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  • Articles  (590)
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  • 1995-1999  (590)
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  • Philosophy  (348)
  • Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science  (267)
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  • Articles  (590)
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  • 1995-1999  (590)
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  • 1
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 3-4 
    ISSN: 1572-8730
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  • 2
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 73-90 
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    Keywords: deontic reasoning ; defeasible reasoning ; moral dilemmas
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract This paper compares two ways of formalising defeasible deontic reasoning, both based on the view that the issues of conflicting obligations and moral dilemmas should be dealt with from the perspective of nonmonotonic reasoning. The first way is developing a special nonmonotonic logic for deontic statements. This method turns out to have some limitations, for which reason another approach is recommended, viz. combining an already existing nonmonotonic logic with a deontic logic. As an example of this method the language of Reiter's default logic is extended to include modal expressions, after which the argumentation framework in default logic of [20, 22] is used to give a plausible logical analysis of moral dilemmas and prima facie obligations.
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  • 3
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 139-165 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; database integrity ; constraints ; constraint violation ; recovery
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The paper discusses the potential value of a deontic approach to database specification. More specifically, some different types of integrity constraints are considered and a distinction is drawn between necessary (“hard”) and deontic (“soft”) constraints. Databases are compared with other normative systems. A deontic logic for database specification is proposed and the problems of how to react to, and of how to correct, or repair, a situation which arises through norm violation are discussed in the context of this logic. The limitations of the proposed logic and possible modifications and extensions of it are analysed.
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  • 4
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 167-192 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; supererogation ; ordering semantics ; indifference ; optimality
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract On the traditional deontic framework, what is required (what morality demands) and what is optimal (what morality recommends) can't be distinguished and hence they can't both be represented. Although the morally optional can be represented, the supererogatory (exceeding morality's demands), one of its proper subclasses, cannot be. The morally indifferent, another proper subclass of the optional-one obviously disjoint from the supererogatory-is also not representable. Ditto for the permissibly suboptimal and the morally significant. Finally, the minimum that morality allows finds no place in the traditional scheme. With a focus on the question, “What would constitute a hospitable logical neighborhood for the concept of supererogation?”, I present and motivate an enriched logical and semantic framework for representing all these concepts of common sense morality.
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  • 5
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 303-323 
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    Keywords: finite models ; substructural logics ; the Lambek calculus ; 03B40 ; 03B60
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract We prove the finite model property (fmp) for BCI and BCI with additive conjunction, which answers some open questions in Meyer and Ono [11]. We also obtain similar results for some restricted versions of these systems in the style of the Lambek calculus [10, 3]. The key tool is the method of barriers which was earlier introduced by the author to prove fmp for the product-free Lambek calculus [2] and the commutative product-free Lambek calculus [4].
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  • 6
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 419-436 
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    Keywords: algebraizable logics ; equivalential logics ; implicative logics ; protoalgebraic logics
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The notion of an algebraizable logic in the sense of Blok and Pigozzi [3] is generalized to that of a possibly infinitely algebraizable, for short, p.i.-algebraizable logic by admitting infinite sets of equivalence formulas and defining equations. An example of the new class is given. Many ideas of this paper have been present in [3] and [4]. By a consequent matrix semantics approach the theory of algebraizable and p.i.-algebraizable logics is developed in a different way. It is related to the theory of equivalential logics in the sense of Prucnal and Wroński [18], and it is extended to nonfinitary logics. The main result states that a logic is algebraizable (p.i.-algebraizable) iff it is finitely equivalential (equivalential) and the truth predicate in the reduced matrix models is equationally definable.
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  • 7
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 279-302 
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    Keywords: temporal logic ; axiomatization ; first-order temporal/modal logics
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    Notes: Abstract We present an axiomatisation for the first-order temporal logic with connectives Until and Since over the class of all linear flows of time. Completeness of the axiom system is proved. We also add a few axioms to find a sound and complete axiomatisation for the first order temporal logic of Until and Since over rational numbers time.
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  • 8
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 325-354 
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    Keywords: infinitary predicate KD4 ; common knowledge ; Nash equilibrium ; undecidability on playability
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract This paper provides a logic framework for investigations of game theoretical problems. We adopt an infinitary extension of classical predicate logic as the base logic of the framework. The reason for an infinitary extension is to express the common knowledge concept explicitly. Depending upon the choice of axioms on the knowledge operators, there is a hierarchy of logics. The limit case is an infinitary predicate extension of modal propositional logic KD4, and is of special interest in applications. In Part I, we develop the basic framework, and show some applications: an epistemic axiomatization of Nash equilibrium and formal undecidability on the playability of a game. To show the formal undecidability, we use a term existence theorem, which will be proved in Part II.
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  • 9
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 459-459 
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  • 10
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 1-1 
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  • 11
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 67-96 
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    Keywords: Heyting algebra ; natural duality ; optimal duality ; 06D20 ; 06D05 ; 08B99
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The techniques of natural duality theory are applied to certain finitely generated varieties of Heyting algebras to obtain optimal dualities for these varieties, and thereby to address algebraic questions about them. In particular, a complete characterisation is given of the endodualisable finite subdirectly irreducible Heyting algebras. The procedures involved rely heavily on Priestley duality for Heyting algebras.
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  • 12
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 277-290 
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  • 13
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 291-291 
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  • 14
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 393-417 
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    Keywords: MV algebra ; Multi-valued logic ; quantum MV algebra ; unsharp orthoalgebra ; unsharp quantum mechanics
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract We introduce the notion of quantum MV algebra (QMV algebra) as a generalization of MV algebras and we show that the class of all effects of any Hilbert space gives rise to an example of such a structure. We investigate some properties of QMV algebras and we prove that QMV algebras represent non-idempotent extensions of orthomodular lattices.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 3-21 
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    Notes: Abstract Let (L; f) be a finite simple Ockham algebra and let (X;g) be its dual space. We first prove that every connected component of X is either a singleton or a generalised crown (i.e. an ordered set that is connected, has length 1, and all vertices of which have the same degree). The representation of a generalised crown by a square (0,1)-matrix in which all line sums are equal is used throughout, and a complete description of X, including the number of connected components and the degree of the vertices, is given. We then examine the converse problem of when a generalised crown can be made into a connected component of (X; g). We also determine the number of non-isomorphic finite simple Ockham algebras that belong properly to a given subvariety P 2n,0. Finally, we show that the number of fixed points of (L; f) is 0,1, or 2 according to the nature of X.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 97-110 
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    Keywords: demi-p-lattice ; almost-p-lattice ; free algebra ; duality ; poset
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Finite demi-p-lattices are described in terms of the poset of its join irreducible elements endowed with a suitable set of maps. Description of the free algebras of demi-p-lattices and almost-p-lattices with n free generators are given.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 185-204 
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    Keywords: duality ; Priestley spaces ; lattice-ordered groups ; implicative lattices
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    Notes: Abstract A topological duality is presented for a wide class of lattice-ordered structures including lattice-ordered groups. In this new approach, which simplifies considerably previous results of the author, the dual space is obtained by endowing the Priestley space of the underlying lattice with two binary functions, linked by set-theoretical complement and acting as symmetrical partners. In the particular case of l-groups, one of these functions is the usual product of sets and the axiomatization of the dual space is given by very simple first-order sentences, saying essentially that both functions are associative and that the space is a residuated semigroup with respect to each of them.
