ALBERT

Notizen: An iterative process is proposed that computes a distribution of masses giving rise to a certain gravitational field. The possibility of applying a similar procedure to magnetic and electric fields is also discussed.

Notizen: The method presented takes the influence of refraction rigidly into account. All travel-times available are used in an application of the method of least squares. The solution is illustrated by a computer flow diagram.

Notizen: Charts are presented for the computation of the vertical component of the attraction of horizontal laminas and of horizontal cylinders bounded by irregular w-sided polygons. Contrary to older methods no restricting conditions are made for the directions of the sides of the polygons.

Notizen: A theory is developed to predict the amplitude and velocity of the first arrival produced by a thin solid refractor embedded in a solid environment. Laboratory experiments on a three dimensional model substantially confirm the theory. The essential conclusion may be found in Figure 8 where it is shown that for a constant wavelength, and for thicknesses up to about one half a wavelength, the attenuation per unit distance decreases monotonically with increase of refractor thickness.The assumption is made that the amplitude, A, attenuates as (x)-n exp(-βx), where x is horizontal distance and n and β are constants. It is emphasised that it is difficult to obtain reliable values for n and β from the initial amplitude measurements.

Notizen: Book reviewed in this article: State of Stress in the Earth's Crust, Proceedings of the International ConferenceF. A. Vening Meinesz, The Earth's Crust and Mantle (Development in Solid Earth Geophysics)

Notizen: Book reviewed in this article:M. R. J. Wyllie, The Fundamentals of Well Log Interpretation.

Notizen: Proton precession magnetometers usually operate discontinuously since thy rely one intermittent impulses. The aerial versions of these magnetometers suffer from relatively high background noise. The type of magnetometer discussed in this paper has solved the two problems of discontinuity of measurements and reduced sensitivity due to background noise.Comparative texts with an established flux-gate apparatus have given significant and convincing results.

Notizen: Book reviewed in this article:S. I. Kuznetsov, M. V. Ivanov and N. N. Lyalikova, Introduction to Geological Microbiology Organic Geochemistry, Editor I. A. Breger

Notizen: The formula for the Bouguer anomaly contains the density of the masses above the datum plane. If we use a wrong value for the density we obtain on the Bouguer map additional anomalies which coincide with the topographic features.If we do not know the Bouguer density we can compute several Bouguer maps based on different arbitrary densities. Then we select that map which shows the least correlation with the topography and obtain in this way a reasonable value for the density. This method has been found by Nettleton.Several authors have formulated this process mathematically and have elaborated numerical methods. This paper will present such a method. It differs from the former methods by the following:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1A general formula for the Bouguer density is presented, using a non-specified linear operator. By choosing special definition for this operator, we can obtain the formulae of several of the known methods.2It is shown that the determination of the density by “Nettleton Profiles” gives less reliable results than the statistical investigation of the whole area covered by the gravity survey.3The known methods do not consider the variations of the vertical gradient. It is shown that in areas with a regional gravity anomaly or an extended topographic feature the known methods yield poor results.4It is shown that the vertical gradient of gravity used as operator gives a most exact and simple formula.5It is shown how the electronic computer—after reading the Bouguer values based on an arbitrary initial density—can compute the residuals, derivatives etc., which are based on the corrected Bouguer density.

Notizen: An electronic analogue was used to obtain geophone distortion of typical seismic pulses. Some of the results were checked by computation and in all cases agreement was extremely close. For late arrival events estimates of attenuation and phase shift may be made from the steady-state response curves. It is explained why these curves are not applicable to the first peak, for which one must use the results in Table III.Ground-geophone coupling introduces the same distortion as a very lightly damped galvanometer with a natural frequency usually in the range 100c/s—200c/s. In swampy terrain this frequency may reduce to 30c/s—40c/s and coupling effects may be severe.An electronic unit whose characteristics are the inverse of those of a geophone has been used to improve the first peak amplitude of a seismic refraction record. Since 1c/s geophones are often desirable in refraction survey it may well be more economic to use higher frequency geophones followed by their inverse filter.

Notizen: The paper describes a new method for the calculation of standard-graphs i.e. resistivity-curves for assumed resistivity profiles. It starts from the integral of Stefanesco and arrives at a system of image poles, similar to, but simpler than earlier developed systems. The advantages of the new method are described, the accuracy is discussed and it is indicated how the accuracy can be improved by a simple artifice.

Notizen: In the present study an attempt is made to relate the general pattern of reflection seismograms obtained over a coal basin to the acoustical properties peculiar to the Coal Measures. The Carboniferous is characterized by a very rapid succession of distinct lithological units, resulting in a surprising variability in their physical properties. Coal seams in particular are conspicuous by their low density and velocity and they produce acoustical contrasts of 35–50 % with respect to country rock. The resulting heavy shielding action prevents the seismic energy from penetrating deeply into this type of formation.With the aid of synthetic seismograms, arranged into synthetic profiles, it is shown that only a minor part of the Coal Measures reflections is of primary origin. The majority has a secondary character brought about by reverberations inside the weathering zone. Thus the conclusion is reached that reflection shooting allows of mapping only the structure of the top section of the Carboniferous, which is sufficient for the purposes of the coalmining industry.

Notizen: This new method of calculation, of the second vertical derivative of gravity or magnetic fields is appreciably different from the classical methods because it is based upon the variations of the distance between the isogams rather than a regular grid with “constant spacing”. In a certain way, it is a method of “constant interval”. A number of practical advantages are inherent to the method, among these, the possibility to use the cartesian charts with bi-logarithmic scales which make the calculation much easier, and the creating of iso-error maps which are indispensable for the interpretation of the derivative maps. Three examples of practical application are given, two of them pertain to gravimetry, the third to aeromagnetism. These results are compared with second derivative maps obtained with other methods.

Notizen: A description and classification is given for those later events in seismograms of refraction–and wide angle reflection shooting which travel nearly parallel and at constant time intervals behind the first arrivals and which are frequently observed in field surveys. Multiple events with the velocity V1 of the uppermost layer may be caused by multiple P-reflections and certain velocity conditions or by PS-conversions. In addition to these types multiple events with the velocity V2 or Vn may be caused by reflected refractions or by reflected diving waves. The different types will be distinguished mainly by means of travel time–and amplitude-considerations.

Notizen: Electronic circuits are described which simulate the effects of galvanometers and geophones. By placing these circuits in the feedback loop of an operational amplifier it is possible to obtain transfer functions which are the inverse of those of the transducers. That is, they will remove the distortion on the signal which was produced by the geophone or the galvanometer.Both a geophone simulator and its inverse filter have been built and used (O'Brien, 1965). The simulator is accurate over at least seven octaves and the inverse filter restores the ground signal to what it would have been if the recording geophone had had a natural frequency √n+1 times that of the actual geophone, where A is the gain of the operational amplifier used in the circuit.

Notizen: Uphole recordings in sediments very often reveal shear waves. With their velocity and that of the P-waves Poisson's ratio may be determined, this usually has unexpectedly high values.A number of up-hole shots were recorded with a linear spread of geophones and with constant gain amplifiers. Calculations were made to show the effect of the free surface and ray divergence (the spread factor). The theoretical, relative amplitudes of the ground motion were plotted together with the observed values. In general, there is good agreement between theory and observation which is better for the P-waves than for the S-waves. The reasons for this difference are discussed.Finally, an absorption coefficient is calculated from the amplitudes measured at the surface.

Notizen: Attenuation caused by transmission is known to be the greater the closer the samples are taken together. As a result, the amplitudes of seismograms with multiple reflections can be expected to be negligible within a more or less brief time interval, as is the case for seismograms without multiple reflections with attenuation. This paper examines the process by which multiple reflections regenerate these greatly attenuated reflections. It is also ascertained that a sampling interval of one ms for continuous velocity logs is valid for any survey. For economic reasons, we recommend the selection of a larger interval without, however, overdoing things and thus losing too much information.

