ALBERT

Notes: A numerical study has been carried out to predict the indoor air quality in a newly painted partitioned office and to assess the effect of ventilation rate and partition layout on the pre-ventilation time required to allow the contaminant concentration level to drop to an acceptable level. The air-flow pattern, the time history of the average contaminant concentration level in the occupied zone, and the pre-ventilation time were computed by a CFD code with a K-ε turbulence model.A displacement ventilation system, with different operating conditions, was used to remove contaminants in the office. The VB emission model, developed by Guo and Tichenor (1992), has been improved to include the influence of non-uniform concentration distribution on contaminant emission rate from the paints. The average contaminant (VOC) concentration levels in the occupied zone and in each chamber were recorded hourly until the average concentrations in the office were less then 0.0005 g/m3.It has been found that the non-uniform concentration distri- bution greatly influences the decay rate of VOC emissions. The time required for the average concentration in each chamber to reach the threshold level is different, since they are non-uniform. The time differences between the chambers having the highest and lowest concentrations were 3 to 8 hours. The results also show that the time required to reduce the concentration in the occupied zone to the threshold level is dependent on the partition layout. For the same ventilation rate, the required time is approximately 4-8 hours longer when using a side layout than when using a central layout.

Notes: The performance of sub-slab-ventilation (SSV) systems has been parametrically studied with a numerical model that was earlier compared successfully with experiment (Bonnefous et al., 1992). The model distinguishes between the sub-slab gravel and the underlying soil. It is used w examine system performance for the following system parameters: the permeability of the soil and of the sub-slab gravel, the magnitude of pressurization (or depressurization) applied by the SSV system, and the mode of SSV application (i.e. pressurization (SSP) or depressurization (SSD)). The mechanisms contributing to the successful performance of SSP and SSD systems are identified. For SSD systems, the mechanisms are (1) the inversion of the pressure gradient across the basement slab, and (2) the reduction of the radon concentration in the soil. For SSP systems, the mechanisms are (1) the elimination of convective flow of soil-gas from the soil into the sub-slab gravel by pressurization of the sub-slab region, (2) the reduction of the radon concentration in the soil, and (3) the suppression of diffusion of soil-gas from the soil into the sub-slab gravel by advective flow of air from the gravel bed into the subgravel soil. Numerical modeling demonstrates that placement of a sub-slab gravel layer substantially improves the SSV system performance. Except in the case of highly permeable soils, SSD systems are predicted to perform better than SSP systems. This prediction is consistent with reported field experience. The numerical model is used to elucidate the reasons for this difference in performance.

Notes: Deciding between the different policy approaches available for reducing human exposures to indoor pollutants is an exceptionally complex task. These options can range from waiting until more definitive information is available to enacting regulatory standards, with many variations in between. This paper presents some of the factors policy-makers must consider in establishing indoor air quality policies, and the role researchers should play in ensuring that indoor air policies are based on the best available scientific information.

Notes: We tested nasal detection thresholds for airborne chemicals in a group of anosmics (i.e., subjects lacking a functional sense of smell) and in a group of age-, gender-, and smoking-status-matched normosmics (i.e., subjects with normal olfaction). Anosmics provided odor unbiased nasal pungency (irritation) thresholds. Normosmics provided odor thresholds. Homologous series of alcohols, acetates, and ketones served as stimuli. Eye irritation thresholds were also measured for selected acetates. Most substances evoked pungency (i.e., were detected by the anosmics). All sensory thresholds decreased systematically with carbon chain length. The gap between pungency and odor grew larger with increasing carbon chain length. Pungency thresholds-but not odor thresholds-showed a uniform linear relationship of slope close to unity with saturated vapor concentration, irrespective of chemical functionality or carbon chain length. This suggests that pungency from nonreactive airborne chemicals rests heavily on a relatively unspecific physical interaction with a susceptible biophase. Of relevance to indoor environments, such an interaction opens the possibility for a high degree of sensory addition of pungency from individual components of complex mixtures resulting in noticeable irritation even when each component is at a level well below threshold value.

Notes: A health and housing questionnaire was administered to children, ages 9-11, living in 24 communities in the United States and Canada. Logistic regression analysis examined the relationship between respiratory health symptoms (bronchitic, asthmatic and lower respiratory) and housing factors. The health risks (expressed as relative odds) were controlled for gender, parental asthma, parental chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and parental education, as well as between-city differences. Lower respiratory symptoms had significantly higher odds ratios reported in older homes (1.12), homes with smokers (1.24), air conditioners (1.14), air cleaners (1.37), and humidifiers (1.47). Home dampness (1.48) and the individual mold and water variables were all significantly associated with increased symptoms. Similar results were reported for bronchitic and asthmatic symptoms. While air conditioners and air cleaners were confounded with symptoms, humidifiers remained significant after controlling for childhood atopy.

Notes: In two case-referent studies the associations between questionnaire symptom reports, expressed as SBS (Sick Building Syndrome) in office workers or facial skin symptoms among VDT-workers, and physical data from offices in 160 buildings were investigated. The results show that low outdoor airflow rate and presence of certain pollution sources, such as copying machines, tended to be associated with an elevated prevalence of SBS. Buildings built or remodeled between 1977 and 1986, low-rise buildings with a horizontal roof and a foundation of the type “concrete slab on the ground”, as well as rooms with flourescent tube lighting with metal shields were also associated with higher SBS risks. A number of factors were associated with an overrepresentation of skin symptoms among VDT-workers such as type of foundation (concrete slab on the ground and crawlspace), the frequency of floor cleaning and type of lighting (fluorescent tubes with glass/plastic shields). It has not been possible to establish conclusive explanations for these associations. The difference in associations between building factors and S B S, and between building factors and skin symptoms among VD Tworkers points to different etiologies.