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  • 18
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 221-237 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; logic of action
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    Notes: Abstract We describe a new way in which theories about the deontic status of actions can be represented in terms of the standard two-sorted first-order extensional predicate calculus. Some of the resulting formal theories are easy to implement in Prolog; one prototype implementation—R. M. Lee's deontic expert shell DX—is briefly described.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 239-241 
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    Keywords: congruence modular algebras ; directly indecomposable algebras ; central elements
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    Notes: Abstract It is proved that the directly indecomposable algebras in a congruence modular equational class ν form a ∀∃∀ first-order class provided that ν fulfils some two natural assumptions.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 373-408 
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    Keywords: intermediate predicate logic ; nonstandard intermediate predicate logic ; predicate constructive logic ; nonstandard predicate constructive logic ; maximal predicate constructive logic ; maximal nonstandard predicate constructive logic ; smooth predicate constructive logic ; 03B55 ; 03C90
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    Notes: Abstract We extend to the predicate frame a previous characterization of the maximal intermediate propositional constructive logics. This provides a technique to get maximal intermediate predicate constructive logics starting from suitable sets of classically valid predicate formulae we call maximal nonstandard predicate constructive logics. As an example of this technique, we exhibit two maximal intermediate predicate constructive logics, yet leaving open the problem of stating whether the two logics are distinct. Further properties of these logics will be also investigated.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 31-66 
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    Keywords: distributive p-algebra ; Lee-class ; universal/homogeneous model ; algebraically/existentially complete model ; natural duality ; doubly ordered Boolean space
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract We give a detailed account of the Algebraically Closed and Existentially Closed members of the second Lee class B 2 of distributive p-algebras, culminating in an explicit construction of the countable homogeneous universal model of B 2. The axioms of Schmid [7], [8] for the AC and EC members of B 2 are reduced to what we prove to be an irredundant set of axioms. The central tools used in this study are the strong duality of Clark and Davey [3] for B 2 and the method of Clark [2] for constructing AC and EC algebras using a strong duality. Applied to B 2, this method transfers the entire discussion into an equivalent dual category X 2 of Boolean spaces which carry a pair of tightly interacting orderings. The doubly ordered spaces of X 2 prove to be much more readily constructed and analyzed than the corresponding algebras in B 2.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 151-183 
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    Keywords: Semi-DeMorgan algebra ; duality
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    Notes: Abstract Semi-DeMorgan algebras are a common generalization of DeMorgan algebras and pseudocomplemented distributive lattices. A duality for them is developed that builds on the Priestley duality for distributive lattices. This duality is then used in several applications. The subdirectly irreducible semi-DeMorgan algebras are characterized. A theory of “partial diagrams” is developed, where properties of algebras are tied to the omission of certain partial diagrams from their duals. This theory is then used to find and give axioms for the largest variety of semi-DeMorgan algebras with the congruence extension property.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 225-261 
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    Keywords: Priestley duality ; Stone duality ; Pontryagin duality ; character group ; program semantics ; Bochvar Logic ; regular identities
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The paper discusses “regularisation” of dualities. A given duality between (concrete) categories, e.g. a variety of algebras and a category of representation spaces, is lifted to a duality between the respective categories of semilattice representations in the category of algebras and the category of spaces. In particular, this gives duality for the regularisation of an irregular variety that has a duality. If the type of the variety includes constants, then the regularisation depends critically on the location or absence of constants within the defining identities. The role of schizophrenic objects is discussed, and a number of applications are given. Among these applications are different forms of regularisation of Priestley, Stone and Pontryagin dualities.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 361-392 
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    Keywords: linear logic ; set theory
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    Notes: Abstract In this paper, we develop the system LZF of set theory with the unrestricted comprehension in full linear logic and show that LZF is a conservative extension of ZF− i.e., the Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of regularity. We formulate LZF as a sequent calculus with abstraction terms and prove the partial cut-elimination theorem for it. The cut-elimination result ensures the subterm property for those formulas which contain only terms corresponding to sets in ZF−. This implies that LZF is a conservative extension of ZF− and therefore the former is consistent relative to the latter.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 293-322 
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    Keywords: nonstandard set theory ; partially saturated subuniverses
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    Notes: Abstract In this article
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  • 26
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 419-426 
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    Keywords: Curry-Howard isomorphism ; typed lambda-calculus ; classical logic
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    Notes: Abstract A reduction rule is introduced as a transformation of proof figures in implicational classical logic. Proof figures are represented as typed terms in a λ-calculus with a new constant P ((α→β)→α). It is shown that all terms with the same type are equivalent with respect to β-reduction augmented by this P-reduction rule. Hence all the proofs of the same implicational formula are equivalent. It is also shown that strong normalization fails for βP-reduction. Weak normalization is shown for βP-reduction with another reduction rule which simplifies α of ((α → β) → α) → α into an atomic type.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 5-18 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; conditional obligation ; dyadic deontic logics ; defeasibility
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The purpose of the paper is to present a logical framework that allow to formalize a kind of prima facie duties, defeasible conditional duties, indefeasible conditional duties and actual (indefeasible) duties, as well as to show their logical interconnections.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 117-137 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; conflicting obligation ; partial ordering ; modal logic ; urgency comparison
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    Notes: Abstract Normal systems of modal logic, interpreted as deontic logics, are unsuitable for a logic of conflicting obligations. By using modal operators based on a more complex semantics, however, we can provide for conflicting obligations, as in [9], which is formally similar to a fragment of the logic of ability later given in [2], Having gone that far, we may find it desirable to be able to express and consider claims about the comparative strengths, or degrees of urgency, of the conflicting obligations under which we stand. This paper, building on the formalism of the logic of ability in [2], provides a complete and decidable system for such a language.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 205-224 
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    Keywords: bounded distributive lattices ; Priestley spaces ; Priestley relations ; join-homomorphisms ; lattice homomorphisms ; closure operators ; quantifiers ; varieties ; congruence relations
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    Notes: Abstract It was shown in [3] (see also [5]) that there is a duality between the category of bounded distributive lattices endowed with a join-homomorphism and the category of Priestley spaces endowed with a Priestley relation. In this paper, bounded distributive lattices endowed with a join-homomorphism, are considered as algebras and we characterize the congruences of these algebras in terms of the mentioned duality and certain closed subsets of Priestley spaces. This enable us to characterize the simple and subdirectly irreducible algebras. In particular, Priestley relations enable us to characterize the congruence lattice of the Q-distributive lattices considered in [4]. Moreover, these results give us an effective method to characterize the simple and subdirectly irreducible monadic De Morgan algebras [7]. The duality considered in [4], was obtained in terms of the range of the quantifiers, and such a duality was enough to obtain the simple and subdirectly irreducible algebras, but not to characterize the congruences.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 323-360 
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    Keywords: circumscription ; honesty ; modal logic ; partial models ; stable sets
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    Notes: Abstract We propose an epistemic logic in which knowledge is fully introspective and implies truth, although truth need not imply epistemic possibility. The logic is presented in sequential format and is interpreted in a natural class of partial models, called balloon models. We examine the notions of honesty and circumscription in this logic: What is the state of an agent that ‘only knows ϕ’ and which honest ϕ enable such circumscription? Redefining stable sets enables us to provide suitable syntactic and semantic criteria for honesty. The rough syntactic definition of honesty is the existence of a minimal stable expansion, so the problem resides in the ordering relation underlying minimality. We discuss three different proposals for this ordering, together with their semantic counterparts, and show their effects on the induced notions of honesty.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 427-454 
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    Keywords: recursive functions ; computational complexity ; subrecursive hierarchies
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract This paper deals with a philosophical question that arises within the theory of computational complexity: how to understand the notion of INTRINSIC complexity or difficulty, as opposed to notions of difficulty that depend on the particular computational model used. The paper uses ideas from Blum's abstract approach to complexity theory to develop an extensional approach to this question. Among other things, it shows how such an approach gives detailed confirmation of the view that subrecursive hierarchies tend to rank functions in terms of their intrinsic, and not just their model-dependent, difficulty, and it shows how the approach allows us to model the idea that intrinsic difficulty is a fuzzy concept.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 47-71 
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    Keywords: prima facie duties ; defeasible reasoning ; practical reasoning ; epistemology
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    Notes: Abstract Sir David Ross introduced prima facie duties, or acts with a tendency to be duties proper. He also spoke of general prima facie principles, wwhich attribute to acts having some feature the tendency to be a duty proper. Like Utilitarians from Mill to Hare, he saw a role for such principles in the epistemology of duty: in the process by means of which, in any given situation, a moral code can help us to find out what we ought to do. After formalizing general prima facie principles as universally quantified conditionals I will show how seeming duties can be detached from them. There will be examples involving lies, burnt offerings and the question of whether to have a napkin on your lap while eating asparagus. They will illustrate the defeasibility of this detachment, how it can lead into dilemmas, and how general prima facie principles are overridden by more specific ones.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 193-220 
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    Notes: Abstract We present a solution to the paradox of free choice permission by introducing strong and weak permission in a deontic logic of action. It is shown how counterintuitive consequences of strong permission can be avoided by limiting the contexts in which an action can be performed. This is done by introducing the only operator, which allows us to say that only α is performed (and nothing else), and by introducing contextual interpretation of action terms.
