ALBERT

Description: Purpose Water footprint is expected as a tool to identify critical and effective points for reducing the impact of water use through the entire life cycle of products, services, and organizations. The purpose of this study is to develop a water footprint inventory database that makes it possible to account the water intensities of all the Japanese goods and services with a differentiation for the types of water resources and the forms of water uses. Methods An input-output analysis was applied to establish a comprehensive database covering all of the Japanese goods and services. The amount of water consumption in each sector was estimated by modeling (for agricultural goods) and determined based on the uses of input water according to the statistic reports and hearing survey results (for other sectors). The intensities of direct water input or consumption in each sector were calculated by dividing the amount of water input or consumption with the domestic production amount for each sector. Based on the input-output analysis by using Leontief’s inverse matrix, the intensities of water use and consumption from cradle to gate were estimated for all goods and services in 403 sectors of Japan. Results and discussion The intensities of water input and consumption in the primary sectors of industry from cradle to gate showed large values and high dependency on rain water as the sources of input water. While the water input intensities in secondary sector of industry were relatively higher than those in tertiary sector of industry, the water consumption intensities generally showed larger reduction in secondary sectors in comparison with those in tertiary sectors due to the utilization of recycling water. The results of comparing the intensities in this study with previous studies showed some differences due to the consideration of site-specific conditions in production and the temporal resolution for the calculation of consumed amount in crop production. Conclusions By considering the site-specific conditions, the intensities were developed as the datasets suitable for water footprint of products, services, and organizations in Japan. While this database would be expected to be applied to the implementation of water footprint, the reflection of the effects by imported goods and services through international trade needs to be conducted in the future study for improving the preciseness and reliability of the results of water footprint.

Description: Purpose Nowadays, some engine components subjected to mechanical stress and high temperature are made of thermoplastic materials. The air intake manifold (AIM) is one of these parts. In the past, AIM was made of aluminium or magnesium alloy, while today, engine manufacturers prefer to use lighter materials such as nylon reinforced with glass fibre. The scope of this work is to assess from an environmental point of view the adoption of two alternative thermoplastic materials (polyamide reinforced with 30 % of glass fibre and polypropylene reinforced with 35 % of glass fibre) for the construction of a Magneti Marelli ® AIM and the introduction in the production stage of new additional design solutions (scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination). The outcome of the paper would contribute both to establish a baseline for comparison with other composite AIMs and to improve the knowledge of materials and manufacturing technologies related to the product. Methods The study has been performed applying the LCA methods as described in the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. The life cycle inventory (LCI) captures the whole AIM life-cycle (LC) subdivided in four stages: materials supply, production, use and end-of-life (EoL). For the LCI data collection, primary data have been provided by the AIM manufacturer, while available databases have been used as source for secondary data. Unlike previous LCAs regarding AIM, the environmental profile is assessed through a broader range of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) impact categories as provided by the CML 2001 framework in its November 2010 release. Results and discussion The results show that for both the polyamide composite and the polypropylene composite, the AIM the most influential LC stages are use and materials supply. Such outcome is due to the considerable quantity of fuel consumed during the whole LC and the energy/resources consumption involved by the raw materials extraction and production processes. The substitution of polyamide composite with polypropylene composite reduces the potential environmental impacts for all the categories and for each stage of the AIM LC. Contribution analysis by LC stage of potential environmental impact evidences that the change of material involves a remarkable increase of the use stage quota with no notable mutation of production and EoL contributions. The introduction of scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination entails no significant impact reduction for all the categories with the only exception of abiotic depletion potential (ADP e ). Conclusions The substitution of polyamide composite with polypropylene composite involves considerable reduction of the AIM LC impact, while the introduction of scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination entails negligible effects.