Notizen: After a brief reference to the various possibilities of measuring induced polarization, the experimental setup of a transistorized earth resistance meter is shown which allows one to measure the (real) resistance at the frequencies 9 cps and 1.5 cps. As a measure of the induced polarization, it supplies directly the resistivity percentage difference. The possibilities of its use are explained in detail and further development is considered.

Notizen: The headwave system for an incident P-wave in a two-layer case has been traced in the ‘inside’ of a two-dimensional model and it is found that the measured fronts do not coincide with the wavefronts constructed according to the Huygen's principle. A refraction profile indicates different velocities near the critical distance but shows the true value for the higher velocity medium at greater distances. An error in the intercept time, which is about 6 % too high in the example, should, however, always be present even if extrapolation is done from the region where the profile shows the true velocity of the medium.

Notizen: In this paper direct interpretation methods of resistivity observations are discussed, which use the kernel function in the integral expression for the potential as an intermediary step. This kernel function can be expressed in the form of an integral expression, involving in the integrand a Bessel function and the apparent resistivity. This expression is the basis for the determination of the kernel function from the apparent resistivity curve. The integral can be determined directly; this method of computation, however, although practically feasible, is rather time consuming. Another method of computation is to approximate to the resistivity curve by a sum of a small number of two-layer curves which are asymptotic to the observed resistivity curve. This method, which was described in a previous paper by the present author, is briefly restated. A more general method is to approximate to the observed resistivity curve by a sum of functions of other types; the choice of such functions is only restricted by the requirement that the contribution to the kernel function corresponding to them should be easily computable. Two different types of functions, that satisfy this condition, are discussed. The standard curves required for the application of the method are presented. An example of application of the method is given.The problem of determining the resistivity stratification from the kernel function has been solved by Pekeris in 1940. The method of Pekeris is briefly restated.

Notizen: Whereas the first success of petroleum exploration in France (the gas deposit in the St. Marcet anticline in the St. Gaudens region) was essentially based on geological surveys, the second (the Lacq field in the Pau region) was the fruit of reflection shooting. In fact, the Lacq anticline cannot be detected by surface geology because of the Quaternary and Tertiary cover. Besides, electric and telluric prospecting methods could not be used over this zone as an electrified railway line passes through it.As stated then, it was the reflection shooting method that revealed the Lacq structure in 1948, during a reconnaissance survey conducted by Compagnie Générate de Géophysique using a very simple technique (only one geophone per trace).By the seismic technique of 1948, quite good reflections were obtained from a level adjacent to the top Cretaceous, but only sporadic reflections were picked up from a deep level and then only on the flanks of the structure, except for the southern one where results were nil.Towards the end of 1949, the first well, La 1, using a heavy rig designed to reach deep layers, led to the unexpected discovery of the upper oil deposit at a depth of 600 m in the Upper Cretaceous (lower Senonian), while the third well, La 3, led to the discovery by blow-out of the lower gas accumulation at a depth of 3,500 m in beds later identified as lowermost Cretaceous and, more particularly, Upper Jurassic (Purbeckian).As no great geophysical effort was called for, the upper oil deposit was rapidly developed, its depth and dimensions being modest (6 km2).As far as the deeper gas deposit is concerned, the main objective up to 1954 was to gain a picture of the central part of the anticline. Despite the use of a more detailed seismic technique, it was difficult to plot the top of the structure at the level of the uppermost Jurassic. From 1952 to 1957 the wells La 101, La 102, La 103, La 104, La 105, La 106 and La 113 were drilled, which made it possible to evaluate the gas reserves.Then began the wide-scale and systematic exploration of the structure, by drilling on the one hand and by reflection shooting on the other. Profiles were shot perpendicular to the axis, but long enough (20 to 30 km) to cover the entire anticline (seismic surveys of 1956–57–58).The eastern pericline and the northern flank were quite easily plotted by seismic survey at the level of the top Jurassic, whereas the southern flank, which has a distinctly steeper slope than the northern one, could not be traced very far–so that the problem of the relationship between the uncomplicated structure of Lacq and the country to the south, with its complex, deep tectonics, still remains an open question.The western pericline, however, remained a subject of concern. Its relationship to the anticline of Ste. Suzanne (outcropping Jurassic) was a mystery.In 1956–57 the well SV 101 confirmed the hypothesis of an overthrust which, without affecting the anticline of Lacq, borders it to the south and west. The thrust is not very large in the south (Lagor wells) but assumes considerable proportions in the west: the Ste. Suzanne anticline actually forms part of a thrust from the south, about 5, 000 to 6, 000 m thick, as the exploration of the region by reflection shooting and drilling (SSE 101, OR 102) has shown. This exploration had been undertaken in search of a new structure under the thrust that might form an extension of the Lacq structure.In 1959 a detailed gravimetric survey (2 to 3 st./km2) was carried out in the Lacq region because the old survey map (1948–1 station/8 km2) had proved progressively inadequate for interpreting the seismic data. It was found that the structure of Lacq had only a small anomaly in comparison with its dimensions. This surprising phenomenon is still difficult to explain. Are the surfaces of equal specific gravity independent of the stratigraphic planes, or has the effect of the anticlinal roof of the Cretaceous and the Jurassic been balanced by that of a saliferous and intumescent Triassic right in the core of the structure?The small anomaly which it was possible to detect may be explained by a thick sequence of reef limestones in the centre of the anticline on the Lower Cretaceous, as indicated by drilling results. These severely fissured limestones are undoubtedly partly to blame for the bad seismic results obtained on the central part of the structure as far as the deep horizon, adjacent to the top Jurassic, is concerned. They are also responsible for the considerable anomalies in the velocity of seismic wave propagation.

Notizen: Book reviewed in this article:E. I. Hamilton Applied GeochronologySolar System Radio Astronomy, edited by Jules AaronsMary Sears, Progress in OceanographyClays and Clay Minerals, edited by W. F. Bradley, Proceedings of the Twelfth National Conference, Monograph No. 19, Earth Science Series.

Notizen: Until such time as digital seismic recording techniques are in widespread use in the field and partly because it cannot afford digital equipment, C.E.P. has decided to build a processing system which can digitize and process seismic information in analog form on magnetic tapes.C.E.P. was prompted to adopt the digital technique to enable it to proceed with its stratigraphical investigations, starting with the elaboration of synthetic records and followed by the study of signals and deconvolution.Though the analog form of recording is not too suitable for digital processing owing to its low dynamic range, it seemed to us that it was nevertheless perfectly feasible to enhance the analog information by processing it digitally through an automatic computer.This approach to the problem of data enhancement is more satisfactory than the (conventional) analog method, which is more complicated and less accurate.〈list xml:id="l1" style="plain"〉The digital processing system comprises:a magnetic playback systema two-channel reproduction devicean analog-digital convertera 1620 IBM computeran automatic plotting device for graphical presentation of results.Examples of different processing forms are presented:〈list xml:id="l2" style="plain"〉cancellation of A.G.C. actioncomputation of seismic signaldeconvolutioncorrelation techniquesanti-singingstudy of the response of the various items of equipment.We have come to the conclusion that very interesting results have been obtained in spite of the low dynamic range of the analog tapes.With this equipment it is possible to study and process the data in digital form and compare results with those obtained by analog processing. Also, the experience gained will be very useful when digital field crews start operating.Unfortunately, it is not possible for the time being to operate the equipment on a commercial production basis, but only to develop working methods, to conduct short studies or to guide and control analog processing techniques.At present our efforts are therefore aimed at shortening the time required for processing and plotting.