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  • 34
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: practical progress ; biomedical sciences ; Regularität ; Myokardprotektion
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary An attempt is made to elucidate the structure of the term ‘practical progress’ and to reconstruct it logically. The importance of discovery and confirmation of new regularities as well as of practical rules arising from them depends on their contribution to the solution of practical problems. The application of this structuralistic definition of ‘practical progress’ is demonstrated with an example from cardiac surgery concerning the solution of the practical medical problem of myocardial protection during open heart surgery.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 55-69 
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: Constructivist Philosophy of Science ; Measurement-theoretical Apriori ; Protogeometry ; Protologic ; Protophysics ; Protoscience ; Prototheory
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary A central concept of the constructivist philosophy of science is the term ‘protoscience’. From an orthodox point of view, protosciences are bound to give the so called ‘measurement-theoretical Apriori’ (‘meßtheoretisches Apriori’) for a science. Protophysics for example (operationally) defines the quantities ‘length’, ‘time’, and ‘mass’. Thereby it yields some basic physical laws, which usually are regarded as “laws of nature”, but in fact follow already from the definitions of the basic quantities. The attempt to establish other protodisciplines than protophysics is traditionally regarded as not very promising, because other sciences do not like physics build their main theories on certain basic quantities. Nevertheless such enterprises like “protochemistry”, “protobiology” and “protopsychology” recently appeared on the scene. Does this mark a breakthrough in constructivist philosophy of science or is this multiplication of protosciences no more than a promotion strategy? In the article it is shown that the orthodox definition of ‘protoscience’ is in fact far to narrow. An alternative definition is proposed which on one hand preserves the classic tasks of protophysics but on the other hand allows for other protosciences as equally useful enterprises. A central concept within the complex topic “protoscience” is the one of ‘reconstruction’. It can be shown that there is a certain ambiguity in the use of this critical concept. Therefore the article ends with a reconstruction of the term ‘reconstruction’.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 167-170 
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: International Congress ; Logic ; Methodology ; History and Philosophy of Science ; Foundations of Formal and Natural Sciences ; Ethics and social aspects of Science and Technology
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary The International Union of History and Philosophy of Science organizing the 10th International Congress of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science is at its cross-road: the alternative is mass-performance or creative exchange of ideas. The program is criticized because the thematic center in History and Philosophy of Science has been shifted too far into the realm of micro-fields of Logic and the time reduction for presentation and discussion of papers to 20 minutes should be reconsidered. Several outstanding papers are shortly discussed: Martin-Löw on “Formalized Tarski-Semantics of Type Theory”, Hoyningen-Huene on “Feyerabend and Kuhn”, Leroux on “Helmholtz and Hertz”, and Muller on “Bell meets Dirac”. Finally the visiting-program is gratefully appreciated.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 281-306 
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: common sense ; common sense psychology ; modal logics ; psycho-logic
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    Notes: Summary This paper is about the efforts the norwegian psychologist Jan Smedslund made in analyzing and checking philosophically his theory called ‘Psycho-logic’. I am going to reconstruct and discuss the debates between Smedslund and several critics, which have been going on since about 1978, mainly in the “Scandinavian Journal of Psychology”. A result will be that the kind of modal logics Smedslund uses — a type with realistic semantics and epistemology — is not the proper one for the analysis of ‘Psycho-logic’.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 347-352 
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: dialectic ; theory of dialectic ; Hegel ; Hegel's logic ; predication ; transcendental conditions of predicate logic ; formal explication ; artefacts of formalization
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary The criticism formulated by L. B. Puntel concerning the theory of dialectic proposed by the author is rejected. Puntel's attempt at explicating predication by means of (second order) predicate logic fails: It misjudges predication being already presupposed for the possibility of predicate logic, thus belonging to the transcendental conditions of formal predicate logic, so that predication itself cannot be further explicated by means of such logic. What is in fact criticized by Puntel is something like an artefact of formalization. The unreflected application of formal logic here generates problems instead of solving them.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 307-323 
    ISSN: 1572-8587
    Keywords: Continuity ; natural classification ; history ; aims of science ; realism ; Pierre Dulem
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Wer nur einen kurzen Blick auf die Wellen, die einen Strand zu erobern versuchen, wirft, bemerkt nicht das Ansteigen der Flut. Er sieht, wie eine Woge sich erhebt, näher kommt, sich schäumend bricht, er sieht wie sie einen schmalen streifen Sand bedeckt und sich dann wieddr zurückzieht, wobei der Boden, der erobet schien, wieder trocken wird. eine neue Wogen folgt ihr, welche manchmal ein wenig weiter geht als die vorherige, manchmal dagegen nicht einmal jenen Kiesel erreicht, den diese benetzt hatte. Aber unter dieseer oberflächlichen Hin- und Herbewegung entsteht eine andere, tiefergehende, langsamere, dem kurzen Beobachter unmerkliche Bewegung, die stets im Selben Sinne fortschreitet, der zufolge das Meer unaufhörlich steigt.