Notes: Background. In the Danish Town Hall Study" it has previously been shown that the sick building syndrome is a widespread phenomenon. This has given rise to speculations as to whether biologically active components in dust or whether absorbed organic gases and vapours in the indoor climate may be partly responsible for the sick building syndrome. Therefore, we wished to study whether qualitative conditions in dust, of a physical, chemical, and biological nature, are related to the prevalence of symptoms of the sick building syndrome. Material and methods. The study included 12 town halls in the Copenhagen area. A total of 870 persons participated, 584 women and 286 men. All the participants filled out a questionnaire regarding health and working conditions, and dust samples were collected with a special vacuum cleaner in the working environment of the participants, after which the contents of inorganic and organic particles as well as of human source fragments the (hair, nails, skin) and various fibres were determined. Results. There was a significant correlation (P〈0.05) between the prevalence of gram-negative bacteria in the indoor climate dust, and general symptoms (fatigue, heavy-headedness, headache, dizziness, concentration problems) (corr.coeff.=0.73), as well as symptoms from the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract (corr.coeff.=0.76). Also, there was a significant relation between the prevalence of particles in the dust and the prevalence of symptoms from the mucous membranes (corr.coeff.=0.81). There was a strong and significant correlation between the total amount of volatile organic components (TVOC) and lack of concentration (corr.coeff. =0.85) and feeling heavy-headed (corr.coeff.=0.72). Macromolecular dust (potentially allergenetic material) was significantly correlated to the prevalence of headache and general malaise/dizziness (corr.coeff.=0.66), while the ability of the dust to liberate histamine was significantly related to the prevalence of general malaise, dizziness (corr.coeff.=0.65) and lack of concentration (corr.coeff. =0.58). Further analyses including a number of potential confounders did not change the results of the above analyses. Conclusion. The results of this study support the hypothesis that qualitative properties of dust are important to the sick building syndrome. The study was based on relatively few buildings, but nevertheless strong correlations were found. In perspective, epidemiological intervention studies should be carried out to investigate whether minimizing the amount of both dust and bacteria in the indoor climate affect the prevalence of sick building syndrome.

Notes: Settled household dust samples were collected from twelve dwellings in urban areas during an annual winter heating period. Emission of compounds from settled household dust was analyzed under simulated hot surface conditions with a temperature range of 50–300°C. The compounds were analyzed and identified by thermal desorption—gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric technique. The organic emission from household dust was relatively low at temperatures below 70° C, increased appreciably above 100°C, and gained in strength at temperatures above 200°C. Desorption of adsorbed compounds is the main contribution to emissions, but at higher temperatures the thermal degradation seems to affect also the quantity and the quality of the emissions. The organic composition of household dust was found to be equal in quality at different sampling sites; the emissions consist of mainly aliphatic aldehydes (C6—C13), aliphatic carboxylic acids and their esters (C8 C18, C6–C30) and phthalates. Phosphate esters, branched alkanes, n-alkenes, n-alkanones, monoterpenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and aromatic and aliphatic alcohols were also well represented groups in household dust samples. The potential sources of identified compounds are discussed.

Notes: A procedure is developed for assessing the health effects of the emissions from building products. The procedure is based on:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉•emission rates measured in environment test chambers•a fixed standard room with fixed standard conditions•a maximum acceptable concentration in the indoor air of each of the chemical compounds emitted, Iv a maximum permissible contribution to Iv from building products.The procedure has two elements: evaluation of the emitted compound alone and evaluation of the compound together with other compounds and indoor air factors. The evaluation includes odour and health effects of the compounds.The procedure has been applied to the emission test results for two building products: a rubber floor covering, and a water-borne acrylic watt paint.Maximum acceptable indoor air concentrations are listed fin-selected chemical compounds emitted by these two materials.

Notes: Heat, mass and momentum transfer takes place simultaneously in ventilated rooms. For accurate predictions of the indoor environment, all the environmental parameters that influence these transport phenomena should be taken into consideration. This paper introduces a method for a full assessment of indoor thermal comfort using computational fluid dynamics in conjunction with comfort models. A computer program has been developed which can be used for predicting thermal comfort indices such as thermal sensation and draught risk. The sensitivity of predicted comfort indices to environmental parameters is analysed for a mechanically ventilated office. It was found that when the mean radiant temperature was considered uniform in the office, the error in the predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) could be as high as 7.5%. The prediction became worse when the mean radiant temperature was taken to be the same as air temperature point by point in the space. Moreover, disregarding the variation of vapour pressure in the space resulted in an error in PPD of abour 4% near the source of moisture generation.The importance of evaluating both thermal sensation and draught risk is also examined. It is concluded that in spaces with little air movement only the thermal sensation is needed for evaluation of indoor thermal comfort whereas in spaces with air movement induced by mechanical vantilation or air-conditioning systems both thermal sensation and draught risk should be evaluated.

Notes: The filtration efficiency of ventilation air cleaners is highly particle-size dependent over the 0.01 to 3 μm diameter size range. Current standardized test methods, which determine only overall efficiencies for ambient aerosol or other test aerosols, provide data of limited utility. Because particles in this range are respirable and can remain airborne for prolonged time periods, measurement of air cleaner fractional efficiency is required for application to indoor air quality issues. The objectives of this work have been to 1) develop a test apparatus and procedure to quantify the fractional filtration efficiency of air cleaners over the 0.01 to 3 μm diameter size range and 2) quantify the fractional efficiency of several induct air cleaners typical of those used in residential and office ventilation systems.Results show that efficiency is highly dependent on particle size, flow rate, and dust load present on the air cleaner. A minimum in efficiency was often observed in the 0.1 to 0.5 μm diameter size range. The presence of a dust load frequently increased an air cleaner's efficiency; however, some air cleaners showed little change or a decrease in efficiency with dust loading. The common furnace filter had fractional efficiency values of less than 10% over much of the measurement size range.

Notes: The objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of individual commercially available portable indoor air cleaning units in removing dust particulates, tobacco smoke particulate and vapor phase constituents (nicotine and vinyl pyridine), viable and total fungal spores, pollen, and gaseous contaminants (carbon monoxide[CO], nitrogen dioxide[NO2], and formaldehyde[HCHO]), in a clean air test chamber. The air cleaner chamber results presented here represent initial-use results. In general, High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) and electrostatic precipitator systems demonstrated the highest efficiencies with respect to particulate, contaminants, followed closely by electret filter systems. Ionizers and ozone generators were least effective in particulate removal. Systems which included sufficient sorbent material (i.e. activated carbon or potassium permanganate) were marginally effective at gaseous contaminant removal. None of the systems tested were effective at carbon monoxide removal.Sensory testing was conducted to discern potential correlation between human perceptive response and measured air cleaner performance (with respect to tobacco smoke removal). An electret filter (EF) loaded with carbon sorbent received the best ratings with respect to odor strength, nasal irritation, eye irritation, and overall air acceptability.