Notizen: One of the most important problems in the interpretation of gravity data is the separation of the data giving information characterizing the different geological structures. Various methods were elaborated to perform this separation (smoothing, removing of residuals, second derivatives, analytic continuation and others). For each operation various sets of coefficients were proposed. All these sets of coefficients may be considered as to provide linear filtering processes applied to the original map. The frequency response of the filter unambigously determines the method and gives good and clear information concerning their advantages (or disadvantages). The knowledge of frequency responses enables the choice of the most suitable method for the interpretation of a given map. Graphs are presented by the author showing:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉a.the effect of radius used in the calculation of residualsb.effect of the number of points used in averaging the data on a circlec.the effect of the different systems of coefficients used in the various second derivative formulas.

Notizen: The authors present a review of the activities of the “Centre National de Volcanologie” (Belgium) in the field of the application of geophysical and geodesic techniques in the study of active volcanoes.The first region of interest is constituted by the African volcanoes: Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira, North of the Kivu lake; the second by the Etna in Sicily.The methods used were: volcano-seismology, gravimetry, magnetism, underground clinometry and “tiltmetry”.The authors close with considerations on geothermic research, which is envisaged for future programmes.

Notizen: The method of induced polarization finds more and more application in the prospection of metallic ore deposits. It is very useful also in the determination of non-metallic minerals and underground water flows.In the case when an electrical current flows accross the interface between metallic and electrolytic phases the causes of the induced polarization are well known and have often been discussed. In the case of non-metallic minerals and rocks the polarization is mainly caused by the membrane potential, since the polyelectrolytic clay material, having the capacity of ion-exchange in micells, acts as a semipermeable membrane.Practical examples of exploration for non-metallic mineral by the induced polarization method are discussed. Some kaolin deposits have been revealed. The depth and the extent of a clay layer, impervious to water, are determined in the bottom of a future storage lake of an hydroelectric power-plant. The underground water flows in the Karst region are traced.

Notizen: The technique of two-dimensional seismic models offers a simple solution to the problem of pulse reflection at the interface of two solids. Particular attention is paid to the existence and character of the amplitude increase in the interference zone between PP and PPP. The following points are discussed:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1)– the considerable deformation of the pulse when such an increase exists.2)– the desagreement existing in the neighborhood of the critical points between the amplitude calculated by plane wave theory and the amplitude observed for cylindrical or spherical waves.3)– the nonexistence of such an increase when velocity or density contrasts are too great.4)– the presence, in the case of very large velocity contrasts, of an increase of the amplitude in the zone of interference, between PP and PSP-waves.5)– the considerable importance of conversion arrivals (PS+SP).6)– the necessity of taking into account the emission of distorsional waves so that the observed arrivals of conversion waves can be explained.

Notizen: When interpreting Bouguer Anomalies, it is important that the location of the point to which the corrected measurement is related, is correctly defined: the station itself or its projection on the datum plane. The consequences of this choice are not negligeable when the topography is rough.

Notizen: Studies of the hydrogeologic environments and the dynamic and equilibrium relations of fresh and salt water in aquifers have been intensified at several places along the southeastern Atlantic Coast. Some salt-water problems involve the coastal water-table aquifer, and others involve parts of the artesian system.On the sandy coastal islands of North Carolina, freshwater lenses under water-table conditions float on salt water. Salt-water contamination may take place by (1) lateral encroachment from the ocean and bay; (2) vertical encroachment from below; (3) overland inundation by ocean water during storms; and (4) downward percolation of salt spray and salt-bearing precipitation.In the Savannah, Georgia, and South Carolina area, salt-water encroachment along two of five water-bearing zones in the principal artesian (limestone) aquifer has been caused by the decline of artesian pressure due to pumping. Some wells in the limestone at nearby Parris Island, South Carolina, yield salty water when overpumped. From Savannah southward at least to Fernandina, Florida, connate salty water occurs in the artesian aquifer below the fresh water. At Brunswick, Georgia, connate salty water is stratified between fresh-water bodies in the limestone aquifer above depths of 2,000 feet. Connate salty water has contaminated the aquifer between depths of 500 and 800 feet in a small area in the city.Along the southeast Florida coast drainage canals have been the primary cause of salt-water contamination of the highly permeable Biscayne aquifer. Criteria have been established for the operation of salinity-control dams to prevent encroachment. The salt-water front in the aquifer along the coast is dynamically stable under natural conditions.

Notizen: In an investigation of a high water-table problem in the west part of Coleman, Alberta, ground-water temperatures were found to vary by as much as 12 degrees F at different points within a one-quarter square mile area. Analysis of their distribution, together with ground-water chemistry, and configuration of the water table itself led to discovery of three distinct sources contributing ground water to the townsite. They are: Cordilleran glacial deposits north of the town, an abandoned coal mine underlying the town, and the Crowsnest River. The permeability distribution showed that a major direction of ground-water movement is along a former course of the Crowsnest River, although the river was channelled to a different location more than fifty years ago.

Notizen: A brief statement on Kansas geologic data is given. A policy statement on the application of the Appropriation Doctrine to the administration of a ground-water basin as proposed is described. Examples of present ground-water problems and application of new methods of solution are discussed as they are being used in Kansas. The problem of evaluating the use of present basic data programs and some insight into future basic data needs are indicated in the closing remarks.

Notizen: The most widespread potential sources of ground-water contamination in the highly urbanized metropolitan area of northeastern Illinois are individual sub-surface sewage disposal systems (approximately 162,000), dumps and landfills that receive millions of cubic yards of refuse annually, and sewage effluent and industrial wastes discharged into streams that are hydrologically connected with widely used shallow aquifers. Contamination also may be introduced from surface and subsurface storage of hydrocarbon and other soluble or mobile materials and from water of poor quality coming from depth.Ground-water contamination is a problem of regional scope in the urban area of northeastern Illinois. It must be considered in metropolitan planning not only as a hazard to health and safety but as a basic part of the over-all program of development and management of water resources. Contamination can result not only in increased cost of treatment but also in the reduction of water resource potential. The relationships that exist between ground-water contamination and land-use requirements of the area must be resolved in any effective program.Establishment of effective policies to control ground-water contamination in areas of concentrated ground-water use requires knowledge of the nature of contaminants and their behavior in the physical environment. Hydrogeologic criteria must be developed to determine whether the natural environment can adequately safeguard ground-water reservoirs against contamination, and. engineering specifications should be established to provide protection where natural safeguards are lacking.

Notizen: Shallow aquifers, commonly the most important sources of ground water, are also those most susceptible to contamination. The mode of entry of contaminants to shallow aquifers is (1) directly, via wells or secondary openings in consolidated rocks, (2) percolation through the zone of aeration, (3) induced infiltration through the zone of saturation, and (4) interaquifer leakage or flow through open holes.Natural removal or degradation of contaminants is by filtration, dispersion, sorption, ion exchange, oxidation, and various biochemical processes. These phenomena are controlled by the physical environment, structure; mineralogy, and hydraulic characteristics of the earth materials contacted by the liquid wastes.When liquid wastes enter an aquifer directly, there is little or no natural treatment by filtration, sorption, or oxidation. Purification is only by those processes that operate within the aquifer under anaerobic conditions. Contaminants from natural sources that enter aquifers under saturated-flow conditions are degraded primarily by dilution. The natural processes effective in reducing contamination from surface-water sources depend on the hydraulic regimen involved, which vary with individual cases.Liquid wastes percolating through the zone of aeration are those most likely to be purified by natural environment processes. Natural processes, however, do not effectively remove or degrade all contaminants, especially some of the many highly stable compounds that have gained widespread use in recent years, such as synthetic detergents. Comprehensive interdisciplinary research into the ability of various earth materials to remove many types of contaminants under varying hydrologic conditions is needed.