    Notes: Summary Duhem is commonly held to have founded his view of history of science as continuous on the ‘metaphsical assertion’ of natural classification. With the help of a strict distinction between formal and material characterization of natural classification I try to show that this imputation is problematic, if not simply incorrect. My analysis opens alternative perspectives on Duhem's talk of continuity, the ideal form of theories, and the rôle of ‘bon sens’; moreover it emphasizes some aspects of Duhem's realism that play an important part in his philosophy of science.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 413-417 
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 445-462 
    ISSN: 1572-8641
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 463-480 
    ISSN: 1572-8641
    Keywords: Human reasoning ; evolution ; deontic reasoning ; transitive reasoning ; non-human primates ; neocortical ratio ; dominance hierarchy
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Research from ethology and evolutionary biology indicates the following about the evolution of reasoning capacity. First, solving problems of social competition and cooperation have direct impact on survival rates and reproductive success. Second, the social structure that evolved from this pressure is the dominance hierarchy. Third, primates that live in large groups with complex dominance hierarchies also show greater neocortical development, and concomitantly greater cognitive capacity. These facts suggest that the necessity of reasoning effectively about dominance hierarchies left an indelible mark on primate reasoning architectures, including that of humans. In order to survive in a dominance hierarchy, an individual must be capable of (a) making rank discriminations, (b) recognizing what is forbidden and what is permitted based one's rank, and (c) deciding whether to engage in or refriin from activities that will allow one to move up in rank. The first problem is closely tied to the capacity for transitive reasoning, while the second and third are intimately related to the capacity for deontic reasoning. I argue that the human capacity for these types of reasoning have evolutionary roots that reach deeper into our ancestral past than the emergence of the hominid line, and the operation of these evolutionarily primitive reasoning systems can be seen in the development of human reasoning and domain-specific effects in adult reasoning.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 507-523 
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    Keywords: Evolutionary psychology ; domain specificity ; modularity ; cognitive flexibility ; learning
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Jerry Fodor divides the mind into peripheral, domain-specific modules and a domaingeneral faculty of central cognition. John Tooby and Lisa Cosmides argue instead that the mind is modular all the way through; cognition consists of a multitude of domain-specific processes. But human thought has a flexible, innovative character that contrasts with the inflexible, stereotyped performances of modular systems. My goal is to discover how minds that are constructed on modular principles might come to exhibit cognitive versatility. Cognitive versatility is exhibited in the ability to learn from experience. How can this ability emerge from the resources made available by earlier stages of cognitive specialization without sacrificing the many benefits of modularization? A transition into versatile cognition occurred in the history of our species. A similar development which occurs within individual ontogeny provides clues about the phylogenetic changes. Annette Karmiloff-Smith describes an ontogenetic process in which the mind's representational resources are enriched. The key idea is that versatile thinkers have access to an inferentially integrated library of knowledge. A distinction between nonconceptual and conceptual representations helps to explain how smart minds can draw much finer-grained discriminations within their experience than can simple minds. This is an important though insufficient condition for cognitive versatility.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 203-228 
    ISSN: 1572-8641
    Keywords: Machine learning ; human learning ; rule ; training instance ; specialize ; generalize
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Learning general concepts in imperfect environments is difficult since training instances often include noisy data, inconclusive data, incomplete data, unknown attributes, unknown attribute values and other barriers to effective learning. It is well known that people can learn effectively in imperfect environments, and can manage to process very large amounts of data. Imitating human learning behavior therefore provides a useful model for machine learning in real-world applications. This paper proposes a new, more effective way to represent imperfect training instances and rules, and based on the new representation, a Human-Like Learning (HULL) algorithm for incrementally learning concepts well in imperfect training environments. Several examples are given to make the algorithm clearer. Finally, experimental results are presented that show the proposed learning algorithm works well in imperfect learning environments.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 525-540 
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    Keywords: Evolved psychological mechanisms ; mate preferences ; scientific method ; abduction ; evidence ; evolutionary logic ; cross-species comparisons ; correlative analysis ; experiment ; causation ; function
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Evolutionary psychology is a science in the making, working toward the goal of showing how psychological adaptation underlies much human behavior. The knee-jerk reaction that sociobiology is unscientific because it tells “just-so stories” has become a common charge against evolutionary psychology as well. My main positive thesis is that inference to the best explanation is a proper method for evolutionary analyses, and it supplies a new perspective on the issues raised in Schlinger's (1996) just-so story critique. My main negative thesis is that, like many nonevolutionist critics, Schlinger's objections arise from misunderstandings of the evolutionary approach. Evolutionary psychology has progressed beyond telling just-so stories. It has found a host of ingenious special techniques to test hypotheses about the adaptive significance and proximate mechanisms of behavior. Naturalistic data using the comparative method combined with controlled tests using statistical analyses of data provide good evidence for a variety of hypotheses about behavioral control mechanisms — whether in nonhumans or in humans. For instance, the work of Gangestad and Thornhill on evolved mate preferences and fluctuating asymmetry of body type (FA) is a model of success. As the quantity and quality of evidence increase, we are entitled not just to regard such evolutionary hypotheses as preferable, but also as true. Such studies combine to show that the best explanation of “the psychic unity of humankind” — common patterns across societies, history, and cultures exposed by evolutionists — is the gendered, adapted, evolved species-typical design of the mind.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 23-29 
    ISSN: 1572-8730
    Keywords: distributive lattices ; monadic algebras ; quantifiers ; Priestley spaces ; Priestley duality ; free algebras ; free monadic Boolean algebras
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The dual spaces of the free distributive lattices with a quantifier are constructed, generalizing Halmos' construction of the dual spaces of free monadic Boolean algebras.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 111-131 
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    Keywords: global subdirect product ; sheaf ; lattice ordered algebra ; Nachbin's theorem ; Chinese remainder theorem ; Priestley duality
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Given a variety ν we study the existence of a class ℱ such that S1 every A ε ν can be represented as a global subdirect product with factors in ℱ and S2 every non-trivial A ε ℱ is globally indecomposable. We show that the following varieties (and its subvarieties) have a class ℱ satisfying properties S1 and S2: p-algebras, distributive double p-algebras of a finite range, semisimple varieties of lattice expansions such that the simple members form a universal class (bounded distributive lattices, De Morgan algebras, etc) and arithmetical varieties in which the finitely subdirectly irreducible algebras form a universal class (f-rings, vector groups, Wajsberg algebras, discriminator varieties, Heyting algebras, etc). As an application we obtain results analogous to that of Nachbin saying that if every chain of prime filters of a bounded distributive lattice has at most length 1, then the lattice is Boolean.
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 133-149 
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    Keywords: Priestley duality ; Heyting algebra ; subalgebra lattice ; modular lattice
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Priestley duality can be used to study subalgebras of Heyting algebras and related structures. The dual concept is that of congruence on the dual space and the congruence lattice of a Heyting space is dually isomorphic to the subalgebra lattice of the dual algebra. In this paper we continue our investigation of the congruence lattice of a Heyting space that was undertaken in [10], [8] and [12]. Our main result is a characterization of the modularity of this lattice (Theorem 2.12). Partial results about its complementedness are also given, and among other things a characterization of those finite Heyting algebras with a complemented subalgebra lattice (Theorem 3.5).