Notes: The indoor concentrations of contaminants originating from outdoor sources have been measured and calculated under transient conditions. The results show that contaminants that are supplied to an office building via the ventilation system can reach considerably high concentration levels. The indoor/outdoor concentration ratio and time lag are dependent on the air change rate. In buildings with low air change rates the indoor concentration variations are smoothed out compared to buildings with high air change rates. The results from the theoretical model are compared to the results from both laboratory and field measurements and the model is verified for well mixed conditions in a 20 m3 test chamber. The model can be used to simulate different control strategies for reduction of indoor contaminant concentrations related to outdoor sources. One such control strategy is based on reduction of the outdoor air change rate during periods with peak outdoor contaminant concentrations.

Notes: A WHO/EURO working group met in Eilat, Israel, from 28 March to 4 April 1993, to assess the significance of risks to health associated with indoor radon, to develop a unified approach to control radon exposure, and to advise on the communication of associated health risks. A summary of the deliberations of this working group and its conclusions and recommendations are presented in this paper.

Notes: Indoor air quality models are commonly based on the assumption of instantaneous and complete air mixing within a zone. Such an assumption is not appropriate for all circumstances, such as investigating the utility of segregating smokers to reduce nonsmoker exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. This experimental study characterizes quantitatively the rate at which smoke from a cigarette disperses within an unoccupied, 31-m3, low air-exchange rate room under natural convection flow conditions. Sidestream smoke from a smoldering cigarette was simulated with a pulsed release of a tracer gas – a neutrally buoyant mixture of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) in helium – above an electrically heated coil. During each experimental run, sequential air samples were collected remotely, using gas-tight syringes, from 41 locations within the room. After each run, these samples were analyzed for SF6 content using a gas chromatograph with an electron-capture detector. Duplicate runs were conducted under three conditions: nearly isothermal surfaces; convection from a 500–watt heater; and convection from incoming solar radiation. Characteristic mixing times ranged from 7–10 minutes for the solar radiation case to 80–100 minutes for the nearly isothermal case.

Notes: A review is presented of investigations of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations in indoor air of buildings of different classifications (dwellings, offices, schools, hospitals) and categories (established, new and complaint buildings). Measured concentrations obtained from the published literature and from research in progress overseas were pooled so that VOC concentration profiles could be derived for each building classification/category. Mean concentrations of individual compounds in established buildings were found to be generally below 50 μg/m3, with most below 5 μg/m3. Concentrations in new buildings were much greater, often by an order of magnitude or more, and appeared to arise from construction materials and building contents. The nature of these sources and approaches to reduce indoor air concentrations by limiting source VOC emissions is discussed. Total VOC (TVOC) concentrations were substantially higher than concentrations of any individual VOCs in all situations, reflecting the large number of compounds present, but interpretation of such measurements was limited by the lack of a common definition for TVOC relevant to occupant exposure.

Notes: The development of odor emission rates from EU6 classified glass fiber bag filters was studied in four air-handling units (AHU), and emissions from the same kind of filters with EU3 classified polyester prefilters were studied in two units. The filters were loaded in six AHU in downtown Helsinki. The pressure drop was measured, and the odors of the filters were evaluated by a trained panel under laboratory conditions (T = 20°C, face velocity 1.0 m/s) every sixth week. The odor emissions of simultaneous atmospheric dust samples were also studied. The odor emissions of the filters rose during the first three months to a level where every third person would be dissatisfied. The emissions from coarse prefilters were similar to those from the more efficient filters without prefilters, and the emissions of the main filters were significantly lower if used with prefilters. This result indicates that the prefilters effectively protected the fine filters from odor-causing particles. The results of tests made with atmospheric samples agree with this result. Relative odor emissions were the highest in coarse fractions (〉 10.0 μm). The pressure drop increased with the particle mass collected on the ventilation filter, but it did not correlate well with the odor emission of the filter. Thus, pressure drop alone is not an adequate criterion for changing supply air filters when hygienic aspects are a concern.

Notes: To test the reproducibility of a questionnaire previously used to study the association between respiratory symptoms and home dampness/mold, it was sent to the parents of 1,596 children twice, with an interval of one month between distributions. A total of 770 respondents completed the questionnaire both times and were entered into an analysis. For exposure variables, percentages of agreement between the two administrations ranged from 87% for visible mold growth in the home to 95% for basement flooding. Respective kappa scores ranged from 73% to 82%. Percentage agreements for the adults' symptoms variables ranged from 80% for upper respiratory symptoms, to 99% for physician-diagnosed asthma. Percentage agreements for children's symptoms ranged from 81% for upper respiratory symptoms to 97% for current asthma. For all symptoms kappas ranged from 59% to 90% indicating moderate to high reproducibility. Future research should now concentrate on validating the questionnaire as an indicator of mold growth.

Notes: There are few data sets appropriate for characterizing the indoor concentrations of air pollutants over the long term. An understanding of the variability in indoor pollutant levels is particulurly relevant to the design of epidemiologic investigations: misclassifiation of exposure due to the inaccuracy of exposure estimates tends to weaken the association of exposure with health outcome. This paper uses a series of indoor NO2 measurements collected at two-week intervals over 18-month periods between 1988 and 1991 to describe the seasonal and year-to-year variability in indoor NO2,. The data show that there can be large year-to-year differences in both the sample distribution of indoor NO2 as well as the household average. For homes with gas ranges with continuously-burning pilot lights, the average bedroom NO2 concentration was 25% higher in the winter of 1990-1991 than in the winter of 1989-1990 but only 4% higher during the winter of 1988-1989 than during the winter of 1989-1990. The winter-to-winter correlations within homes ranged from a low of 0.53 to a high of 0.88. The year-to-year differences in mean indoor concentrations were not related to temperature patterns. Occupant behaviors that influence air exchange rate and/or source use are hypothesized to be the major determinant of the observed pattern. Exposure data collected during a single year should be cautiously extrapolated to other years. However, in Albuquerque homes, the data suggest that the year-to-year variability in household NO2 levels will not have a strong impact on classifying exposure into broad categories.