Notizen: The economics of ground-water resource development and use are discussed. After a consideration of the welfare criteria, problems of defining and managing property rights are presented. The interrelated nature of ground-water use and external effects resulting from uncoordinated individual action lead to inefficiencies in ground-water development and use unless appropriate institutional arrangements have been made.

Notizen: Ramifications of contamination are increasingly involved in the majority of ground-water problems. The volume of usable ground water is shrinking in many places because of dispersion of contaminated water. Consideration of ground-water contamination as a multitude of independent problems, separately solvable as each problem arises, is outmoded; wise policies, relating water supply to contamination potential, are needed to alleviate and to forestall problems.Methodology of managing contamination problems calls for appropriate classification of the hydrogeologic environment; these classifications include aspects of interdependent factors such as permeability, sorption, hydraulic gradient, position of water table relative to some base, and distance from source of contamination. Effective evaluations relate the dynamics of the hydrogeologic environment to contingencies involving contamination, as man changes his water-development and waste-disposal practices.Ways of contamination and pertinent parts of the physical environment include: waste-disposal practices (at or near land surface and in deep formations), artificial recharge (at land surface and in aquifers), accidents, and salt-water contamination of aquifers (shallow depth from salty surface water and at variable depths from subjacent salty aquifers).Evaluation of waste-disposal problems calls for appreciation of two opposing tendencies–the tendency of wastes to move with ground water and the tendency to be attenuated near disposal sites by decay or inherent decrease in potency, by chemical and physical sorption, and by dilution through dispersion of ground water. Mixed wastes of differing attenuation habits represent special complex problems.

Notizen: Skilled planning is essential to achieve the level of efficiency in ground-water resource evaluation programs which will be required in the future with foreseeable manpower and money limitations. The planning effort must be broader in scope in the future than it has been in the past if ground-water hydrologists are to successfully cope with an expanding number of marginal ground-water development projects. To insure adequate consideration of all factors, planning procedures should provide for reconnaissance type quantitative analyses of ground-water conditions before committments concerning scope and emphasis of the program are made. A substantial amount of careful computation should be included as an integral part of the planning effort.

Notizen: Ohio is a good example of a dynamic state, ranking third of all the states in the nation in value added by manufacture; first in the amount of water used by industry; twelfth in cash receipts from agriculture; and fifth in population. With all of this activity the state still relies largely upon a common law system of water rights. The Frazier vs. Browndecision of 1861 held that despite the fact that a hole Jacob Brown dug on his property caused his neighbor's spring to stop flowing, the loss gave rise to no legal action. The court based its decision on older cases where this was the rule for two main reasons: the movement of ground water is secret, and legal restriction would inhibit the development of the state. Considering the costly process of determining the behavior of ground water, to the ordinary landowner, it is still “secret and occult.” Further, abandoning the simple rule of wide-open development in a state as well-developed as Ohio would call for an administrative agency.The Ohio Water Commission, in 1960, presented a proposed bill to create “watershed districts” which could manage new uses of ground water. Agriculture and municipal advisory councils expressed concern that there were no ground-water laws. The industrial advisory council, however, was vigorously opposed to any change in the present water rights laws of Ohio. The bill was unsuccessful.The common law rule in Ohio, though admittedly primitive, still works. The time will come, however, when Ohio will enact a water law. Already one situation has officially placed the handwriting on the wall. When that time comes, the decision will be made insofar as possible by principles of the private free enterprise competitive economy. The theory will be that you can have additional water if you can pay the price. Ohio's state agencies are already looking to artificial recharge, rather than restriction. Agriculture may need some special protection, because it is so vulnerable.

Notizen: Relatively simple and inexpensive qualitative hydrologic models have been found by the authors to serve as an extremely effective means of demonstrating the interrelationship of various hydrologic factors and their resultant effect upon each other to persons not familiar with this subject. The models consist of clear plastic tanks mounted on a vertical display board made of plywood. The tanks are connected with hoses. Flow of water is regulated by surgical clamps on the hoses. Vegetable dye is used in the water to differentiate among waters from various sources. The models have been extremely useful in lawsuits related to water supplies which were tried before juries.

Notizen: There are numerous ramifications to consider in discussing water rights and laws. In this discussion meaningful impressions concerning water rights and related laws in the 31 States lying east of Texas and the Dakotas are presented. Research is still in progress and a number of the statements are necessarily tentative./〉Although legislation of various types has been enacted, court-made rules still provide the primary basis for the water rights laws of most eastern States. This means rules developed by the reported decisions of the State appellate courts. In Louisiana, however, unlike the common-law States, the Civil Code provides the primary basis for its laws (see Borton, Mark E. and Ellis, Harold H., “Some Legal Aspects of Water Use in Louisiana,” La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 537, June, 1960). Bear in mind that these general rules often vary from State to State and that they may be modified by voluntary contractual arrangements, the exercise of eminent domain, prescriptive rights, legislation, and various other complicating factors. Furthermore, the laws of most States are unsettled regarding a number of questions, and several court decisions are of elderly vintage and hence might be modified under current conditions.Water supplies, natural or developed, all may be more or less interrelated. But rights to use them may vary according to their particular designation as classified by the courts for various purposes. Some common classifications of natural water supplies include natural watercourses, diffused surface water, percolating ground water, and underground streams.

Notizen: Contamination of fresh-water supplies by the disposal of oil-field brines occurs on a small scale in Alabama. The problems that exist, however, are symptoms of potentially serious problems in the management of oil-field wastes.The sources of contamination are: 1) evaporation pits and 2) leaks in pipelines or well-head connections to disposal wells. The storage capacity and construction of many pits are inadequate for the evaporation of the quantity of brine they receive. Waste overflows during rainstorms, affecting vegetation in surrounding areas. Some of the brine overflowing from the evaporation pits or percolating to the water table from the pits or leaks in pipelines moves to the nearest stream. The base flow of some streams in the oilfield areas is maintained by highly mineralized ground-water inflow.Pits should be used only if: 1) the pit is constructed in an area underlain by semi-impermeable material, and 2) the storage capacity and construction of the pits is adequate for the quantity of brine and storm runoff they receive.The elimination of contamination from leaks in pipelines and wellhead connections can be accomplished through an effective system of monitoring.

Notizen: If earthquakes are recorded on your water-level charts, you can make your own estimate of earthquake magnitudes! As an aid in doing this, this paper presents two graphs: one to calculate distance from well to earthquake epicenter; the other, a nomogram from which to read hydroseismic magnitude plus log C. Examples given show (1) direct computation of ms+ log C, (2) use of aftershocks to estimate total water-level fluctuation caused by a major earthquake (when the recorder drum has spun around or when reversals cover up the record), and (3) how to determine if aftershocks theoretically should have been recorded. Hydroseismic magnitude is the surface-wave magnitude (Ms) calculated from seismically induced water-level fluctuations in wells. As yet it must be computed indirectly from ms+ log C but because log C is a variable the result is only approximate. Log C is believed to represent a resultant controlled by magnification, period of the surface waves, instrumental frictions, well lag, and resonance if the well is underdamped.