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    Studia logica 56 (1996), S. 263-276 
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    Keywords: relevant logics ; Priestley duality ; piggyback duality ; correspondence theory
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract This paper defines a category of bounded distributive lattice-ordered grupoids with a left-residual operation that corresponds to a weak system in the family of relevant logics. Algebras corresponding to stronger systems are obtained by adding further postulates. A duality theoey piggy-backed on the Priestley duality theory for distributive lattices is developed for these algebras. The duality theory is then applied in providing characterizations of the dual spaces corresponding to stronger relevant logics.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 1-1 
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 19-45 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; nonmonotonic logic
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents a nonmonotonic deontic logic based on commonsense entailment. It establishes criteria a successful account of obligation should satisfy, and develops a theory that satisfies them. The theory includes two conditional notions of prima facie obligation. One is constitutive; the other is epistemic, and follows nonmonotonically from the constitutive notion. The paper defines unconditional notions of prima facie obligation in terms of the conditional notions.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 91-115 
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    Keywords: deontic logic ; deontic conditionals ; contrary-to-duty obligations ; reparational obligations ; formalisation of norms
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    Notes: Abstract We investigate under what conditions contrary-to-duty (CTD) structures lacking temporal and action elements can be given a coherent reading. We argue, contrary to some recent proposals, that CTD is not an instance of defeasible reasoning, and that methods of nonmonotonic logics are inadequate since they are unable to distinguish between defeasibility and violation of primary obligations. We propose a semantic framework based on the idea that primary and CTD obligations are obligations of different kinds: a CTD obligation pertains to, or pre-supposes, a certain context in which a primary obligation is already violated. This framework is presented initially as an extension of Standard Deontic Logic (SDL), a normal modal logic of type KD, and is illustrated by application to a series of examples. The concluding section is concerned with some resemblances between CTD and defeasible reasoning. We show first that the SDL-based framework contains a flaw and must be adjusted. A discussion of possible adjustments, including an alternative treatment in terms of a preference-based semantics, reveals difficulties that are reminiscent of problems in defeasible reasoning and intensional accounts of defeasible conditionals.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 243-278 
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    Keywords: ramified type theory ; typed lambda calculus ; substitution
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    Notes: Abstract The paper first formalizes the ramified type theory as (informally) described in the Principia Mathematica [32]. This formalization is close to the ideas of the Principia, but also meets contemporary requirements on formality and accuracy, and therefore is a new supply to the known literature on the Principia (like [25], [19], [6] and [7]). As an alternative, notions from the ramified type theory are expressed in a lambda calculus style. This situates the type system of Russell and Whitehead in a modern setting. Both formalizations are inspired by current developments in research on type theory and typed lambda calculus; see [3].
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 355-357 
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    Keywords: compactness ; linear equations
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract It is proved that a system of linear equations over an arbitrary field has a solution if every finite subsystem has a solution provided that the set of variables can be well ordered.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 409-418 
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    Keywords: nonstandard methods ; topological field ; hyperalgebraic elements ; infinitesimal ; topological model ; 12F05 ; 12J99 ; 12L15 ; 03C20 ; 03H05
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Using nonstandard methods, we generalize the notion of an algebraic primitive element to that of an hyperalgebraic primitive element, and show that under mild restrictions, such elements can be found infinitesimally close to any given element of a topological field.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 359-372 
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    Keywords: normal modal logic ; tableau-calculus
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    Notes: Abstract We give sound and complete tableau and sequent calculi for the prepositional normal modal logics S4.04, K4B and G 0(these logics are the smallest normal modal logics containing K and the schemata □A → □□A, □A → A and □⋄□A → (□ → □A); □A → □□A and A→□⋄A; □A → □□A and □(□(A→ □A) → A) → □A resp.) with the following properties: the calculi for S4.04 and G 0are cut-free and have the interpolation property, the calculus for K4B contains a restricted version of the cut-rule, the so-called analytical cut-rule. In addition we show that G 0is not compact (and therefore not canonical), and we proof with the tableau-method that G 0is characterised by the class of all finite, (transitive) trees of degenerate or simple clusters of worlds; therefore G 0is decidable and also characterised by the class of all frames for G 0.
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    Studia logica 57 (1996), S. 437-456 
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    Keywords: Łukasiewicz logics ; Gentzen-style formulation ; completeness ; finite axiomatizability
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    Topics: Mathematics , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract In this paper, we consider multiplicative-additive fragments of affine propositional classical linear logic extended with n-contraction. To be specific, n-contraction (n ⩾ 2) is a version of the contraction rule where (n+ 1) occurrences of a formula may be contracted to n occurrences. We show that expansions of the linear models for (n + 1)- valued Łukasiewicz logic are models for the multiplicative-additive classical linear logic, its affine version and their extensions with n-contraction. We prove the finite axiomatizability for the classes of finite models, as well as for the class of infinite linear models based on the set of rational numbers in the interval [0, 1]. The axiomatizations obtained in a Gentzen-style formulation are equivalent to finite and infinite-valued Łukasiewicz logics.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 1-13 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 29-53 
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    Keywords: philosophy of science ; philosophy of language ; abstraction ; ideation ; materially-synthetic abstraction ; chemistry ; biology ; constructivism ; methodical philosophy
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary The methods of abstraction and ideation are indispensable tools to introduce new concepts in a scientific terminology. The latter is paradigmatically introduced within the ‘protophysical program’ whereas abstraction is commonly applied in logics and mathematics. The application within the reconstruction of chemistry and biology causes several problems. Ideation appears to be inadequate whereas the application of abstraction necessitates a critical and minute examination of the corresponding equivalence relations. These problems are solved by the introduction of the method ofmaterially synthetic (material-synthetische) abstraction which is exemplified by the introduction of the chemical concept of ‘substance’ (Stoff) and the biological concept of ‘hereditary factor’ (Erbanlage).
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 171-185 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 131-165 
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    Keywords: Hegelian dialectic ; dialectical logic ; Hegelian logic ; formal logic ; formalization ; negation ; contradiction ; concept ; higher concept ; categories ; antinomic structure
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    Notes: Summary The present article purports to answer the old question of whether the concept (and the method) of Hegelian dialectic can be clarified. Three arguments are advanced in defence of the claim that Hegel's conception is not in fact intelligible. The first argument shows that dialectical negation leads to an infinite regress. The second argument analyses Hegel's claim that the dialectical method yields a positive result and demonstrates that this claim remains completely unsubstantiated and unsubstantiable. The third argument comes to the conclusion that Hegelian dialectic cannot pretend to be an acceptable explication of the “intuitive” understanding of negation. An APPENDIX examines critically a new attempt by D. Wandschneider of reconstructing the first steps of Hegelian dialectical logic by displaying “antinomic structures” and by employing (at least to a limited extent) the techniques of formal logic.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 215-234 
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    Keywords: abstraction ; application entities ; idealization function ; idealization relation ; idealized entities ; idealized representation ; idealized theory-element ; idealized theory-net ; theory application
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary The concept of Galilean Idealization is based on a pragmatically grounded relation between universes of so-called real and idealized entities. The concept was developed in the course of a critical discussion of different explications of the concept of idealization (e.g. by W. F. Barr, C. G. Hempel and L. Nowak), these being attempts to specify sufficient syntactic and semantic criterions for idealization. But this line of argument shall not be followed here. Instead, first the concept of Pragmatic Idealization, and as its special case the Galilean one, is presented (1.) and certain aspects of the application of an idealized theory are discussed (2.). Then, working within the Strucuralist View of theories, definitions of the idealized variants of the diachronic theory-element and theory-net are presented (3.).