Description: Purpose Livestock already use most global agricultural land, whereas the demand for animal-source food (ASF) is expected to increase. To address the contribution of livestock to global food supply, we need a measure for land use efficiency of livestock systems. Methods Existing measures capture different aspects of the debate about land use efficiency of livestock systems, such as plant productivity and the efficiency of converting feed, especially human-inedible feed, into animal products. So far, the suitability of land for cultivation of food crops has not been accounted for. Our land use ratio (LUR) includes all above-mentioned aspects and yields a realistic insight into land use efficiency of livestock systems. LUR is defined as the maximum amount of human-digestible protein (HDP) derived from food crops on all land used to cultivate feed required to produce 1 kg ASF over the amount of HDP in that 1 kg ASF. We illustrated our concept for three case systems. Results and discussion The LUR for the case of laying hens equaled 2.08, implying that land required to produce 1 kg HDP from laying hens could directly yield 2.08 kg HDP from human food crops. For dairy cows, the LUR was 2.10 when kept on sandy soils and 0.67 when kept on peat soils. The LUR for dairy cows on peat soils was lower compared to cows on sandy soils because land used to grow grass and grass silage for cows on peats was unsuitable for direct production of food crops. A LUR 〈1.0 is considered efficient in terms of global food supply and implies that animals produce more HDP per square metre than crops. Conclusions Values 〈1.0 demonstrate that livestock produce HDP more efficiently than crops. Such livestock systems (with a LUR 〈 1.0), therefore, do have a role in future food supply and therefore contribute to food security. Our LUR offers identification of livestock production systems that contribute to global food supply, i.e. systems that value land with low opportunity costs for arable production and/or by-products from crop cultivation or the food or energy industry.

Description: Purpose Responsible sourcing of metals is characterized as an approach for life cycle management (LCM) and sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) of social issues. The focus is on the supply of “conflict minerals”—tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold (3TG)—whose mining and trade are implicated in conflict and severe social conditions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Downstream manufacturers are using compliance strategies to reach multiple tiers and long distances into product chains to buy conflict-free sources of these metals from mines, smelters, and refineries. Methods The research uses qualitative methods and public documents to compare 16 conflict mineral programs. A theoretical framework in three dimensions guided the enquiry into program governance, program standards, and certification processes. Additional empirical analysis of the conflict-free sourcing program, the largest and most central industry-led effort on conflict minerals, was supported by confidential access to audit reports, company policies, and management procedures on more than 140 metallurgical facilities. Results and discussion In fewer than 4 years, conflict-free sourcing programs have impacted global 3TG metal supply chains, as indicated by pricing and significant producer compliance. Electronics, jewelry, and other manufacturers—many influenced by US conflict mineral regulation—are “pulling” metals markets for conflict-free sourcing. Private standard programs focus on product chain chokepoints to support efficient engagement: a limited number of 3TG facilities that are influenced to implement “responsibility management systems,” practice conflict-free sourcing, and undergo compliance audits. Some supply chains operate as closed pipelines along the full product chain from mine to end-product. Tantalum has been most successful as about 95 % of producers are compliant; however, for gold, in particular, the scale of compliance is challenged. Conclusions Downstream manufacturing industries are “governing at a distance” the management practices of upstream raw material producers. For LCM, responsible sourcing may be applicable to product chains with other metals and commodities. For SSCM, conflict-free sourcing indicates how compliance and supplier development strategies can penetrate multiple tiers into supply chains to address social issues in developing countries. Future research is needed on understanding more on supplier companies and their motivations and on sustainability performance outcomes for the conflict mineral problem.

Description: Purpose This paper aims to clarify the application of a land-use baseline in attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) for product systems involving land use, through consideration of the fundamental purpose of ALCA. Currently, there is no clear view in the literature whether a baseline should be used when accounting for environmentally relevant physical flows related to land use. Methods An extensive search of literature was carried out using the key terms ‘attributional life cycle assessment’ and ‘attributional LCA’ in the Google Scholar web search engine. Approximately 700 publications were reviewed and summarised according to their type and scope, relevance of land use, key statements and references given for ALCA, and arguments for and against using a baseline in ALCA. Based on the literature review and supplementary literature references, a critical discussion on the use of a baseline and determination of the most appropriate land-use baseline in ALCA is provided. Results and discussion A few studies clearly argued that only absolute (observable) flows without a baseline are to be inventoried in ALCA, while the majority of the studies did not make any clear statement for or against. On the other hand, a land-use baseline was explicitly applied or proposed in a minority of the studies only, despite the fact that we classified land use as highly relevant for the majority of the studies reviewed. Furthermore, the LCA guidelines reviewed give contradictory recommendations. The most cited studies for the definition of ALCA provide general rules for selecting processes based on observable flows but do not argue that observable flows necessarily describe the environmentally relevant physical flows. Conclusions We conclude that a baseline is required to separate the studied parts of the technosphere from natural processes and to describe the impact of land use on ecosystem quality, such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity. The most coherent baseline for human-induced land-use in ALCA is natural regeneration. As the natural-regeneration baseline has typically been excluded, may vary bio-geographically and temporally, and is subject to uncertainties, case studies applying it should be performed so that implications can be studied and evaluated. This is particularly important for agricultural and forestry systems, such as food, feed, fibre, timber and biofuels.