Notizen: Ground water, being essentially free of salt and suspended matter, generally free of contamination from chemical and bacterial waste and relatively stable in temperature, is attractive to industries, municipalities, farmers and urbanized society in Saskatchewan. However, ground-water reservoirs are difficult to locate and evaluate and ground water tends to be highly mineralized when compared to surface water. Suspected ground-water reservoirs do not represent a capital asset until they are proven up, at least partially, and catalogued.It is possible that some 2 × 108 million gallons of water are stored in the glacial drift beneath southern Saskatchewan. Pumpage of ground water was about 50 million gallons per day in 1963, or about 1.8 × 104 million gallons per year. If we were to prospect as diligently and as successfully for ground water throughout southern Saskatchewan as we already have to locate 14 million gallons per day around many of our cities, towns and villages, theoretically we should locate another 486 million gallons per day of recoverable ground water.Because present pumpage of ground water is small, the ground-water reservoir in southern Saskatchewan is still essentially full. However, the amount of usable ground water actually recoverable will remain difficult to estimate reliably until we receive more refined information on amounts of ground-water recharge and on the dependable productive capabilities of some of our Province's major aquifers.Most municipal ground-water supplies in Saskatchewan contain total dissolved solids in the order of 500 to 1500 parts per million. Hardness usually falls in the 200 to 900 parts per million range; alkalinity is regularly below 600 parts per million and iron below 6 parts per million. While waters in many aquifers in the lower part of the glacial drift and in the underlying bedrock in Saskatchewan are often very highly mineralized, this water is customarily suitable for stock-watering purposes. There is great need in Saskatchewan for the development of a small-unit demineralizer that is within the budget of the average farmer.Aquifers in Saskatchewan most suitable for development include surficial sand and gravel, sand and gravel in buried bedrock valleys and other sand and gravel within the glacial drift. High salinity, low permeability, customary great depth below ground surface, difficult and costly drilling, and difficult and costly well construction and well development make bedrock aquifers unattractive except for certain types of industries that can use inferior quality water.There is much merit in following a systematic and scientific procedure when trying to locate ground-water supplies. Any sequence of steps or phases followed must consider the elements of economy, quality of work, speed and efficiency. Mathematical and electric analog models are useful when trying to forecast the long-term dependable yields of aquifers under different pumping schemes.

Notizen: The ideal hydrologic system in arid lands includes a recharge area in mountains and a discharge area in lowlands, a system modified in nature by geologic and physiographic factors. Population and agricultural activity concentrates in valleys, usually in zones of ground-water discharge. Most water-supply, contamination and disposal problems arise from this combination of features.The suitability of hydrogeologic units for any function of operations involving water supply or waste disposal depends primarily on their position within the hydrologic system and secondarily on physical properties. For example, at the Nevada Test Site the ground-water flow system is used to good advantage, whereas at Las Vegas, 70 miles away, the methods of disposal practiced are in direct conflict with the system.

Notizen: Seismic refraction measurements were used to draw a new bedrock contour map in Morris County, New Jersey, where the major ground-water supplies are found in Quaternary sand and gravel deposits filling pre-Pleistocene channels. Aquifer performance tests aided in tracing the continuity of the Quaternary aquifers in these channels. In one case, the lack of continuity between two wells substantiated the seismic prediction that two separate channels were involved.The success of the seismic exploration emphasizes the value of using such methods, so that test drilling can be devoted to exploring the more favorable areas for production wells.

Notizen: Lack of effective control of brine pollution at the State level in Texas has hindered development of an inventory of the effects of oil-field brine disposal on the diverse geologic and hydrologic environments in which ground water occurs. In Texas, where 35 per cent of the nation's crude oil is produced, the volume of brine production and the widespread distribution of its points of origin complicate the initiation of unified control programs. Brine production and disposal figures for calendar year 1961 showed that a total of 2,236,599,746 barrels of salt water were produced from approximately 67,000 oil and gas leases throughout the State. In that year 460,892,427 barrels of salt water were reportedly disposed of into unlined earthen pits, which contribute directly to pollution of fresh water either by seepage or overflow; and 1,536,543,715 barrels were injected into the subsurface where inadequate well-completion methods may constitute a longer-range problem than surface disposal.Brine-pollution control programs must regulate standards for the whole range of oil-field operation including exploration, well completion, brine disposal during the productive phase, and well plugging and abandonment. To be effective, these programs must equate the objective of maximum oil and gas conservation and development with acceptable standards of oil-field operation to provide safeguards for usable water supplies.

Notizen: Drill-stem tests provide the petroleum industry information on three critical properties of subsurface formations —pressure head, permeability, and water chemistry –that the ground-water hydrologist also seeks in making pumping tests of water wells. As it is increasingly necessary to study the hydraulic and geochemical properties of deep-lying rocks in order to understand the behavior of ground water, data on drill-stem tests made by the petroleum industry become an important source of information which otherwise is unobtainable because of the high cost. Data from these tests made by methods currently in use are highly useful in water studies. An obvious conclusion is that both petroleum engineering and ground-water hydrology stand to profit substantially from an increase in the interchange of ideas and techniques.

Notizen: The geoelectrical resistivity method, in conjunction with a few seismic refraction profiles, is used to locate permeable strata for the artificial recharge of ground water. Both Schlumberger and Wenner electrode configurations are used in carrying out the resistivity measurements. Possibilities and limitations in the interpretations of some sounding curves are discussed. An attempt to interpret (horizontal) resistivity profiles in terms of theoretical profiles over hemispherical sinks is included.The results of the seismic refraction profiles seem to show that, within the depth of interest, the alluvial strata lack a good elastic differentiation. On the other hand, the resistivity measurements have indicated the presence of buried stream channels. The discovery of one such channel is confirmed by later drilling and a good correlation is shown between geoelectrical predictions and geologic findings. It is shown that the construction of isoresistivity maps can greatly contribute to the successful performance and interpretation of electrical soundings.

Notizen: In an effort to find a method of determining aquifer transmissibility with an abbreviated pumping test the basic equations governing the Theis non-equilibrium method of determining aquifer constants were examined. They show the relationships of the coefficients of storage and transmissibility. Rearranged in terms of T (transmissibility) and equated to eliminate that parameter, the expression is rewritten as 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:0017467X:GWAT51:GWAT_51_mu1"/〉 The left side of the equation can be computed from existing tables. All parts of the right side of the equation can be measured during a test except S, the coefficient of storage. Assuming a value for it and measuring distance from the pumping well, drawdown, time, and pumping rate, uW(u) can be computed. The single value of u corresponding to this can be determined from tables or a curve, and the calculation of transmissibility using the available data is the simple final step.Computations were made over a wide range of actual and hypothetical examples, and it was found that for a range in assumed values of coefficient of storage of 4,000 times, the range in coefficient of transmissibility was between 1.52 and 3.22 times. The method was tested using actual well data with the conclusion that it is reasonably reliable if used in an unconfined aquifer after about three hours of pumping and making drawdown measurements in the pumping well or in an observation well less than 25 feet from the pumping well. Calculations involving a confined aquifer suggest that the method is applicable within a shorter time and over larger distances from the pumping well

Notizen: The United States has developed numerous water rights systems with variations from state to state reflecting water environments, especially the relative abundance of water; the cultural background of settlers; and communication of ideas developed in other regions. A few high points in the long history of development of water rights are presented.

Notizen: Graphical methods are outlined for determining the coefficients of transmissibility, storage, and delay index of an infinite aquifer under water-table conditions. The procedure is based on the theory, developed by N. S. Boulton (1963), of the nonsteady flow toward a steadily discharging well from an infinite water-table aquifer allowing for delayed yield from storage. An application of these methods is illustrated by treating actual field data collected from a pumping test near Lawrenceville, Illinois. The results of 18 selected pumping tests are summarized. A relationship between the delay index and the materials through which gravity drainage takes place is given.

Notizen: The computer is a tool to extend our capabilities for using the ever-increasing mass of available scientific information. Hydrologic and geologic data are being assembled in great quantity and the quantity and complexity of data collected in the future undoubtedly will increase.This paper points out some of the applications that have been used for computer processing of data in solving hydrologic and geologic problems. As a specific example of the progress that has been made in this field, the ADP work of the U. S. Geological Survey is summarized.A Survey committee recently developed 16 punchcards, a well-schedule form for recording and coding data in the field, and a manual of instructions for machine-processing of hydrologic data. During 1964, three Water Resources offices of the Survey started experimental use of the well-inventory and water-quality cards and forms, and the Hydrologic Laboratory began use of punchcards and evaluation of microfilm aperture cards for storage of information. For those who are considering use of ADP in processing of hydrologic and geologic data, the paper concludes with a discussion of items to consider prior to initiation of a system. A list of references providing greater detail on application of ADP systems is included.