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 353-366 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 407-411 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 421-422 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 267-279 
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    Keywords: Holism ; particularism ; Bell's theorem ; supervenience ; philosophy of quantum physics
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    Notes: Summary The present essay aims at broadening the recent discussion on the issue of holism vs. particularism in quantum physics. I begin with a clarification of the relation between the holism/particularism debate and the discussion of supervenience relation. I then defend particularism in physics (including quantum physics) by considering a new classification of properties of physical systems. With such a classification, the results in the Bell theorem are shown to violate spatial separability but not physical particularism.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 325-346 
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    Keywords: Imre Lakatos ; Scientific Research Programmes ; Rational Reconstruction ; Origin of Life Theories ; Oparin-S. Fox ; Haldane-Muller ; Orgel-Crick-Spiegelman ; Ribozymes ; Qßreplicase System
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary During the course of its short history the discipline concerned with the origin of life has given birth to several scientific programmes in the Lakatosian sense, two of the most prominent and widespread being those initiated by Oparin (life began from protein entities) and Muller-Haldane (life began from genetic entities). The present paper sets down the abses for the rational reconstruction of both views by identifying theirhard core and some of their successivedevelopments. An assessment is made of the various stages in the evolution of these programmes with respect to the crucial Lakatosian notions ofprogressivity andregressivity and of how their arguments stand up against one another. This epistemological analysis also establishes the internal reasons why the RNA version of thegenotype programme (developed in particulr by L. Orgel and S. Spiegelman) has today taken on a progressive character and enjoys recognition by the international scientific cvommunity.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 367-406 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 419-419 
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 33-46 
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    Keywords: Situated Action ; symbol systems ; computation ; universal machines
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    Topics: Computer Science , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Vera & Simon (1993a) have argued that the theories and methods known as “situated action” or “situativity theory” are compatible with the assumptions and methodology of the physical symbol systems hypothesis and do not require a new approach to the study of cognition. When the central criterion of computational universality is added to the loose definition of a symbol system which Vera and Simon provide, it becomes apparent that there are important incompatibilities between the two approaches such that situativity theory cannot be subsumed within the symbol systems approach. Symbol systems and situativity theoretic approaches are, and should be seen to be, competing approaches to the study of cognition.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 131-142 
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 47-60 
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    Keywords: Behavioral criterion (of intended object of representation) ; Braitenberg vehicle ; Dennett ; Dretske ; extensional content ; information theory account of representation ; intended object ; intentionality ; intrinsic natural representation ; Lloyd ; machine error ; misrepresentation ; qualia ; representation ; Wittgenstein
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    Notes: Abstract In Simple Minds, Dan Lloyd presents a reductive account of naturally representing machines. The theory entails that a system represents an event by virtue of potentially misrepresenting it whenever the machine satisfies a multiple information channel, convergence, and uptake condition. I argue that Lloyd's conditions are insufficient for systems intrinsically naturally to misrepresent, and hence insufficient for them intrinsically naturally to represent. The appearance of potential misrepresentation in such machines is achieved only by reference to the extrinsic design or extrinsic interpretation or attribution of an intrinsically nonexistent or underdetermined purpose, end, or goal to such devices in identifying an intended object of representation in the system's salient behavior under the uptake condition. The implication is that Lloyd-representation is not intrinsic natural representation in a cognitively relevant sense, and Lloyd's simple ‘minds’ are not minds but mere machines.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 71-90 
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    Keywords: naturalism ; naturalistic epistemology ; analytical epistemology ; theory of knowledge ; theory of epistemic justification ; causal fallacy
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary Since the publication of W. V. Quine's classic paper “Epistemology Naturalized” there have been many discussion on the virtues and vices of naturalistic epistemology. Within these discussions not much attention has been paid to a basic question: What makes an epistemology naturalistic? I give an answer by providing a logical geography of competing naturalistic positions. Then I defend naturalistic epistemology against the charge of the so-called causal fallacy. Finally I give a critical appraisal of different naturalistic theories of knowledge and introduce cooperative naturalism as the most promising research strategy.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 91-130 
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    Keywords: mind-body-problem ; property-explanations ; conceptual explanations ; reductionism ; philosophy of (neuro)physiology ; philosophy of psychology
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary In the last decades of Analytical Philosophy, contributions to the so-called mind-body-problem have been suffering by several serious methodological misunderstandings: they have failed, for instance, to distinguish between explanations of particular and strictly general (“necessary”) properties and between two important senses of existential statements; and they have overlooked the role conceptual explanations play in the development of science. Changing our methodological premisses, we should be able to put questions like that of the relation between (neuro)physiological and psychological phenomena in a new way - and we should be able to see that such newly understood questions allow answers which evade the pitfalls of both reductionist and holistic positions. The paper tries to illustrate and to defend these contentions by reference to a very elementary example: the rational re-building of our concepts to identify behaviour by which a subject controls the position of his body in space.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 187-202 
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 203-213 
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    Keywords: Duhem ; empiricism ; realism ; success of science ; laws of nature ; observation
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary Pierre Duhem is an outstanding exponent of empiricism. According to the empiricist view scientific laws and theories merely describe formal relations between observable phenomena. Duhems' important notion of natural classification is intended to explain the predictive success of science. I shall argue that it can only be interpreted realistically. Besides the success of science, two further arguments are put forward in favor of realism: (i) the fact that laws of nature are necessary, and (ii) the extension of observation by using instruments.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 243-265 
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    Keywords: Scientometrics ; communication ; sociology of knowledge ; self-organization
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary The focus on discourse and communication in the recent sociology of scientific knowledge offers new perspectives for an integration of qualitative and quantitative approaches in science studies. The common point of interest is the question of how reflexive communication systems communicate. The elaboration of the mathematical theory of communication into a theory of potentially self-organizing entropical systems enables us to distinguish the various layers of communication, and to specify the dynamic changes in these configurations over time. For example, a paradigmatic discourse can be considered as a virtual communiction system at the supra-individual level. Communication systems, however, cannot be directly observed. One observes only their instantaneous operations. The reflexive analyst is able to attribute the observed uncertainty to hypothesized systems that interact in the events. The implications of this perspective for various programmes in the sociology of scientific knowledge are discussed.