Notes: Indoor and outdoor aerosol sampling was conducted in two New York State Counties, Suffolk and Onondaga, during the period of January 6 and April 15, 1986. Week-long fine particle mass samples were collected indoors and outdoors for a total of 596 samples taken in 394 homes. The aerosol samples were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence for the following elements: Si, S, Cl, K, Ca, V, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Br, Cd, and Pb. Lastly, aerosol mass concentrations were determined gravimetrically.Homes included in this study had one or more of the following sources: cigarette smoking, kerosene heaters, wood burning and gas stoves. Homes with none of the above sources were also included. Comparisons between mass and elemental concentrations among the different home groups allowed the investigation of the elemental profiles and importance of the indoor sources. From the five investigated sources, cigarette smoking was found to be the most important, and to a lesser extent, kerosene heaters. Finally, gas stoves did not contribute to the observed indoor aerosol mass and elemental concentrations, but other unknown indoor sources did contribute to indoor aerosol concentrations.Room-to-room differences in mass and elemental concentrations were also investigated. The results of these analyses suggested that concentrations measured in the living area and kitchen are identical, within analytical errors. Therefore, the indoor environment can be characterized as well mixed.

Notes: Local age of air and air change effectiveness were determined in two office buildings using tracer gas techniques to study the applicability of the associated measurement procedures in mechanically ventilated office buildings. Measurement issues examined include the establishment of a uniform tracer gas concentration at the start of the test and the relationship of ventilation system configuration and system operation to the test procedure. Air change effectiveness was determined at locations in the occupied space based on the local age of air at that location and the age of air in the corresponding ventilation system return duct. Values of the air change effectiveness in the occupied space were generally close to one, which is consistent with good mixing of the Ventilation air within the occupied space. Deviations from 1.0, on the order of 10%, did occur, but given the limited experience with these measurement procedures in the field it is not clear whether these deviations are significant. These tests provide data on air change effectiveness to supplement the limited database on mechanically ventilated office buildings in the US. In addition, the experience obtained with the measurement procedures will assist in the development of a standardized approach to measuring air change effectiveness in the field.

Notes: Full-scale residential house tests were conducted to evaluate the effects of organic emissions from a wood finishing product – wood stain – on indoor air quality (IAQ). The test house concentrations of three alkane species, nonane, decane, and undecane, were measured as a function of time after the application of the wood stain. It was found that the test house concentrations can be simulated by an integrated IAQ model which takes into consideration source, sink and ventilation effects. The alkane emissions were controlled by an evaporation-like process. Data analysis indicated that there were significant sink effects in the test house. Different sink strengths were estimated by the model for the three alkane species. An inverse relationship between the test house sink strength and the alkane volatility was found.

Notes: A test chamber has been developed in order to provide a small and simple emission testing facility capable of testing construction products in a climate where the important climatic parameters such as temperature, ventilation rate and air velocity can be varied independently around typical indoor values. The test chamber CLIMPAQ is made of panes of window glass. Other main surface materials are stainless steel and eloxated aluminium. The chamber has a volume of 50.9 litres and is designed to meet the requirements for quantifying air pollution. In this investigation human subjects acted as air pollution judges, and chemical characterization of the air pollution was carried out. Carpet, linoleum, wall paint and seal- ant were tested simultaneously in the CLIMPAQ and in four other chambers ranging from a full-scale chamber of 28 m3 to a field and laboratory emission cell of 3.5· 10−5m3. Product ranking is the same in all chambers for the sensory measurements. Emission rates based on sensory measurements differ for all products less than 100 % except for tests in a 3-litre chamber where emission rates were higher. Chemical measurements differ up to approximately 10 times for the same product in different chambers. Deviations appear to be the result of different environmental parameters in the various chambers. Low air concentrations or high specific ventilation rates seem to increase emissions, while differences in air velocities and sink properties may also be the cause of differences in emission rates.

Notes: Microbial content in dusts such as bacteria, endotoxins and fungal spores are thought to be important causative agents for the symptoms in organic dust-related diseases. Micro-organism-induced mediator release was therefore examined in human cells. Bacteria were found to trigger the release of histamine and leurotriene B4 from bronchoalveolar cells, and in suspensions of dispersed lung and tonsillar cells they induce the release of histamine and prostaglandin D2. Basophil histamine release was triggered by both bacteria and their endotxins. Furthermore, histamine release caused by allergic as well as non-allergic reactions was enhanced by bacteria, endotoxins and fungal spores of mould. These effects of dust components may be crucial for the symptoms in q a n i c dust-related diseases, since the mediators are of key importance to the broncho-obstructive and inflammatory events in these disorders.

Notes: One hundred and eighty eight Volatile organic compound (VOCs) were identified from dust emission, dust headspace, and in air sampling in a residence by sampling on Tenax TA followed by thermal desorption and HRGC/MS. Of these, 83 compounds were found in dust headspace. Aliphatic aldehydes (C4-8 and octane were major contributors to headspace gas chromatograms while the total ion current response for desorbed VOCs (120° C) was dominated by n-alkanes (C7-16), n- and branched alkanals (C4-10 and alkanoic acids (C2-14). Many of the identified VOCs could be products of microbial or human metabolism. Dust volatiles resulting from desorption were compared w dust headspace VOC analyses and found to be comparable considering the temperature difference. A method for determination of total VOC (TVOC-dust) emission at 120°C, was developed. Variation in desorption TVOC analyses was mainly due to sample heterogeneity.

