ practices. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0321-7 Authors Amandine Berthoud, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Pauline Maupu, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Camille Huet, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Antoine Poupart, Direction Agriculture Durable et Développement, InVivo AgroSolutions, 83 avenue de la Grande Armée, 75782 Paris Cedex 16, France Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   High-quality wood production is based on both natural forestry populations and dedicated tree plantations, also mentioned as industrial plantations. The establishment of dedicated plantations needs high-quality seedlings, often grown in a nursery, having specific genetic and morphological features. From seed gathering to final selling, the growth of the seedlings needs human interventions and specific inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, substrates, and capital goods (e.g., pots and greenhouses). All these inputs of course can cause not negligible environmental impacts, due to their production, maintenance, and final disposal. For these reasons, the environmental impact due to seedlings production in a nursery deserves deep analysis to assess the overall impact linked to wood supply chain: it is important that wood products are able to meet high environmental standards. This study is focused on 1- and 2-year-old walnut tree ( Juglans regia L.) seedlings, aimed to high-quality timber production. Materials and methods   Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was adopted according to ISO 14040 standards. As case study, a nursery located in the South of Italy was studied. Both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings were analyzed from the LCA point of view and then compared, adopting 100 seedlings as functional unit. Results and discussion   Three inputs, plastic production, forming, and disposal to landfill, can be identified as the greatest polluters for both 1- and 2-year-old seedlings; for all the impact categories taken into account, their emissions joined always exceeded the 50% of the total amount, reaching values up to 90% (e.g., abiotic depletion, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, and photochemical oxidation). Two-year-old production system needs more inputs than 1-year-old; therefore, its greatest environmental impact was expected, but it is interesting to stress the increasing registered over the second year of growing, which reaches values up to 747% (fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity), most of which is due to polypropylene (mulching cloth, trays, and first of all, the pots). Conclusions   For four out of ten impact categories, polypropylene caused the greatest impact; therefore, interventions in this phase of the production system could be useful to reduce the overall environmental impact. Further investigations regarding the mortality rate for 1- and 2-year-old seedlings (after the plantation) are needed to better compare practical, economic, and environmental aspects. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0323-5 Authors Daniele Cambria, Department of Crop Systems, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, via N. Sauro 85, 85100 Potenza, Italy Domenico Pierangeli, Department of Crop Systems, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, via N. Sauro 85, 85100 Potenza, Italy Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   There is an increasing interest in the assessment and comparison of the environmental impacts of consumer products. Schemes such as Grenelle de l’Environnement, currently under development in France, aim to assess and communicate the life cycle impacts of consumer products. Freshwater ecotoxicity is one of the impact categories under consideration. This paper presents the results of a comparison of USEtox and critical dilution volume (CDV) approaches for assessing laundry products. Materials and methods   The study focused only on the end-of-life stage, i.e. when the products are discharged after use into a sewage treatment plant and the environment. Two independent case studies were performed, in parallel, on three laundry product formats: powder, dilute liquid and concentrated liquid. For the USEtox assessment, new characterization factors (ChF) were calculated for all ingredients. Results and discussion   The relative ranking of the laundry product formats was consistent across the two studies but not with the two methods. The dilute liquid format had the highest ecotoxicological impact potential with the CDV method, whereas the powder format was ranked highest with the USEtox method. A comparison was also made between published USEtox factors and those used in this work, suggesting that the published ones should be seen primarily as screening level values. Conclusions   While risk assessment is the recommended method for evaluating the safety of chemicals, the potential use of the CDV and USEtox methods for ranking products on their environmental ecotoxicity profile was evaluated. The two methods showed a lack of agreement, which can be attributed to their different conceptual approaches. The lack of concurrence between the methods raises the issue of whether either method is suitable for environmental product labelling. In addition, the current USEtox database does not cover many laundry ingredients, and furthermore, the USEtox method does not satisfactorily address inorganic chemicals, which are important ingredients in laundry products. The calculation of additional or revised ChFs for USEtox is a time-consuming task. In comparison, the CDV method covers most laundry ingredients, but its lack of comprehensive environmental fate modelling is an inherent weakness. A common limitation for both methods is the level of uncertainty in the impact scores, which can make it difficult to identify statistically significant differences between product scores. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0318-2 Authors Gert Van Hoof, Procter & Gamble, Environmental Stewardship Organisation, BIC, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Diederik Schowanek, Procter & Gamble, Environmental Stewardship Organisation, BIC, Temselaan 100, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium Helen Franceschini, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ UK Ivan Muñoz, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ UK Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: A bright future for addressing chemical emissions in life cycle assessment Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-4 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0320-8 Authors Michael Z. Hauschild, DTU Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark Olivier Jolliet, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Mark A. J. Huijbregts, Department of Environmental Science, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Recently, the Thai government has been advancing the expanded use of biomass as an alternative source of energy substituting it for the fossil fuels that have been shown to be harmful to the environment. Rice husk, one of the main sources of biomass in Thailand, has already been used as an energy source in many different applications and has been successful in reducing the consumption of fossil fuels. At present (2011), the main use of rice husk in Thailand is as fuel to generate electricity. However, rice husk can potentially be used to produce other forms of energy such as cellulosic ethanol. This paper compares the environmental performance of the current main use of rice husk for energy purposes in the Thai context, i.e., for electricity generation with the prospective use, i.e., for cellulosic ethanol production. The results from this study will identify the more environmentally friendly option for use of rice husk for energy purposes. Materials and methods   To determine the more environmentally friendly rice husk use option, that being the option that showed the greatest reduction of environmental impacts, the environmental impacts of the two selected rice husk use options were compared with the environmental impacts of their conventional energy production processes using the life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA software package SimaPro 7.1.6 was used to assist in the analysis of the environmental impacts, with the impact assessment method ReCiPe 2008. The system boundary of the study was expanded to take into consideration the effects caused by the consumption of coproducts generated within the two rice husk options. To make the options comparable, the functional units defined for both options were based on processing 1,000 tonnes of rice husk in both rice husk use systems studied. Results   Based on the available data and assumptions made for this study, the results show that the use of rice husk in both electricity and cellulosic ethanol options had a significant effect in reducing the impacts on fossil fuel depletion and climate change, when compared with the conventional processes. However, the use of rice husk in both options caused a slightly higher impact on particulate matter formation than the conventional processes. The option of using rice husk to generate electricity was preferred over the option of using rice husk as a feedstock to produce cellulosic ethanol for all other impact categories analysed, except particulate matter formation, marine eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation and freshwater ecotoxicity. In addition, it was found that using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol caused a considerably greater impact on human toxicity than its conventional product. Discussion   The environmental benefits gained by using rice husk depend on the materials that rice husk is replacing. This means that the reduction of environmental impact depends upon the use of the rice husk. Conclusions   Overall, the option of using rice husk to generate electricity shows benefits over the option of using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol for most impact categories analysed. However, the cellulosic ethanol option is better than the electricity option in terms of particulate matter formation, marine eutrophication, photochemical oxidant formation and freshwater ecotoxicity. Recommendations and perspectives   In the short run, the option of using rice husk to generate electricity is more environmentally friendly than the option of using rice husk to produce cellulosic ethanol. However, if rice husk is to be used for electricity generation, the ash generated in power plants should be sent out to be used in other industries. It should not be disposed of in landfills as it causes greater impacts than other ash use options. In the time of oil shortages, rice husk should be considered for use as a feedstock to produce cellulosic ethanol for use as a substitute for petrol to help reduce the dependency of oil importation for Thailand. However, the production process of cellulosic ethanol should be improved to help increase efficiency in reducing the environmental impacts in other impact categories. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-10 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0293-7 Authors Jittima Prasara-A, Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham, 44000 Thailand Tim Grant, Centre for Design, RMIT University, City Campus, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   As impact assessment methods for water use in LCA evolve, so must inventory methods. Water categories that consider water quality must be defined within life cycle inventory. The method presented here aims to establish water categories by source, quality parameter and user. Materials and methods   Water users were first identified based on their water quality requirements. A list of parameters was then defined, and thresholds for these parameters were determined for each user. The thresholds were based on international standards, country regulations, recommendations and industry standards. Three different water sources were selected: surface water (including seawater), groundwater and rainwater. Based on the quality and water sources, categories were created by grouping user requirements according to the level of microbial or toxic contamination that the user can tolerate (high, medium or low). Results and discussion   Seventeen water categories were created: eight for surface water, eight for groundwater and one for rainwater. Each category was defined according to 136 quality parameters (11 conventional parameters, 38 specific inorganic contaminants and 87 specific organic contaminants) and the users for which it can be of use. Conclusions   A set of elementary flows is proposed in order to support a water inventory method oriented towards functionality. This can be used to assess potential water use impacts caused by a loss of functionality for human users. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-13 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0300-z Authors Anne-Marie Boulay, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Christian Bouchard, Department of Civil Engineering, Université Laval, 1065, av. de la Médecine Québec, (Québec), G1V 0A6 Canada Cecile Bulle, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Louise Deschênes, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Manuele Margni, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Background, aim and scope   In the context of environmental life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is one of the central issues with respect to modelling and methodological data collection. The thesis described in this paper focusses on the assessment of toxicity-related impacts, and on the collection of normalisation data. A view on the complementary roles of LCA toxicity assessment on the one hand and human and environmental risk assessment (HERA) on the other is presented, and the global, spatially differentiated LCA toxicity assessment model GLOBOX for the assessment of organics and metals is described. Normalisation factors for the year 2000 are calculated on a global as well as on a European level. Goal   Adding to the reliability and accuracy of LCIA takes a central place. A global coverage, spatial differentiation, and a distinction between potential and actual impacts are considered as important aspects in this context. Structure   The thesis consists of seven chapters. The chapters 1 and 7 are a general introduction and discussion, respectively. The chapters 2 and 3 form a theoretical basis, focussing on the relationship between LCA toxicity assessment and HERA, and their respective roles in environmental protection. In chapters 4 and 5, the newly developed software model GLOBOX is described, along with conclusions, drawn from an analysis of the results of the model for the substance nitrobenzene. Chapter 6 describes a practical update of LCA normalisation for all LCA impact categories. Conclusion   LCA toxicity assessment and HERA are distinct tools with different goals and outputs, but with an overlap with respect to environmental fate and human intake calculation. Although they cannot be merged, it is proposed to combine them in a common software model, which would offer harmonised results with respect to both types of outputs. Existing multimedia fate and exposure models form a useful basis, but to be applicable in LCA, they should combine global coverage with spatial differentiation, and they should allow for the assessment of metal emissions. The GLOBOX model offers this combination of features. At the level of separate countries and seas, spatial differentiation of environmental and human exposure characteristics turns out to show large differences between regions with respect to the toxic impacts, calculated to result from a certain emission of the test substance nitrobenzene. Finally, the GLOBOX model demonstrates that it is possible not only in HERA, but also in LCIA, to assess actual environmental impacts, along with the potential impacts on which LCA traditionally focuses. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-7 DOI 10.1007/s11367-010-0247-5 Authors Anneke Wegener Sleeswijk, Leiden University, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   Information constitutes one of the main barriers for applying life cycle assessment (LCA) due to complexity and need for great amounts of it. However, most of the parameters that determine the data are defined early in the product development process. Knuckle boom cranes constitute a complex product which poses a particularly pressing need for simplification. This paper models the LCA inventory information out of design parameters. The paper also presents a tool implementing this. Materials and methods   To develop the parametric model, a three-step approach is followed. In the first step, knuckle boom crane designers of an international manufacturer are asked to point out key design parameters. An LCA is then conducted for a representative crane of the same manufacturer. Interdependencies between design parameters and inventories are analyzed. Design parameters influencing the LCA results are defined as primary parameters. Parameters through which it is possible to calculate the LCA inventory are defined as secondary parameters. The relation between primary and secondary parameters is analyzed. Indicators are developed for comparison, and the validity of this parametric model is checked by analyzing six more cranes, different in size and performance. Results and discussion   The parametric model presented in this paper contains 13 primary parameters. Their link to secondary parameters and inventory data is through formulas derived from existing documentation, physical interdependencies, or statistical data. To integrate this model in the design workflow, it is embedded into a software tool. Designers input the primary parameters, and the tool allows visualization and benchmarking of environmental impact results. Three indicators related to weight and environmental performance are defined, as well as the means to benchmark in relative terms. The model diverges in never more than 4% for six additional cranes analyzed. Conclusions   Through the parametric model, a rigorous estimation of the environmental profile of a crane can already be assessed in an early point of the product development process. Results can be used to define targets for design decisions based on the best-performing products. Recommendations and perspectives   The statistics-based estimations carried out by the tool can be further improved, getting a wider range of cranes involved. Differences between these products can increase the understanding of the effect of technology choices in the final environmental impact of the product. This may become particularly useful in early design decisions. The potentials of this parametric approach can also be extended to other types of products. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0280-z Authors Hesamedin Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi, Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Engineering Design, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria Daniel Collado-Ruiz, Integration of Design & Environmental Assessment, Universidad, Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The interest in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies has increased over the years, and one of the main ways of disseminating these studies is through the publication of articles in scientific journals. Coauthorship relations form a social network where it is possible to identify how research is organized and structured in a specific field of knowledge. This paper aims to show the spread of these studies and the configuration of a collaboration network based on coauthorship relations between researchers of LCA considering some properties of social networks. Methods   The research was based on a bibliometric approach of 1,386 articles related to LCA and published in journals indexed in the ISI/Web of Science until 2008. A free software, Pajek, which has been largely used for the representation and analysis of social networks, was employed in this work. The properties of social networks analyzed in this study were power law, degrees of separation, giant component, and clustering. Results and discussion   The research showed a social network formed by 2,598 authors from 60 countries, 88% of coauthored articles, a mean of 1.87 authors per article; the distribution of articles per author follows a power law ( f ( z ) = 2,134.3 ×  z −2.544 ) with a high regression coefficient ( R 2  = 0.9704), a degree of separation of 6.5, a giant component embracing 37% of the authors, and a clustering coefficient of 0.75. The LCA coauthorship network has properties following power law patterns similar to other nets such as WWW. The community forms a giant component which is still small, but which, nevertheless, might experience considerable growth in the near future. The average distance between authors follows the small-world hypothesis. The clustering degree was also coherent with other scientific communities. Conclusions   In spite of being an area with less than 20 years of publications registered in the ISI/Web of Science, LCA is now experiencing fast dissemination involving a large number of articles, authors, and institutions. The LCA’s coauthorship network can be characterized as a scientific community with properties verified in other networks of more consolidated academic collaboration. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-8 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0290-x Authors Cristina Gomes de Souza, CEFET-RJ, Production Engineering Department—DEPRO/PPTEC, Av. Maracanã, 229-Bl. E, Rio de Janeiro, 20271-110 Brazil Rafael Garcia Barbastefano, CEFET-RJ, Production Engineering Department—DEPRO/PPTEC, Av. Maracanã, 229-Bl. E, Rio de Janeiro, 20271-110 Brazil Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   When performing a life cycle assessment (LCA), the LCA practitioner faces the need to express the characterized results in a form suitable for the final interpretation. This can be done using normalization against some common reference impact—the normalization references—which require regular updates. The study presents updated sets of normalization inventories, normalization references for the EDIP97/EDIP2003 methodology and guidance on their consistent use in practice. Materials and methods   The base year of the inventory is 2004; the geographical scope for the non-global impacts is limited to Europe. The emission inventory was collected from different publicly available databases and monitoring bodies. Where necessary, gaps were filled using extrapolations. A new approach for inventorizing specific groups of substances—non-methane volatile organic compounds and pesticides—was also developed. The resulting inventory was combined with the most updated sets of characterization factors for each impact category in the EDIP methodologies. Results and discussion   Normalization references are provided for global and non-global impact categories for the year 2004, and causes of variations compared to previous versions are identified. For the non-toxic impact categories, they mainly reflect demographic evolution or change in emission intensities. For the toxic impact categories, they are strongly dependent on improvements in the characterization models as well as on the inventory analysis. Differentiation of substance groups into individual substance emissions is an important source, which leads to identification of inconsistencies in the current practice and guidance to ensure compatibility between LCI and LCIA. Uncertainties are not quantified but are mainly expected to lie in the toxic substance inventories, which are known not to encompass all potentially harmful chemicals released in Europe, e.g. omitting some toxic metals. Conclusions   The present study provides the most updated set of publicly available normalization references for the EDIP methodology and emission inventories for Europe that may also serve for the calculation of normalization references for other impact categories. It is believed to be the best estimate available for Europe and is thus recommended for use along with the guidance provided in this study. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0278-6 Authors Alexis Laurent, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Stig Irving Olsen, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Michael Zwicky Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The impact assessment of chemical compounds in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) and Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) requires a vast amount of data on the properties of the chemical compounds being assessed. The purpose of the present study is to explore statistical options for reduction of the data demand associated with characterisation of chemical emissions in LCIA and ERA. Materials and methods   Based on a USEtox™ characterisation factor set consisting of 3,073 data records, multi-dimensional bilinear models for emission compartment specific fate characterisation of chemical emissions were derived by application of Partial Least Squares Regression. Two sets of meta-models were derived having 63% and 75% of the minimum data demand of the full USEtox™ characterisation model. The meta-models were derived by grouping the dependent variables, the fate factors obtained from the USEtox™ data set and then selecting the independent chemical input parameters from the minimum data set, needed for characterisation in USEtox™, according to general availability, importance and relevance for fate factor prediction. Results and discussion   Each approach (63% and 75% of the minimum data set needed for characterisation in USEtox™) yielded 66 meta-models. In general, good correlation was obtained between the observed fate factors (those fate factors included in the USEtox™ data set) and the predicted fate factors (those fate factors obtained by the meta-models), and the validation regression coefficients were all in the range ( R 2  = 0.41–0.96). The lower end of the regression coefficient range represents those few emission scenarios were the selected independent variables did not contain appropriate information. Hence, most meta-models yielded fate factors in good correlation with the observed fate factors and yielded correlation coefficients in the higher end of the range during validation. In general, the more data-demanding approach yielded the largest regression coefficients. Conclusions   The applied statistical approach illustrates that it is possible to derive meta-models from full fate and exposure models and that it is also possible to tailor the data demand of these meta-models according to various data and emission preferences. The results obtained in the study reveal that not all emission scenarios included in USEtox™ are exploiting the minimum data set equally and the minimum data set may thus in many cases contain underused data. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-9 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0281-y Authors Morten Birkved, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 2800 Denmark Reinout Heijungs, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RA The Netherlands Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Environmental life-cycle costing: a code of practice Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0287-5 Authors Thomas E. Swarr, Sustainability By Design, LLC, 8 Shultas Pl, Hartford, CT 06114, USA David Hunkeler, AQUA+TECH Specialties S.A, Chemin du Chalet-du-Bac 4, CH-1283 La Plaine, CP 28 Geneva, Switzerland Walter Klöpffer, LCA Consult & Review, Am Dachsberg 56E, 60435 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Hanna-Leena Pesonen, University of Jyväskylä, School of Business and Economics, P.O. Box 35, 40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland Andreas Ciroth, GreenDeltaTC GmbH, Raumerstrasse 7, 10437 Berlin, Germany Alan C. Brent, School of Public Leadership, Sustainability Institute, Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch University, 7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa Robert Pagan, Geography, Planning and Environmental Management, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   The cities merit special attention in global warming since they produce up to 80% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Even though this has been widely acknowledged, only few papers exist that have studied cities holistically from a demand, i.e., consumption, perspective. The study presents a detailed analysis of the carbon footprint of two metropolitan cities from a consumption perspective. With the analysis of consumer carbon footprints (carbon consumption), the distribution of emissions in the key source categories is presented and compared. Materials and methods   The study utilizes Finnish consumer survey data by cities, regional emission data for key processes, and general emission data to produce a hybrid LCA model for a holistic assessment of city-level greenhouse gas emissions from the consumption perspective. Results and discussion   The study results showed the carbon consumption to be 13.2 t CO2e per person in Helsinki with a 17,400 € annual consumption expenditure and 10.3 t CO2e per person in Porvoo with a 15,900 € annual consumption expenditure, respectively. The dominant carbon sources for metropolitan living are heat and electricity, building and property, private driving, and services. Within the cities, some significant differences were found. The carbon emissions from energy consumption are 4.5 t CO2e for an average consumer in Helsinki, whereas an average consumer in Porvoo only causes 2.0 t CO2e due to the cleaner energy production in Porvoo. On the other hand, private driving causes 2.0 t CO2e in Porvoo, but only 1.3 t in Helsinki. The overall trip generation in Helsinki is only half of that in Porvoo, and also, the usage of public transport is at a substantially higher level in Helsinki. The current results contradict interestingly some earlier studies in finding that the theoretical carbon-reducing influence of city density is overridden with other factors, such as the type of energy production, energy efficiency of the housing stock, and increased use of services. In our study, Helsinki represents a metropolitan area with a denser structure and a more efficient public transport system, but still consuming around 25% more carbon emissions than the other city in the metropolitan area, Porvoo. The sensitivity analysis showed that even with the normalization of the key parameters between the two cities, the main finding still holds. Conclusions   The evaluation of the carbon footprint of cities from the consumption perspective, instead of a more traditional production perspective, seems to offer an interesting new insight into the carbon footprints of the cities. It identifies similar key sources of carbon as production-oriented studies but further emphasizes the significance of the utilized services in the carbon footprint evaluations. In the future, the carbon footprint of services, especially in the service-intensive economies and cities that tend to outsource their manufacturing and carbon emissions, should be further examined since they cause an ever increasing proportion of the carbon consumption of consumers. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0289-3 Authors Jukka Heinonen, Real Estate Business, Aalto University School of Engineering, P.O. Box 11200, 00076 Aalto Espoo, Finland Seppo Junnila, Real Estate Business, Aalto University School of Engineering, P.O. Box 11200, 00076 Aalto Espoo, Finland Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   This paper investigates different methodologies of handling co-products in life cycle assessment (LCA) or carbon footprint (CF) studies. Co-product handling can have a significant effect on final LCA/CF results, and although there are guidelines on the preferred order for different methods for handling co-products, no agreed understanding on applicable methods is available. In the present study, the greenhouse gases (GHG) associated with the production of 1 kg of energy-corrected milk (ECM) at farm gate is investigated considering co-product handling. Materials and methods   Two different milk production systems were used as case studies in the investigation of the effect of applying different methodologies in co-product handling: (1) outdoor grazing system in New Zealand and (2) mainly indoor housing system with a pronounced share of concentrate feed in Sweden. Since the cows produce milk, meat (when slaughtered), calves, manure, hides, etc., the environmental burden (here GHG emissions) must be distributed between these outputs (in the present study no emissions are attributed to hides specifically, or to manure which is recycled on-farm). Different methodologically approaches, (1) system expansion (two cases), (2) physical causality allocation, (3) economic allocation, (4) protein allocation and (5) mass allocation, are applied in the study. Results and discussion   The results show large differences in the final CF number depending on which methodology has been used for accounting co-products. Most evident is that system expansion gives a lower CF for milk than allocation methods. System expansion resulted in 63–76% of GHG emissions attributed directly to milk, while allocation resulted in 85–98%. It is stressed that meat is an important by-product from milk production and that milk and beef production is closely interlinked and therefore needs to be considered in an integrated approach. Conclusions   To obtain valid LCA/CF numbers for milk, it is crucial to account for by-products. Moreover, if CF numbers for milk need to be compared, the same allocation procedure should be applied. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0283-9 Authors Anna Flysjö, Arla Foods amba, Sønderhøj 14, 8260 Viby J, Denmark Christel Cederberg, SIK—The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 5401, 40229 Gothenburg, Sweden Maria Henriksson, Department of Rural Buildings and Animal Husbandry, SLU—Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 86, 23053 Alnarp, Sweden Stewart Ledgard, AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: A capability framework for managing social and environmental concerns Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-3 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0274-x Authors Thomas Swarr, Sustainability by Design, LLC, 8 Shultas Pl, Hartford, CT 06114, USA Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349

Description: Purpose   In life cycle impact assessment, normalization can be a very effective tool for the life cycle assessment practitioner to interpret results and put them into perspective. The paper presents normalization references for the recently developed USEtox™ model, which aims at calculating globally applicable characterization factors. Normalization references for Europe and North America are determined, and guidance for expansions to other geographical regions is provided. Materials and methods   The base years of the European and North American inventories are 2004 and 2002/2008, respectively. Emission data were extracted from two literature sources referring to each of the considered regions. The inventory for North America was adapted to avoid extrapolation of data from other regions and thus bring consistency with the emission inventory for Europe. In spite of different inventory assumptions, a similar coverage of substances was obtained for both regions with relatively high representation of metals and a number of organic compounds, mainly consisting of non-methane volatile organic compounds and pesticides. The two inventory sets were eventually characterized with the characterization factors (CFs) calculated with the version 1.0 of the USEtox™ model and substance database; both interim and recommended CFs were used. Results and discussion   Normalization references are provided for Europe and North America for the three USEtox™ toxic impact categories; ratios between the normalization references for the two regions in all cases lie below a factor of 3. Causes for the observed discrepancies are found to be different inventory assumptions as well as variations in the type and intensity of actual emissions between the two regions. Additional causes are inventories that only cover a limited number of substances, and the characterization model, which can only provide interim factors for certain substances like metal compounds. Based on these causes and on a review of recent studies on normalization references, a list of substances to be prioritized when collecting emission data was built, demonstrating the importance of metals. Conclusions   In the perspective of further refining the presented normalization references and of calculating new references for other regions, guidance is provided including a list of priority substances that should be considered when building emission inventories for normalization references. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-11 DOI 10.1007/s11367-011-0285-7 Authors Alexis Laurent, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Anne Lautier, CIRAIG, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, 2900 Édouard-Montpetit, Stn. Centre-ville, P.O. Box 6079, Montréal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Stig I. Olsen, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild, Section for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment (QSA), Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Produktionstorvet 426, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark Journal The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Online ISSN 1614-7502 Print ISSN 0948-3349