Notizen: As part of a Four Year Development Program, the government of Spain is tackling the problem of aridity. Its plans include agricultural, economic and social improvements in many of the country's arid areas. Basic to these improvements is a plan developed to study the ground-water possibilities of about half of Spain. The study, to be completed in 1967, will result in hydrogeologic maps showing the ground-water potential of arid areas. If sufficient ground-water reserves are found, agriculture, tourism and migration from arid areas can all be aided by this program.

Notizen: The annual water-level measurements of more than 800 observation wells in the High Plains Water District started in early January, 1964. The wells in the High Plains District are a portion of the over 1700 wells to be measured in a 39-county area by personnel of the Texas Water Commission, North Plains District, and High Plains District.In September of 1963, the Water District entered into an agreement with the Texas Water Commission, whereby the observation well network within the District was to be updated and expanded. Under the terms of this expansion, 211 wells were added to the program. These new wells were precisely mapped and identified by a metal plate attached to the concrete pump base. The existing observation wells were remapped by field survey and all current information, regarding the individual wells was recorded. Identification plates were attached to several of the older wells.

Notizen: The role of ground water in comprehensive river basin planning has been neither a significant one nor a consistent one. The improved use of ground-water storage is one of the major goals in improving the stewardship of our water resources. While present policies and general procedures are adequate for the attainment of this goal, basic data and detailed techniques need to be further developed before ground water can assume a more significant role in water resources planning. The development of these and the solution of problems attending the use of ground-water resources will come in time with the assistance of all parties interested in the wise use of our ground-water resources. The development of techniques for fully integrating ground- water resources into comprehensive river basin planning must be accompanied by the development and implementation, at all governmental levels, of sound ground-water management policies. Progress toward their accomplishment may seem barely perceptible at times but the present high level of interest in all of the nation's water resources bodes well for an early date when optimum use of our ground-water resources can be planned and developed.

Notizen: With the exception of a few special cases, there has been no pollution of fresh ground water from oil wells, gas wells and dry holes drilled in Michigan since 1925. This is especially significant since water for over 90 percent of Michigan's rural population and about 70 percent of the total population, exclusive of the Detroit metropolitan area, is supplied by ground-water sources. The most classic exception is in the Saginaw Valley where abandoned wells drilled for salt, coal and oil remain unplugged. Special emphasis is given to the proper plugging of wells as the most important phase of the program to protect fresh water.The present protective oil and gas conservation law– Public Act 61 of 1939 – is good. Its flexibility allows needed rules and regulations to be adopted as the necessity arises without having to go to the legislature.

Notizen: Ground water has emerged from a quantitatively minor (though incalculably valuable) source meeting widespread small-scale needs to a source that is meeting a substantial percentage of the nation's total water demand and is capable of doing even more than it is. At the same time, many scientific, economic, legal, and managerial problems stand in the way of full development and must be solved if ground water is to make its maximum contribution to the nation's welfare.In recent decades ground water has accounted for something between one-fifth and one-sixth of the nation's total withdrawal use of water, which was about 170 billion gallons per day (bgd) in 1950, 240 bgd in 1955, and 270 bgd in 1960. As the total demand increases (estimates by the Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, perhaps somewhat optimistic, call for 559 bgd in 1980 and 888 bgd in 2000), the fraction taken from the ground may go up or down or stay about the same, but the absolute withdrawal of ground water cannot help increasing. Furthermore, underground aquifers will play an increasingly important role as storage reservoirs for surplus surface water, through artificial recharge.Well drillers, as producers of both the ground water itself and much of the basic information needed for scientific prediction of the behavior of complex hydrologic systems, will play a key part in man's efforts to dominate his water problems before they dominate him.

Notizen: The 88th Congress has passed more landmark legislation in the conservation field than any preceding Congress. This seems to indicate a badly needed awakening of concern on the part of the American public for the preservation of its environment and a growing awareness that our soil, water, and atmosphere are only components of an integrated coherent environment that must be kept in balance in all of its aspects.One good example of recently passed legislation is the Water Resources Research Act of 1964, which will be administered by the Department of the Interior. This bill provides three important programs: an annual allotment to state water resources research centers plus two other programs in the nature of contracts and grants, matching or otherwise to state research centers and to other qualified research institutions, foundations, individuals, and agencies. Other important aspects of the bill include the training of scientists in hydrology.Another bill, the S. 1111 or Water Resources Planning Bill, being considered by Congress, would, by means of a Water Research Council, serve to coordinate all water resource purposes and use all components of the resource base in unified plans for river basins, combinations of basins, and sub-basins. This commission would provide assurance that the valid interests of every state are given full recognition by the action agencies of the federal government and the states having comparable programs.

Notizen: To facilitate simultaneous performances of numerous grain-size analyses covering the silt and clay fractions, a method has been worked out and the necessary equipment constructed for utilizing a falling drop for determining densities of particle suspensions. A drop is taken out by means of a micro-syringe at the desired depth in a sedimentation vessel, and ejected into a column of an organic liquid with a slightly lower density. The drop then falls with a constant speed and the time measured with a stopwatch over a certain distance is a measure of the density of the drop, and hence also of the particle concentration in the sedimentation vessel where the drop is taken. In this way it is easily possible to work through twenty samples in a normal working day, including removal of organic matter, dispersion, washing (to remove effects of soluble salts) and evaluating the final results.

Notizen: An overgrowth from an echinoderm fragment is a single crystal of calcite in lattice continuity with the calcite crystal of the host. The development history of echinoderm overgrowths during cementation has been elucidated by the identification of iron-bearing and iron-free calcites within the overgrowths by employing staining techniques.The iron-bearing parts of the overgrowths described do not stain uniformly for iron. Instead they exhibit a succession of light and dark stained sub-zones, which represent the shapes of the overgrowths during their development.The pattern of zoning around basal sections of crinoid ossicles is comparatively simple. The innermost zones follow the outlines of the ossicles. Later zones adopt first quasi-hexagonal outlines with curved sides, and then true hexagonal zones of prismatic habit. Such basal sections of ossicles give well-centred conoscope images and are therefore, oriented perpendicular to the c-axis directions of their calcites.Vertical sections through overgrowths show a more complex zoning: above and below the articulating surfaces of ossicles the zones are wide, and have a marked zig-zag outline, with the axes of the spires parallel to the vertical axes of the ossicles and parallel to the c-axes of the crystals. Along the sides of the ossicles the zones are narrow and straight. The multiple terminations in the c-axis direction reduce in number away from the surface of the ossicle and, if the original pore-spaces are sufficiently large, ultimately yield a single scalenohedron-type termination. The multiple terminations have their origins on the articulating surfaces of the ossicles. In life these surfaces were perforated by the entrances to the numerous minor canals which ramify the ossicles. The multiplicity of terminations resulted from more rapid crystal growth from the surface of the ossicle between canals (c-axis direction) than from the surfaces of the canals themselves (direction perpendicular to the c-axis).

Notizen: Published data and new observations from the Tertiary and Ordovician show that non-multiple, continuously graded beds from turbidite sequences have size decline curves that are either convex, concave, or straight.Utilizing a physical model and knowledge of fluid mechanics of turbulent transport, a formula relating both median and maximum grain-size to height above the base of the graded bed was obtained. This analysis suggests that the shape of the size decline curve in a continuously graded bed depends on the initial size distribution of particles carried by the turbulent current.