Notes: The development of standardized non-culture-based approaches capable of assessing microbial contarnination of airborne dust is sorely needed. Direct chemical analysis has previously been successfully used for measuring components unique to Gram-negative bacteria. In the present study, dust from primary filters of hospital air-conditioning intake systems (which filter incoming outdoor and recirculated air) and dust from secondary room filters (filtering primarily indoor air) were analyzed. Dust from home air-condition-ing filters (which also filter outdoor air, with recirculation) were also analyzed. Muramic acid is an aminosugar present in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial cell walls and can serve as a measure of bacterial contamination in dust. Samples were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after hydrolysis and conversion of released sugars (including muramic acid) to alditol acetates. Primary hospital filters contained 26.3 ± 10.0 ng of muramic acid/mg dust while secondary filters contained 5.3 ± 5.4 ng/mg. The level of inuramic acid in home air-conditioner dust was 31.7 ± 13.4 ng/mg. This study of dust collected from air-conditioners demonstrates the feasibility of chemical assessment of the microbial contamination of indoor air.

Notes: Ozone concentrations were measured in indoor and outdoor residential air during the summer of 1992. Six homes located in a New Jersey suburban area were chosen for analysis, and each home was monitored for 6 days under different ventilation and indoor combustion conditions. The 5-hour average ozone concentration outdoors over the monitoring period was 95 ± 36 ppbv. One third of the days exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS), one-hour maximum concentration of 120 ppb. The mean indoor to outdoor (I/O) ratios of ozone concentration ranged from 0.22 ± 0.09 to 0.62 ± 0.11, depending upon ventilation rate and indoor gas combustion. The presence of indoor gas combustion can significantly decrease the I/O ratio. Because of the great amount of time that people spend indoors, the indoor residential exposures were estimated to account for 57% of the total residential exposures. One type of the possible gas-phase reactions for indoor ozone, the reaction of ozone with a volatile organic compound containing unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds, is discussed with some supporting evidence provided in the study.

Notes: Reactive indoor chemistry has seldom been considered in investigations of the health effects of exposure to indoor contaminants although improved understanding may help to reduce exposure misclassification as well as identify previously unknown exposures. Nitrous acid (HONO), formed from the heterogeneous reaction of NO2 with water on indoor surfaces, may be a neglected and important confounder in studies of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) health effects. The understanding of HONO – NO2 relationships is important since conventional measurements of NO2 actually measure a number of nitrogen oxides including HONO. Accordingly, we examined the effects of relative humidity, chamber residence time, the presence of carpeted sufaces and the presence of human subjects on the production of HONO following the injection of NO2 into a chamber. Increasing chamber relative humidity led to greater HONO concentrations at a given NO2 level. At 80% relative humidity, HONO concentrations were 11% of the NO2 concentration. Increased residence time in the chamber increased HONO levels, with a five-fold increase in HONO levels between 20 minute and 120 minute residence times. The presence of wool carpets in the chamber was not found to affect significantly the HONO production rates, although NO2 decay rates were increased. When human subjects were present in the chamber, HONO concentrations decreased by as much as 50% of the levels present under similar conditions with no subjects in the chamber. In light of our results we argue that future investigations of NO2 health effects and indoor air quality must recognize the importance of indoor chemistry, and in particular, the likelihood of elevated concentrations of HONO which will interfere with NO2 measurements and potentially confound the investigation of concentration-effect relationships. Similarly, previous studies demonstrating a relationship between health endpoints and NO2 exposure should be viewed with caution until the presence and importance of other potentially toxic nitrogenous compounds in the exposure environment are evaluated.

Notes: The emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from nine toner powders and eleven types of processed paper from photocopying machines (6), laser (3) and matrix printers (21, and one carbonless copy fm has been measured. A total of 61 VOC from toner powders were identified by heating (185 °C) the powder for three minutes for thermal desorption and by gas chromatography followed by the use of low and high resolution EI and CI mass spectrometry. VOC from processed paper were analyzed by headspace sampling on Tenax TA from nylon bags. Thirty-one VOC with a wide range of volatility and persistency were identified from processed paper. The total VOC emission from the various types of paper differed substantially. Using the field and laboratory emission cell (FLEC), the calculated initial emission rate of styrene was 5 μg m−2h−1 from a freshly processed paper The VOC emission from machines and the processed paper can be reduced by proper choice of o m e equipment. However, an evaluation should consider all potential pollutants.

Notes: Geological exploration has dentifid an unsuspected radon-prone belt in southern California. Detailed analysis of aeroradiometric (NARR) data, soil-gas radon, soil permeability, and finally indoor radon has identified the Rincon Shale and Rincon-derived soils in Santa Barbara County as anomalous in uranium and radon. Roughly 74% of houses on the Rincon Shale exceed 4 pCi/l and 26% exceed 20 pCi/l in standardized screening tests (3 to 7 day AC, “closed-house” lived-in rooms). Fifty three percent exceed 4 pCi/l in longer-term measurements (1 to 6 mo, AT) under normal ventilation conditions.Unusually strong correlations between aeroradiometric data, soil-gas radon adjusted for soil permeability, geology, and indoor radon reflect the unaltered character of sedimentary host rocks and a consequent tendency for anomalous uranium to occur throughout given rock units rather than in epzgenetic mineralized zones. Under these circumstances, deliberate geological exploration may be a more eficient approach to indoor radon risk identfication than simple random sampling or non-random testing of houses. By the same token, geological parameters can facilitate radon risk assessment on undeveloped lands. Attention is drawn to multiple populations within radon test samples and the consequent problems in estimating regional parameters.

Notes: Polymer materials and their additives are today ever present in our daily surroundings. These materials have been found to emit a number of different volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the ambient air, thus affecting the quality of the indoor air VOCs with detectable concentrations are exchanged between the different materials and indoor air. Materials present in the system act as sorbents as well as sources of emission, depending on the concentration of the VOCs in the air at a specific time. This work demonstrates a method of studying the phenomena of absorption/re-emission. A hypothetical room that resembles a furnished office has been studied. A PVC flooring material was used as a primary emission source in a system where materials such as wood, paint, cloth, chipboard, and cellulose were present. Mass transfer in the solid materials was assumed to be by diffusion. The results show that the mechanism of absorption/re-emission of volatiles may extend the time of residence in an indoor system considerably. A person working in this environment could risk longer exposure to toxic volatiles than if there were no absorption/re-emission effects.