Description: Purpose Integrated agriculture and aquaculture (IAA), as typified by the mulberry dike-pond system (DPS) of the Pearl River delta of southern China, is often cited as an example of sustainable intensified production due to its characteristic closed loop recycling of nutrients. In this study, we tackle two issues that have been hardly addressed in previous analyses of aquaculture production, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) from the pond and the role of labour. Methods Previous assessments led us to revisit the sustainability of the DPS system as a model for a well-studied IAA system using a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Our study quantifies on-farm CH 4 and N 2 O emissions and indirect emissions embedded in inputs, using the global warming potential (GWP) metric. To model the indirect impact of the high labour requirements of the system, a simple methodology based on metabolizable energy requirements is proposed. Results and discussion Our GHGe assessment suggests that using fish ponds to treat organic waste results in higher net emissions than alternative waste processing options (e.g. composting), even when the co-production of fish is accounted for. The majority of total system GWP 100 (97 %) can be attributed to methane from the fertilised ponds. Food required to meet labour requirements plays an important role, from 11 to 22 % of total environmental impact. Conclusions Methane from semi-intensive ponds fertilised with organic waste appears to be a significant source of GWP, calling into question the environmental sustainability of IAA systems such as the mulberry DPS. Improving sustainability in such systems will require better understanding of GHGe from waste-fed aquaculture ponds, notably with respect to on-farm N 2 O and CH 4.

Description: Purpose The purpose of this study was to analyze the environmental trade-offs of cascading reuse of electric vehicle (EV) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in stationary energy storage at automotive end-of-life. Methods Two systems were jointly analyzed to address the consideration of stakeholder groups corresponding to both first (EV) and second life (stationary energy storage) battery applications. The environmental feasibility criterion was defined by an equivalent-functionality lead-acid (PbA) battery. A critical methodological challenge addressed was the allocation of environmental impacts associated with producing LIBs across the EV and stationary use systems. The model also tested sensitivity to parameters such as the fraction of battery cells viable for reuse, service life of refurbished cells, and PbA battery efficiency. Results and discussion From the perspective of EV applications, cascading reuse of an LIB in stationary energy storage can reduce net cumulative energy demand and global warming potential by 15 % under conservative estimates and by as much as 70 % in ideal refurbishment and reuse conditions. When post-EV LIB cells were compared directly to a new PbA system for stationary energy storage, the reused cells generally had lower environmental impacts, except in scenarios where very few of the initial battery cells and modules could be reused and where reliability was low (e.g., life span of 1 year or less) in the secondary application. Conclusions These findings demonstrate that EV LIB reuse in stationary application has the potential for dual benefit—both from the perspective of offsetting initial manufacturing impacts by extending battery life span as well as avoiding production and use of a less-efficient PbA system. It is concluded that reuse decisions and diversion of EV LIBs toward suitable stationary applications can be based on life cycle centric studies. However, technical feasibility of these systems must still be evaluated, particularly with respect to the ability to rapidly analyze the reliability of EV LIB cells, modules, or packs for refurbishment and reuse in secondary applications.

Description: Purpose There is an apparent convention within both consequential and attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) to assume a 1:1 substitution ratio between functionally equivalent product systems. However, this convention may not be compatible with the purpose of consequential LCA, which is to model the actual consequences of the decision at hand. This paper explores the implications of the convention using the illustrative example of a 1 % tax on whole milk. Methods A consequential LCA which assumes a 1:1 substitution ratio between two functionally equivalent product systems is compared with the results of an analysis that estimates the actual substitution ratio based on empirical data. Cross-price elasticities of demand for possible competitor products are modelled using a linear approximated almost ideal demand system (LA-AIDS). Results and discussion The results show a 1:0.52 substitution ratio between whole and low fat milk, rather than a 1:1 substitution ratio. Depending on the consequential LCA values for whole and low fat milk, the 1:1 convention could underestimate the greenhouse gas emission reductions from the tax by over 400 %. Conclusions The results suggest that it is highly important to model actual substitution ratios between competing product systems in order to capture the consequences of the decision at hand. As a subsidiary contribution, the paper also shows the importance of modelling the displacement effects of milk fat co-products, which are generally not considered in the existing LCA literature on milk.