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    Journal for general philosophy of science 27 (1996), S. 235-241 
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    Keywords: Rechtstheorie ; Privatrechtsinstitut ; Eigentum ; Deontik ; ökonomisches Modell
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    Topics: Philosophy , Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science
    Notes: Summary In continuation of my treatise „Grundlegung zu einer Strukturtheorie des Rechts” Part I of this paper develops a typology of the fundamental patterns of institutes of law belonging to the relations of persons to move (movable or fixed)) assets. In Part II some reflections deal with the deontics of Gestalten of actions (in the sense of Part I) and related models in economics.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 1-32 
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    Keywords: Cognitive modelling ; modularity ; quantifier scoping
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    Notes: Abstract Fodor argued that in contrast to “input systems” which are informationally encapsulated, general intelligence is unencapsulated and hence non-modular; for this reason, he suggested, prospects for understanding it are not bright. It is argued that an additional property, primitive functionality, is required for non-modularity. A functionally primitive computational model for quantifier scoping, limited to some scoping influences, is then motivated, and an implementation described. It is argued that only such a model can be faithful to intuitive scope preferences. But it is also argued that an extended model which includes all scoping influences is a hopeless prospect from a developmental perspective. Fodor's views are concluded to have some independent support: quantifier scoping is a mental ability parasitic on general intelligence that is non-modular though in a revised sense, warranting pessimism about our ability of model it.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 61-87 
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    Keywords: Consciousness ; qualia ; physicalism ; functionalism ; mental content ; intentionality ; secondary qualities
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    Notes: Abstract In this paper, I provide further elaboration of my theory of conscious experience, in response to the criticisms made by David Cole, and I directly address a number of the issues he raises. In particular, I examine Cole's claim that functionalism rather than neurophysiology is the theoretical key to consciousness. I argue that weak type-physicalism provides an analysis which is more fine grained, makes weaker assumptions, and allows more scope for empirical methods.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 143-157 
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    Keywords: Consciousness ; perception ; knowledge ; self-consciousness ; attention
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    Notes: Abstract It has been argued that consciousness might be what differentiates human from machine mentality. What then is consciousness? We discuss consciousness, particularly perception accounts of consciousness. It is argued that perception and consciousness are distinct. Armstrong's (1980) account of consciousness is rejected. It is proposed that perception is a necessary but not sufficient condition for consciousness, and that there is a distinction to be drawn between consciousness and self-consciousness. Consciousness is tightly linked to attention and to certain sorts of knowledge. Implications for machine consciousness and machine attention are discussed.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 173-201 
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    Keywords: Variables ; quantification ; systematicity ; combinators ; reduced representations ; symbolic representations ; working memory ; inference
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    Notes: Abstract Connectionist attention to variables has been too restricted in two ways. First, it has not exploited certain ways of doing without variables in the symbolic arena. One variable-avoidance method, that of logical combinators, is particularly well established there. Secondly, the attention has been largely restricted to variables in long-term rules embodied in connection weight patterns. However, short-lived bodies of information, such as sentence interpretations or inference products, may involve quantification. Therefore short-lived activation patterns may need to achieve the effect of variables. The paper is mainly a theoretical analysis of some benefits and drawbacks of using logical combinators to avoid variables in short-lived connectionist encodings without loss of expressive power. The paper also includes a brief survey of some possible methods for avoiding variables other than by using combinators.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 159-172 
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    Keywords: Compositionality ; connectionism ; functionalism ; language of thought ; systematicity
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    Notes: Abstract The paper examines an alleged distinction claimed to exist by Van Gelder between two different, but equally acceptable ways of accounting for the systematicity of cognitive output (two “varieties of compositionality”): “concatenative compositionality” vs. “functional compositionality.” The second is supposed to provide an explanation alternative to the Language of Thought Hypothesis. I contend that, if the definition of “concatenative compositionality” is taken in a different way from the official one given by Van Gelder (but one suggested by some of his formulations) then there is indeed a different sort of compositionality; however, the second variety is not an alternative to the language of thought in that case. On the other hand, if the concept of concatenative compositionality is taken in a different way, along the lines of Van Gelder's explicit definition, then there is no reason to think that there is an alternative way of explaining systematicity.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 229-238 
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    Keywords: Continuum ; counting ; energy ; infinite ; information ; Landauer ; limits ; physical
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    Notes: Abstract Existing work on the ultimate limits of computation has urged that the apparatus of real numbers should be eschewed as an investigative tool and replaced by discrete mathematics. The present paper argues for a radical extension of this viewpoint: not only the continuum but all infinitary constructs including the rationals and the potential infinite sequence of whole numbers need to be eliminated if a self-consistent investigative framework is to be achieved.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 287-394 
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    Keywords: Information modeling ; information vs. data ; knowledge vs. information ; information systems development ; semantic data modeling ; the relational data model ; the object-oriented paradigm ; data vs. reality ; analytic philosophy ; ontology ; epistemology ; views ; statements ; entities ; events ; attributes ; actions ; relationships ; categories and kinds
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    Notes: Abstract Information modeling (also known as conceptual modeling or semantic data modeling) may be characterized as the formulation of a model in which information aspects of objective and subjective reality are presented (“the application”), independent of datasets and processes by which they may be realized (“the system”). A methodology for information modeling should incorporate a number of concepts which have appeared in the literature, but should also be formulated in terms of constructs which are understandable to and expressible by the system user as well as the system developer. This is particularly desirable in connection with certain “intimate” relationships, such as being the same as or being a part of. The conceptual basis for such a methodology, as conventionally approached, seems flavored with notions arising in the systems arena to an inappropriate degree. To counter this tendency it is useful to turn to a discipline not hitherto much involved in technology, namely analytic philosophy.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 481-505 
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    Keywords: Neuroscience ; evolutionary psychology ; interfield theory ; evolution ; teleology ; function ; functionalism ; brain mapping ; language processing
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    Notes: Abstract The idea of integrating evolutionary biology and psychology has great promise, but one that will be compromised if psychological functions are conceived too abstractly and neuroscience is not allowed to play a contructive role. We argue that the proper integration of neuroscience, psychology, and evolutionary biology requires a telelogical as opposed to a merely componential analysis of function. A teleological analysis is required in neuroscience itself; we point to traditional and curent research methods in neuroscience, which make critical use of distinctly teleological functional considerations in brain cartography. Only by invoking teleological criteria can researchers distinguish the fruitful ways of identifying brain components from the myriad of possible ways. One likely reason for reluctance to turn to neuroscience is fear of reduction, but we argue that, in the context of a teleological perspective on function, this concern is misplaced. Adducing such theoretical considerations as top-down and bottom-up constraints on neuroscientific and psychological models, as well as existing cases of productive, multidisciplinary cooperation, we argue that integration of neuroscience into psychology and evolutionary biology is likely to be mutually beneficial. We also show how it can be accommodated methodologically within the framework of an interfield theory.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 541-557 
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    Keywords: Adaptation ; cognition ; evolutionary psychology ; human evolution ; language ; rationality
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    Notes: Abstract Evolutionary psychology purports to explain human capacities as adaptations to an ancestral environment. A complete explanation of human language or human reasoning as adaptations depends on assessing an historical claim, that these capacities evolved under the pressure of natural selection and are prevalent because they provided systematic advantages to our ancestors. An outline of the character of the information needed in order to offer complete adaptation explanations is drawn from Robert Brandon (1990), and explanations offered for the evolution of language and reasoning within evolutionary psychology are evaluated. Pinker and Bloom's (1992) defense of human language as an adaptation for verbal communication, Robert Nozick's (1993) account of the evolutionary origin of rationality, and Cosmides and Tooby's (1992) explanation of human reasoning as an adaptation for social exchange, are discussed in light of what is known, and what is not known, about the history of human evolution. In each case, though a plausible case is made that these capacities are adaptations, there is not enough known to offer even a semblance of an explanation of the origin of these capacities. These explanations of the origin of human thought and language are simply speculations lacking the kind of detailed historical information required for an evolutionary explanation of an adaptation.