Notes: Good air quality can only be assured throughout an office complex if each workspace receives an adequate supply of ventilation air. The likelihood of achieving this situation would be increased if the building engineer had a means of easily predicting the air movement in each office configuration. A simple computer-based solution to this need is proposed. To this end, the development and validation testing of a numerical solution technique to simulate the ventilation air movement in a room or office is described. The predictions of the two-dimensional, isothermal, inviscid formulation are seen to be in good agreement with experimentally measured airflows in configurations of interest. The computer code is then used to illustrate the airflow in offices served by a single row of supply air diffusers, when partitions are used to divide the space into smaller workspaces. It is observed that the partitions distort the airflow patterns to the extent that it would be difficult to provide desirable ventilation airflows to all the workspaces formed by the partitions.

Notes: In buildings which were built within the last 15 to 20 years, or which have been retrofitted, and which do notfeature a mechanical ventilation system, air changes between 0.01 h−1 and 0.5 h−1 were measured while windows were closed. In the bedrooms of such buildings, when doors and windows were closed, CO2 concentrations of up to 4300 ppm were measured whereby the 1500 ppm limit was often exceeded. Simulation calculations and diverse measurements using different door positions with simultaneously closed windows have shown that with the door open more than 10 cm, and a minimal air exchange in the whole of an apartment of 0.1 h−1, a CO2 concentration of I500 ppm was not or was only insignifiantly exceeded even after 10 hours. Investigations in a dwelling fined with a mechanical ventilation system have shown that air quality and the indoor climate parameters were in an optimal range.

Notes: The prevalence of symptoms compatible with the Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) was measured in a questionnaire study among 4 943 office workers. An assessment of the relation between SBS symptoms and personal, physical and psychosocial exposure factors was made. In contrast to males, the majority of females were lower-grade staff Females reported annoyance from physical climate factors more often, both at work and at home. Males reported a better psychosocial situation than females. Female gender, asthmalrhinitis, paper and VDT work were related to an increased prevalence of SBS symptoms. The prevalence of facial skin symptoms increased markedly with the amount of VDT work. Psychosocial workload intensifid this relation. Inequalities in physical climate and psychosocial conditions associated with different positions held in the offices can be of importance for the increased occurrence of symptoms among females.

Notes: Regulatory authority typically is ill-defined or simply nonexistent for reducing the risks from indoor air in non-industrial buildings. This has forced risk managers to rely increasingly on information programs either to substitute for or enhance the effectiveness of traditional regulatory activities. These in formation programs – i.e., risk communication programs – tend to be designed for polar problems. One is to alert people to a “new” risk. The other is to reassure people about risk for which concerns are high even though scientific estimates show small risk. So far there is no generally accepted model that yields consistently good predictions of how specific risk communication activities affect people's perceptions and actions for either of these polar problems. The rapidly growing literature relies on case studies to examine alternative models and describes what seems to work. There have been relatively few tests of alternative risk communication materials and strategies. This paper extracts the literature's lessons for planning indoor air information programs, with attention to how the communication needs differ when alerting versus reassuring.

Notes: In 1989 the Madison Building of the Library of Congress was investigated to determine the source of occupant complaints about health symptoms and the indoor air quality. Questionnaires, distributed to all 3176 building occupants, assessed information on workstation characteristics, symptom occurrence, odors, thermal comfort, and demographic and health factors. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess personal risk factors associated with mucosal symptom reporting and reported sensitivity to irritants. Symptom prevalence was higher for women (odds ratio (OR) = 1.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.40-2.10), those who reported being especially sensitive to irritants (OR = 1.57, 95% CI1.27-1.93), those with self-reported allergies, flu, or chest illness, and those who took frequent fresh air breaks. It was found that females and non-smokers and those reporting other adverse health effects tended to report sensitivity to irritants more frequently.

Notes: The sampling rate of a nitrogen dioxide (NO2) passive sampling badge was evaluated in indoor environments including an unoccupied research house, residential houses, and an office. Measurements from the NO2 badges were compared with those of a chemiluminescent analyzer the EPA reference method, by placing them near to the sample inlet of the chemiluminescent analyzer In this study, we used a new sampling rate for the NO2 badge placed in indoor environments (an overall mass transfer coefficient of 0.10 cm/s) smaller than the rate previously reported for the badge when used outdoors. The new rate provides more accurate measurements of NO, concentrations in indoor environments. Indoor NO2 concentrations were also measured with the NO2 badges exposed to a constant wind velocity provided by a wind tunnel. Since the measurements of the badge with a constant wind velocity agreed well with the reference method, the badges could be assumed to be a secondary reference measurement. With the badges used as the secondary reference measurement, we developed a portable wind tunnel to evaluate a personal exposure measurement by the badge. The results are presented in Environment International (Lee et al., 1993). Precision of the badge measurements was as good as an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.9779. It was determined that placement of the badge should be at least 10 cm out from an indoor wall surface to avoid undersampling due to NO2 gradients near the surface.

Notes: The effect of a thin, passive, adsorbent sheet containing activated carbon on reducing the concentration of volatile organic compounds in indoor air is investigated. A mathematical model is established to describe the conditions in a hypothetical room containing building materials, furniture, an activated carbon sheet, etc. The results of the modelling show that the activated carbon sheet can reduce the concentration of the organic vapour in the room air by a factor of 1.6 – 200, depending on the resistances to mass transfm in the laminar gas film surrounding the activated carbon sheet and in the voids of the sheet. The maximum value 200 is a theoretical limit, if both the film and void resistances could be eliminated. Minimization of the film and void resistances is important to achieve high effect of the activated carbon sheet. This could be done by e.g. dividing a single sheet into several smaller pieces, hanging the sheets at some places where the airflow is relatively high, and making the sheets thin and loose. For some of the model parameters, estimated or assumed values were used in the calculations. Experimental work regarding sorption equilibria and mass transport properties of the species and materials involved is needed for more accurate results.