Notizen: Presentation of investigations on the hydraulic content of fragments of lamelli-branches dredged on the continental shelf (diameters between 12 and 0.51 mm).These lamellar fragments have fall velocities greatly different from those of quartz grains with which they are able to coexist in a sediment. The data of G. Rittinger (in TRASK, 1939) and R. W. Budryk (in TRASK, 1939) are not applicable to these fragments.The author points out the interest of a basic documentation for the dynamic study of sedimentation.

Notizen: A noteworthy feature of parts of the Series is the development of cyclothems which consist of: scoured surface, coarse member, fine member, scoured surface. General environments, suggested by this and fossil evidence, are: erosion in river bed, deposition in river bed, deposition in overbank area, erosion in river bed. Structures within the sets of strata include: no lamination, flat bedding, small and large-scale cross-lamination, parting lineation. The significance of each is discussed. Sole structures, occurring on the scoured surfaces, are described. They include: groove casts, crescents, flute casts, a variety of long welts, and unoriented structures. These are mainly scour structures but some may be subaerial marks, and there is also evidence for post-depositional flowage. The value of these structures as indicators of palaeocurrent and ultimately palaeoslope directions is discussed with examples. Measurements of sole structures, parting lineations and ripples have been more profitable than large-scale cross-stratification or contorted lamination.

Notizen: In principle, sedimentary folding in Early Ordovician limestones in Sweden corres- ponds to the arching of a marble plaque on the wall of the “H6tel de Ville” of Cham- bery. This folding is due to dilatation within an unyielding frame by the swelling of a certain layer.

Notizen: Books review in this article: Stratigraphy and Sedimentation, 2 ed. W. C. Krumbein and L. L. SlossLimestone building Algae and Algal Limestones. J. HARLAN JOHNSON.

Notizen: Book reviewed in this article: Petrology of the Sedimentary Rocks, 4th ed. F. H. Hatch and R. H. Rostall, revised by J. Trevor Greensmith.

Notizen: The revision of terms under criterion 3 as proposed by CROOK (1965) is timely and should be accepted. Useful new terms are proposed to describe the three-dimensional shape of cross-strata, but there is as yet insufficient evidence for using cross-stratal shape as a criterion for classification in a scheme in which morphological characters are selected for their known genetical significance. The proposed revision of criterion 5 is difficult to accept because it is not in accord with known cross-stratification genesis.

Notizen: Examination of the criteria employed by ALLEN (1963) in his classification of cross-stratified units suggests (a) that an additional criterion, the three-dimensional shape of cross-strata, should be used in describing and recognizing varieties of cross-stratification, (b) that the character of the lower bounding surface of sets should be expressed in descriptive rather than genetic terms, and (c) that in describing the relation between cross-strata and lower bounding surfaces, an additional term, asymptotic, should be used.The recent discussion of the morphological features of cross-stratification by ALLEN (1963) represents a significant advance in our appreciation of the variability of this type of sedimentary structure. The valuable classification of McKEE and WEIR (1953) generated a concern for precise description of cross-stratification which has, in 10 years, made the classification inadequate. Allen's proposed classification, based as it is on observable morphological criteria and utilising a nongenetic terminology, should promote further rapid progress.Allen has discussed the problems that arise in naming varieties of cross-stratification. He very properly avoids terms with genetic implications and his use of Greek letters results in commendably brief names. Almost inevitably, his chosen nomenclature is not readily applicable in the field due to the difficulty of remembering which letter is associated with which assemblage of morphological features. This difficulty will increase as the number of defined varieties increases. It seems probable that workers will prefer for the most part to give names to varieties of cross-stratification only in the laboratory where reference to literature can be made. The basis for recognition of varieties will be detailed field notes and photographs of morphological features. Nor is this undesirable, for it necessitates the making of detailed observations in the field which will lead to the recognition of new varieties. An easily remembered nomenclature too often leads to the suppression of significant differences in the interests of “pigeon-holing” the structure in question.It is therefore important that all significant morphological features should be noted. Consideration of the differences between certain varieties of cross-stratification.

Notizen: Penecontemporaneous calcareous algal products are very complex in both texture and mode of origin. For example, all gradations exist between stromatolites and pseudo-stromata, different types of oncolites are transitional and are often difficult to distinguish from other allochthonous algal material, algal pellets form the final product of abrasion and they too are very similar despite variations independent of their original source; and some Algae may break down into “algal dust” or carbonate needles.Algal limestones of different ages and environments may supply detritus that is indistinguishable from one another. Therefore, in petrographic investigations of carbonate sediments the descriptive term “limeclast” is less ambiguous than the genetic terms “intraclast” and “calclithite”. If a combination of field-work and thin-section studies permits precise genetic and environmental interpretations, the limeclasts can be genetically described as “intraclasts” and “extraclasts”. If the extraclasts form the predominant components, the sediment is a “calclithite” and is a type of terrigenous rock (FOLK, 1959).In general, four possible relations exist between limestone frameworks and micrite matrices. Both allochthonous fragment accumulations and autochthonous growths may have either detrital matrices or matrices that formed in situ. The autochthonous algal micrite matrices give no indication of a degree of turbulence and winnowing in contrast to allochthonous matrices.Apparently minute differences, which are, however, significant in the genesis of limestone components may become more important with an increase in isotope, trace element and diagenetic investigations where the identity of the carbonate material is of special importance.

Notizen: Size, flatness, and orientation of both maximum projection plane and longest axis were measured on 298 particles larger than 32 mm on two gravel bars in a modern stream in southeastern Indiana. Maximum projection planes dip into the current and long axes are transverse to it. Size and flatness have little effect on orientation.

Notizen: Two pyroclastic sheet-like deposits were found by the author between the stratigraphic sequence of marine Oligocene sediments of the Vati Group (Rhodes Island, Greece). The lower one is described in this paper.Its uniform thickness over a large area suggests an origin from submarine ash flow. This assumption is also supported by some welding phenomena observed in several thin sections. Submarine eruption of ignimbritic type is advocated to account for these properties. This type of volcanism agrees well with tectonic and paleogeo-graphic evolution of the Vati Group basin.Strong analogies and relationship between submarine ash flows (gaseous suspension) and turbidity currents (watery suspension) are pointed out. The new term of “igniturbidites” is proposed to characterize some pyroclastic turbidity current deposits genetically related to submarine ash flows.The paleogeographic reconstruction of the Vati Group basin gives some information about the location of the volcanic eruption area and about the submarine travelling of the ash flows.

Notizen: Several deformational sedimentary structures are recorded from the non-marine sandstones of the Lower Coal Measures of Yorkshire. Some of these structures may be termed convolute lamination and for others the term corrugated lamination is proposed. The scope and synonyms of convolute lamination are discussed and both terms are defined and illustrated. The essential difference between convolute lamination and corrugated lamination is the absence of an overall anticline-syncline morphology in the latter. Rupture of lamination through most of the thickness of the deformed horizons give rise to rupture structures.A petrological investigation of the sediments showed slight variations in both grain size and mineralogy within individually deformed horizons. The structures are considered to be the result of load casting, caused by heterogeneity of the sediment, and/or thixotropic behaviour.

Notizen: A wide range of subaqueous sedimentary structures is classified according to the behaviour of sediments at the time of formation of the structures and according to the nature of the motions to which these sediments are subject at that time. Assessments of sediment behaviour and nature of motions are given for each group of structures. The principles and elemental bases of the classification are discussed and its advantages are briefly stated.