Description: Purpose Capture fisheries are the only industrial-scale harvesting of a wild resource for food. Temporal variability in environmental performance of fisheries has only recently begun to be explored, but only between years, not within a year. Our aim was to better understand the causes of temporal variability within and between years and to identify improvement options through management at a company level and in fisheries management. Methods We analyzed the variability in broad environmental impacts of a demersal freeze trawler targeting cod, haddock, saithe, and shrimp, mainly in the Norwegian Sea and in the Barents Sea. The analysis was based on daily data for fishing activities between 2011 and 2014 and the functional unit was a kilo of landing from one fishing trip. We used biological indicators in a novel hierarchic approach, depending on data availability, to quantify biotic impacts. Landings were categorized as target (having defined target reference points) or bycatch species (classified as threatened or as data-limited). Indicators for target and bycatch impacts were quantified for each fishing trip, as was the seafloor area swept. Results and discussion No significant difference in fuel use was found between years, but variability was considerable within a year, i.e., between fishing trips. Trips targeting shrimp were more fuel intensive than those targeting fish, due to a lower catch rate. Steaming to and from port was less important for fuel efficiency than steaming between fishing locations. A tradeoff was identified between biotic and abiotic impacts. Landings classified as main target species generally followed the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) framework, and proportions of threatened species were low, while proportions of data-limited bycatch were larger. This improved considerably when reference points were defined for saithe in 2014. Conclusions The variability between fishing trips shows that there is room for improvement through management. Fuel use per landing was strongly influenced by target species, fishing pattern, and fisheries management. Increased awareness about the importance of onboard decision-making can lead to improved performance. This approach could serve to document performance over time helping fishing companies to better understand the effect of their daily and more long-term decision-making on the environmental performance of their products. Recommendations Fishing companies should document their resource use and production on a detailed level. Fuel use should be monitored as part of the management system. Managing authorities should ensure that sufficient data is available to evaluate the sustainability of exploitation levels of all harvested species.

Description: Purpose Ecuador is an important player in the global tuna fishing and processing industry: The Ecuadorian industrial tuna fleet represents 17 % of the global tuna purse seiner fleet, and it is the second largest tuna processing country after Thailand. The fishing and processing operations of one of the largest vertically integrated tuna processing firms in Ecuador were evaluated regarding their environmental impacts and assumed representative of the Ecuadorian tuna processing industry. Results were compared with those of other international fish processing and other sources of animal protein for human consumption. Directions are finally identified toward reducing environmental impacts of both the tuna fishery and processing industry. Methods Detailed operational fishery and processing data was collected from a representative Ecuadorian tuna processing firm, and the life cycle assessment framework applied to it for hotspot identification. Two functional units were used: 1 t of final product (for canned, pouched, vacuum bagged and mean products) and 1 t of “fish in product”, which includes all process losses and normalises the final product/raw fish ratios among the different processing routes analysed. The ReCiPe impact assessment method was used. Results and discussion In the period 2012–2013, the studied sub-fleet featured a fuel use intensity of 835 L per landed tonne, which was 235 % higher than reported values for all tuna landings in the Pacific Ocean in 2009. Reasons for such underperformance may include inter-annual variations in tuna catchability and the fact that fuels are generally subsidised in Ecuador, and thus skippers perhaps do not apply sufficient fuel-saving strategies. The main contributors to impacts associated with tuna processing were the provision of tinplate cans (58.0 % of the ReCiPe single score) and fuel use by the fishery (22.6 %). Ecuadorian tuna products feature environmental impacts generally higher than those of other fish processing industries worldwide, yet lower than those of many alternative sources of fish and land animal protein. Conclusions Efforts to reduce environmental impacts of Ecuadorian tuna processing should focus on the fuel performance of the providing fleet, and on the container technology. Increased use of larger tinplate cans, aluminium cans, or other non-metal container technologies (e.g. pouches and retort cups) would decrease environmental impacts of tuna processing. The sources of relative inefficiency observed for the Ecuadorian tuna fleet should be thoroughly investigated. Possible solutions could involve applying fuel-saving strategies.