Notes: This paper presents the results of indoor radon surveys in the Sichuan province of China. The indoor radon concentrations found using scintillation or the two-filter method, ranged from 1.0 Bqm−3 to 170.2 Bqm−3. The arithmetic mean concentrations of indoor radon and its progeny were 17.8 Bqm−3 and 10.8 Bqm−3 EER (2.9 m WL), respectively. A seasonal pattern of the maximum in winter and the minimum in summer was observed for radon and its progeny concentrations. The annual effective dose equivalent resulting from indoor and outdoor inhalation of radon progeny totalled 0.93 mSv. Of the 109 million people living in Sichuan, 3000-6800 may die annually from lung cancer induced by the inhalation of radon progeny.

Notes: Sensory ratings, respiratory behavior and eye blink rate were recorded in 11 nonsmokers exposed to a no-smoking (CONTROL) condition or to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) from one of three kinds of cigarettes: a Kentucky reference (1R4F), an ultra-low tar (ULT) and one that heats tobacco (TEST).For each two-hour session in a controlled-environment room, two smokers “puffed” unlit cigarettes, for the CONTROL condition, or smoked 16 cigarettes to generate ETS (sidestream plus exhaled mainstream smoke). Concentrations of nicotine and respirable suspended particles (RSP) observed with the 1R4F and ULT cigarettes were 10- to 20-fold higher than those typically found in field sampling studies of office and restaurant smoking environments. The ULT and TEST cigarettes resulted in ETS analyte concentrations that were 77-100% and O-56%, respectively, of those observed with 1R4E Sensory ratings (odor, irritation, annoyance, acceptability) with the two tobacco-burning cigarettes were similar and were much greater than those recorded for the TEST or CONTROL conditions which were, in turn, rated similarly. Respiratory parameters (respiratory rate, tidal volume, expiratory time), which generally failed to discriminate the TEST and CONTROL conditions, were altered during exposure to ETS from the 1R4F and, to a lesser extent, the ULT cigarette. Eye blink rate was not significantly altered by ETS from any of the cigarettes.

Notes: Some operators of climate installations still prefer the use of water humidifiers. Soaked surfaces and circulating water; together with impuritiesfiom the ventilation air, create a favourable environment for the growth of numerous microorganisms. Faulty operation of air-conditioners can constitute a risk to health. This has been proved many times in cases of certain hospital-acquired infections, a classic example being pneumonias caused by Legionella pneumophila. For this reason, the possibility of suppressing microbial contamination of circulating water in humidifis by using the oligodynamic potential of silver ions was investigated. Basic hygienic requirements were put fmard to ensure adequate quality of water in humidifis of air-conditioning installations.

Notes: This paper presents a series of fill-scale measurements of the concentration distribution in the centre plane of a room with isothermaI mixing ventilation.Vertical projiles of the concentration in the middle of the room have been measured under different conditions. With the contamination source in the middle of the room the vertical profiles were changed radically with an increase of the air change rate from n = 1.5h−1 to n = 6h−1 due to a change in the flow structure in the room. With a constant air change rate, the location of the contamination source in the room showed a great influence on the vertical profile. A high velocity around the contamination source resulted in a uniform contaminant distribution in the room, while a low velocity resulted in considerable differences.Contours of concentration in the centre plane of the room have been measured using different contaminant densities. The densities were low, neutral and high in relation to the density of air. The results showed that the contaminant distribution in the room with the chosen flow conditions depended strongly on the contaminant density, and that the high density case gave the highest concentrations in the occupied zone.

Notes: In developed and developing countries, indoor air pollutionis gaining increasing prominence as a public health problem. Time-activity studies and exposure surveys have shown the dominant contributions of indoor environments to population exposures for many pollutants. Mounting epidemiological evidence documents adverse health effects of indoor pollutants and risk assessments indicate that indoor carcinogens may contribute substantially to the population's burden of lung and other cancers. Unacceptable indoor air quality has also been identified as a common cause of symptoms. This paper addresses the public health problem posed by indoor air pollution, offering a schema for categorizing adverse health effects of indoor air pollution, and considers the complexiry of estimating the full scope of the problem

Notes: There is evidence that sick building syndrome (SBS) is caused, in part, by indoor surface pollution (ISP): contaminants such as dust, fibres and micro-organisms, deposited on or in surfaces in buildings. A study is described which clarifies the relative importance of a number of possible causes of SBS in a single building. The building, which had a high initial prevalence of SBS symptoms, was used in a doubleblind controlled intervention study with weekly symptom questionnaires. The four interventions were: ventilation system cleaning, air filtration, hot-water extraction cleaning of chairs and carpets, plus high grade filter vacuuming and dusting, and dust mite treatment (application of liquid nitrogen). Only the last two interventions brought about a reduction in symptoms. It is concluded that cleaning which effectively reduces ISP can reduce SBS symptoms. This may be related to the presence of dust mites in furnishings. Improved cleaning may entail better cleaning specifications and/or consideration of requirements for cleaning when selecting and positioning office furniture. If ISP and the temporary local pollution levels created by it are a problem, then monitoring of ambient conditions (by instruments or by human assessors) will not adequately represent the conditions to which occupants are exposed

Notes: Epidemiologic research into the causes of non-specific symptoms among office workers has produced a variety of conflicting findings which are difficult to synthesize. This paper first discusses methodologic issues important in the interpretation of epidemiologic studies, and then reviews the findings of 32 studies of 37 factors potentially related to office worker symptoms. Among environmental factors assessed, there were generally consistent findings associating increased symptoms with air-conditioning, carpets, more workers in a space, VDT use, and ventilation rates at or below 10 liters/second/person. Studies with particularly strong designs found decreased symptoms associated with low ventilation rate, short-term humidification, negative ionization, and improved office cleaning, although studies reviewed showed little consistency of findings for humidification and ionization. Relatively strong studies associated high temperature and low relative humidity with increased symptoms, whereas less strong studies were not consistent. Among personal factors assessed, there were generally consistent findings associating increased symptoms with female gender, job stress/dissatisfaction, and allergies/asthma. For other environmental or personal factors assessed, findings were too inconsistent or sparse for current interpretation, and there were no findings from strong studies. Overall evidence suggested that work related symptoms among office workers were relatively common, and that some of these symptoms represented preventable physiologic effects of environmental exposures or conditions. Future research on this problem should include blind experimental and case-control studies, using improved measurements of both environmental exposures and health outcomes