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    Minds and machines 6 (1996), S. 559-585 
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    Keywords: Evolutionary psychology ; cognitive psychology ; standard social science model ; functional mesh ; adaptive (evolutionary) functions ; selection for ; selection of ; evolution by natural selection ; evolution by random drift ; computational theory ; information-processing theory ; neurological theory ; information-processing tasks ; psychological functions ; how-possibly explanations ; a whole psychology
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    Notes: Abstract The aim of this paper is to clarify and critically assess the methods of evolutionary psychology, and offer a sketch of an alternative methodology. My thesis is threefold. (1) The methods of inquiry unique to evolutionary psychology rest upon the claim that the discovery of theadaptive functions of ancestral psychological capacities leads to the discovery of thepsychological functions of those ancestral capacities. (2) But this claim is false; in fact, just the opposite is true. We first must discover the psychological functions of our psychological capacities in order to discover their adaptive functions. Hence the methods distinctive of evolutionary psychology are idle in our search for the mechanisms of the mind. (3) There are good reasons for preferring an alternative to the methods of evolutionary psychology, an alternative that aims to discover the functions of our psychological capacities by appeal to the concept of awhole psychology.
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    Journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 9 (1996), S. 61-82 
    ISSN: 1573-322X
    Keywords: informed consent ; equity ; fairness ; Louisiana ; pollution ; racism ; radiation ; rights ; uranium
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The paper begins with a brief analysis of the concepts of environmental justice and environmental racism and classism. The authors argue that pollution- and environment-related decision-making is prima facie wrong whenever it results in inequitable treatment of individuals on the basis of race or socio-economic status. The essay next surveys the history of the doctrine of free informed consent and argues that the consent of those affected is necessary for ensuring the fairness of decision-making for siting hazardous facilities. The paper also points out that equal opportunity to environmental protection and free informed consent are important rights. Finally, it presents a case study on the proposed uranium enrichment facility near Homer, Louisiana and argues that siting the plant would violate norms of distributive equity and free informed consent. It concludes that siting the facility is a case of environmental injustice and likely an example of environmental racism or classism.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. v 
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 1-20 
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    Keywords: Darwin ; functionalism ; structuralism ; causal pluralism
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Historians of Biology have divided nineteenth century naturalists into two basic camps, Functionalists and Structuralists. This division is supposed to demarcate the alternative causal presuppositions working beneath research programs. If one is functionally oriented, then organic form will be contingent upon the causal powers of the environment. If structurally oriented, one argues for nonfunctional mechanisms (e.g., internal laws of growth) to account for organic form. Traditionally, Darwin has been grouped with the functionalists because natural selection (an adaptational mechanism) plays the prominent role in shaping organic form. In this paper, I sketch the dichotomy of functionalism versus structuralism and then argue that Darwin cannot be characterized adequately with this dichotomy. I argue that Darwin can incorporate both causal stories because he makes two important modifications to the traditional metaphysical presuppositions. I then offer some brief reflections on the import of Darwin's causal pluralism for the Philosophy of Science.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 21-31 
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    Keywords: Morality ; evolution ; justification ; objectivity
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract A familiar position regarding the evolution of ethics is that biology can explain the origin of morals but that in doing so it removes the possibility of their having objective justification. This position is set fourth in detail in the writings of Michael Ruse (1986, 1987, 1989, 1990a, 1990b) but it is also taken by many others, notably, Jeffrie Murphy (1982), Andrew Oldenquist (1990), and Allan Gibbard (1990), I argue the contrary view that biology provides a justification of the existence of morals which is objective in the sense of being independent of people's moral views and their particular desires and preferences. Ironically, my argument builds on the very premises which are supposed to undermine the objectivity of morals. But my argument stops short of claiming that biology can give us a basis for justifying some particular system of morals. Drawing on an analogy with social contract theory, I offer a general reason why this more ambitious project cannot be expected to succeed if the argument is pursued along the same lines. Finally, I give reasons why the possibility of objective justification for a particular morality cannot be ruled out in general on evolutionary grounds.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 67-88 
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    Keywords: Microbial evolution ; genetic diversity ; genome plasticity ; mutation ; selection ; adaptation ; function ; etiological conception ; fitness ; environmental heterogeneity ; expected time to extinction ; clone ; individual ; clan ; subclan ; bacteriophage ; DNA inversion ; site-specific recombination ; secondary crossover sites ; transposition
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Enzyme directed genetic mechanisms causing random DNA sequence alterations are ubiquitous in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. A number of molecular geneticist have invoked adaptation through natural selection to account for this fact, however, alternative explanations have also flourished. The population geneticist G.C. Williams has dismissed the possibility of selection for mutator activity on a priori grounds. In this paper, I attempt a refutation of Williams' argument. In addition, I discuss some conceptual problems related to recent claims made by microbiologists on the adaptiveness of “molecular variety generators” in the evolution of prokaryotes. A distinction is proposed between selection for mutations caused by a mutator activity and selection for the mutator activity proper. The latter requires a concept of fitness different from the one commonly used in microbiology.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 117-120 
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 33-65 
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    Keywords: Background assumptions ; Darwinism ; evolution ; Newtonian dynamics ; nonequilibrium thermodynamics ; nonlinear dynamics ; probability revolution ; selection ; self-organization ; systems dynamics
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract The Darwinian concept of natural selection was conceived within a set of Newtonian background assumptions about systems dynamics. Mendelian genetics at first did not sit well with the gradualist assumptions of the Darwinian theory. Eventually, however, Mendelism and Darwinism were fused by reformulating natural selection in statistical terms. This reflected a shift to a more probabilistic set of background assumptions based upon Boltzmannian systems dynamics. Recent developments in molecular genetics and paleontology have put pressure on Darwinism once again. Current work on self-organizing systems may provide a stimulus not only for increased problem solving within the Darwinian tradition, especially with respect to origins of life, developmental genetics, phylogenetic pattern, and energy-flow ecology, but for deeper understanding of the very phenomenon of natural selection itself. Since self-organizational phenomena depend deeply on stochastic processes, self-organizational systems dynamics advance the probability revolution. In our view, natural selection is an emergent phenomenon of physical and chemical selection. These developments suggest that natural selection may be grounded in physical law more deeply than is allowed by advocates of the autonomy of biology, while still making it possible to deny, with autonomists, that evolutionary explanations can be modeled in terms of a deductive relationship between laws and cases. We explore the relationship between, chance, self-organization, and selection as sources of order in biological systems in order to make these points.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 89-116 
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    Keywords: Innateness ; explanation
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    Topics: Biology , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Although many of the issues surrounding innateness have received a good deal of attention lately, the basic concept of token innateness has been largely ignored. In the present paper, I try to correct this imbalance by offering an account of the innateness of token traits. I begin by explaining Stephen Stich's account of token innateness and offering a counterexample to that account. I then clarify why the contemporary biological approaches to innateness will not be able to resolve the problems that beset Stich's account. From there, I develop an alternative understanding of the innateness of token traits, what I call a ‘causal/explanatory’ account. The argument to be made is that token innateness is both a causal, and an explanatory, concept. After clarifying this understanding of innateness, and showing how it handles several counterexamples to other accounts, I end with some comments on what the causal/explanatory account suggests for our understanding of innateness in general.
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    Biology and philosophy 11 (1996), S. 133-139 
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