Notizen: Red beds are present in the dominantly drab Bima Sandstone at two main localities in northeastern Nigeria. Their lithology and petrography are described and chemical analyses quoted. It is deduced that the climate at the source area was conducive to the production of red soils. Alternating humid and dry periods are believed to have provided the conditions favourable for the accelerated erosion of a provenance of igneous and metamorphic rocks of marked relief. For the most part the pigment appears to have been finely-divided material that was sorted prior to deposition; local environmental conditions determined whether the pigment subsequently remained red or was reduced. The association of oxidising and reducing conditions with shallow-water sedimentary structures may best be explained by the postulation of seasonal flooding of an alluvial plain in a savanna-type environment.

Notizen: Recent alluvial sediments are reviewed with respect to their geometrical, textural, structural and biological characteristics. These properties are related to the physiographic occurrence and hydraulic geometry of streams and to the dynamics of flowing water as controlling sediment transport-deposition and stream morphological activities. Based on this data, three-dimensional facies models are presented as an aid to the identification of ancient alluvial sediments, which are briefly reviewed also.

Notizen: The Meridian Sand is recognized as neritic bar sand because it is overlain and underlain by prodominantly marine strata, contains a marine microfauna and is glauconitic. Cross-bedding is the large scale planar type and has a regional variance of 10,302. No maximum is present where dip azimuths of sets are plotted on a stereogram. It is suggested that the wave path, topography of the depositional surface, and local rates of subsidence varied during deposition of the cross-bedded sand resulting in a uniform distribution of the cross-bedding sets.

Notizen: Speleothems of Great Onyx Cave, Kentucky, are composed of calcite, aragonite, and gypsum. Calcite is present in all carbonate samples, and where aragonite is also present, the speleothem core is always of calcite, overlain by a progression of alter- nating shells of aragonite and calcite, calcite being the outermost carbonate shell. In some specimens, gypsum encrusts these other two phases but is never itself enclosed by a carbonate, thus demonstrating that carbonate deposition was complete in these specimens before sulfate deposition began.Cave temperature is constant at 12.5°C. The pH-values of standing and dripping water ranged from 7.5 to 8.7, with the value of 8.7 being recorded where precipitation and crystallization of calcite was taking place. At a pH of 8.7, some authors consider that calcium carbonate should normally crystallize as aragonite, but in the cave studied, pH seems to have little effect and temperature may be the controlling factor.Strontium is measurable in most of the aragonite-bearing samples and not in the calcite ones. But two calcite stalactites and separated calcitic portions of mixed aragonite-calcite stalactites contain considerable quantities of strontium. Although the affinity of strontium for the aragonite lattice is demonstrated, it is probable that in these cave deposits, the strontium did not have a primary influence on the poly- morph which crystallized.

Notizen: Upper Triassic Lockatong argillite (lacustrine facies) and reddish-brown Brunswick mudstone (mudflat facies) contain numerous pseudomorphs after glauberite. Those in the Brunswick Formation are large calcite casts of complete crystals both isolated and in bunches in beds a few inches thick, or are slender skeletal crystal casts forming open-work rosettes in massive mudstone. Those in analcime-rich dolomitic Lockatong argillite are smaller, more slender, skeletal crystal-casts filled with dolomite and analcime; most of them are scattered through the rock but locally arranged in vague geometric patterns; less commonly they form conspicuous rosettes and downward- diverging conical sprays.Many glauberite crystals (and rarely halite in the Brunswick mudstone) grew in soft mud during Late Triassic time, thus emphasizing dryness and the role of saline water in the later history of the closed carbonate-sulphate Lockatong lake. Early extraction of calcium and magnesium carbonates and later of sodium and silica during each chemical cycle left the lake enriched in calcium, sodium, and sulphate. These crystallized as glauberite and possibly anhydrite in lake-bottom mud and in surface mudcracks during the waning of a chemical cycle.Crystals of the soluble salts in the Lockatong mud were then replaced by dolomite and analcime from solutions released during dewatering of the mud.

Notizen: From a study of maximum particle size distribution and sedimentary structures it is concluded that the Triassic conglomerates of the Vale of Glamorgan are alluvial fan deposits. A number of alluvial fans are sufficiently well preserved to be mapped, differences in the shapes of the maximum particle size isopleths, lithology and sedimentary structures leading to the interpretation that both stream flood and stream deposits are present. From details of succession an alternation of stream flood and stream deposits is demonstrated, and this is probably the result of the alternation of wet and dry periods.Variations in sphericity and in particle shape through the parameters of size and distance show that an original population of roughly 50% round, 30% disc, 15% rod and 5% blade shaped particles in the size range 5-125 mm median diameter was subjected to stream and stream flood transport which carried disc shaped particles futher (or more swiftly) than others of the same sizes. The postulated means of trans- port was suspension for discs of 5-95 mm in diameter and traction for round and rod shaped particles of equal and larger sizes.

Notizen: Self potential measurements, both in drill holes and on surface, have been made in and around sulphide mineralization. Similar measurements were carried out on small scale laboratory models. The potential and current configurations around theoretical sulphide bodies are also described. Results of the model and field work seem to verify, in a qualitative manner, the electrochemical mechanism of spontaneous polarization proposed by Sato and Mooney. Possible causes are suggested for the abnormally large surface anomalies frequently found in the field.

Notizen: Compagnie Générate de T.S.F. (C.S.F.) has recently developed a new magnetometer based on the optical pumping of caesium vapour.After carrying out a systematic programme of ground and in-flight tests, Compagnie Générale de Géophysique (C.G.G.) has put several of the airborne models into service.Following a discussion of the fundamental principles involved, the instrument is described and its specifications are given. The two forms of read-out are: an analog recording, of the conventional type, and a digital version, recorded on magnetic tape.The instrument measures the total intensity of the earth's magnetic field with a sensitivity of 0.03 gamma. Temperature compensation is provided, making possible operation between — 20 and + 45 degrees centigrade. Performance is not affected by an inhomogeneous field as long as the gradient is less than 10 gammas per centimetre.The range of the instrument is from 20,000 to 70,000 gammas and the values are obtained automatically, without the intervention of an operator.There is no danger of instrumental drift, and the selection of caesium vapour and the components of the detector guarantee that the absolute value of the field, throughout the range of the instrument and regardless of the circumstances, is measured to within one gamma.The first large-scale project making use of these magnetometers, carried out by C.G.G., is the Magnetic Map of France, which has been compiled for the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. The characteristics of this project are given.

Notizen: It is considered it might be useful to test the validity of the theoretical study “Sur ľinfluence ?un empilement de couches minces en sismique” by Messrs. I. ?Erceville and G. Kunetz, Geophysical Prospecting, XI, No. 2, June 1963.We chose a borehole of the Compagnie Française des Pétroles where the velocity logs frequently show fine interbedding. Two synthetic records were prepared:a) For the first one, a large step (τ= 3 ms) was selected to preserve the general appearance of the field records (convolution by a Ricker wavelet with a pseudo-period of 26.6 ms);b) For the second one, a small step (τ= 0.5 ms) was taken, convoluted using the same Ricker wavelet.We observed that the synthetic records without multiples are not dependent on the step taken for calculation, provided this step remains small in relation to the period of the convolution signal (τ, one-way time, smaller than 1/8 of the period of the signal). Nevertheless, when a small step is used, the high frequencies may be better reflected on the synthetic record.We also noticed that the direct wave attenuates rapidly with depth and is replaced by an accumulation of multiples that restore it exactly, but with a slight time-lag. We termed this the “pseudo-wave”. The above-mentioned delay between the two synthetic records is in good agreement with the results published by Messrs. 1. ?Erceville and G. Kunetz.

Notizen: The problem of the magnetic anomaly due to the induced magnetisation, of a body-having the form of an inclined prism is treated analytically. The formula for the total intensity anomaly is analysed to yield relations between parameters of the anomaly and the depth, width, and dip of the magnetic model. The treatment is extended to include the case of remanent magnetisation. The numerical results are presented as graphs prepared for use in the interpretation of measured anomalies.