Notes: Twelve public office buildings were selected for a study of relationships between worker's health symptoms and a number of building, workspace, job, and personal factors. Three buildings were naturally ventilated, three were mechanically ventilated, and six were air conditioned. Information on the prevalences of work-related symptoms, demographics, and job and personal factors were determined via a questionnaire completed by 880 occupants. Several indoor environmental parameters were measured. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between symptom prevalences and features of the buildings, indoor environments, jobs, and personal factors. A substantial fraction of the occupants in these typical office buildings reported frequent work-related symptoms. The occupants of the mechanically ventilated and air conditioned buildings had sipifcantly more symptoms than occupants of the naturally ventilated buildings after adjustment for confounding factors. Increased prevalences of some symptoms were associated with several job and workspace factors including: presence of carpet, increased use of carbonless copy paper and photocopiers, space sharing, and distance from a window

Notes: The relative importance of sensory air pollution, thermal load and noise was studied under controlled conditions in two identical environmental chambers. In one chamber subjects were exposed to various levels of either thermal load or poor indoor air quality. For each condition tested in this chamber, the subjects were exposed to a number of noise levels in an adjacent chamber with neutral thermal conditions and good indoor air quality in order to determine a noise level causing the same degree of discomfort. A total of 68 comparisons of the conditions in the two chambers were made by the same group of 16 subjects after one-minute exposure in each chamber. In the operative temperature range of 23–29°C, a 1°C change in operative temperature was found to have the same effect on human comfort as a change in perceived air quality of 2.4 decipol or a change in noise level of 3.9 dB. For levels of perceived air quality up to 10 decipol, a 1 -decipol change in perceived air quality had the same effect on human comfort as a change in noise level of 1.2 dB. A relationship between traffic noise level and percentage dissatisfied was established

Notes: A waterborne paint was applied to tin plated steel sheets with three different film thicknesses. The emission of volatile and semivolaile organic compounds ((S) VOCs) from the samples was measured in small climatic chambers under standard conditions over a two-week period. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of the film thickness on the emission rate decay. First order decay models, including sink effects for the high boiling (S) VOCs, were fitted to the concentration versus time data. The results showed that the first order rate constants decrease with increasing film thickness. In uddition, the results indicated that the emissions of the (S)VOCs in the waterborne paint film seemed to be controlled by evaporation. The thicknesses of paint films used in climatic chamber tests to estimate emission rates for product compurison or emission prediction must be known in order to prevent erroneous conclusions

Notes: Emissions from freshly applied paints and other coatings can cause elevated indoor concentrations of vapor-phase organics. Methods are needed to determine the emission rates over time for these products. Some success has been achieved using simple first-order decay models to evaluate data from small dynamic test chambers. While such empirical approaches may be useful for assessing the emission potmial of indoor sources, a more fundamental approach is needed to fully elucidate the relevant mass transfer processes. As a first step, a simple model based on boundary layer theory has been developed. In this model, the mass transfer rate is assumed to be controlled by the boundary layer mass transfer coefficient, the saturation vapor pressure of the material being emitted, and the mass of volatile material remaining in the source at any point in time. Static and dynamic chamber tests and test house experiments were conducted to obtain model validation data, Preliminary validaion results indicated that the model can be applied to different products with similar solvents. The model provides a better fit to chamber-derived emissions data than the empirical first-order decay model, especially over the decaying portion of the concentration vs. time curve

Notes: The adsorption of vapours of different volatility and polarity on three materials widely used indoors (carpet, gypsum board, wall coating) has been investigated in small test chambers, in order to study methodological aspects and to estimate the importance of the phenomenon for human exposure assessments. The output of the models used, with rate constants describing two different sinks, is discussed. The experiments show that: a) adsorption seems to occur to at least two different sinks with different rate constants in the same material; b) generally adsorption increases with the boiling point of the compounds, but it depends also on other physicochemical properties, such as the chemical functionality, as well as on the sorbent material: e.g. the two alkanes n-decane and n-dodecane show a higher k3/k4 ratio on carpet than on gypsum board, whereas the opposite is observed for the two alcohols 2-butoxyethanol and 2-ethylhexanol

Notes: Floor dust from nine city hall office buildings was separated into fiber and particulate fractions and analyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and total VOC (TVOC) by thermal desorption/high resolution gas chromatography (HRGC). Components were identified by HRGC/mass spectroscopy (MS). Principal component analysis was applied to VOC emission profiles revealing similarities between buildings and correlations between profiles and SBS symptoms of mucous membrane irritation and “concentration difficulty”. While the dominant pattern in emission profiles was not correlated with SBS irritation complaints, partial least squares analysis in latent variables (PLS analysis) identified VOCs for which peak areas were correlated with SBS irritation complaints and the CNS Complaint, “concentration difficulty”

Notes: In this paper the use of a thin adsorbent sheet composed of activated carbon particles to purify indoor air is modelled. A loose sheet with high porosity appears more effective than a dense one. The carbon sheet can be replaced by a fresh sheet after a certain period of use, thus keepilzg the volatile organic compound (VOC) level low in the remaining years. The model has been used to predict the optimal replacement time. Binary VOCs are modelled. The results turn out to be close to those from single component calculations, which suggests that the efficiency of the carbon sheet to one VOC is negligibly affeaed by the presence of other VOCs at ppb levels.

Notes: Time versus concentration data of selected volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from four pre-conditioned building materials were measured in the Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC) at three air exchange rates, 171, 342, 684 h−1, respectively, during a period of 240 hours. The materials were a carpet, a linoleum, a water-borne paint, and a sealant. Modeling of the time versus concentration data for two air exchange rates showed that the emission of VOCs from the carpet were best described with a diffusion model in which the diffusion coefficient depends on the concentration gradient for all data (exponential diffusion model), while a reduced data set eliminating initial events also could be described with a first order decay incorporating a sink effect. The paint emission data of the polar semi-VOC, Texanol, could be described with a first order decay model incorporating a sink effect for all three air exchange rates. The emission rate constant doubled by doubling the air exchange rate. The emission data for VOCs from the sealant were best described for all three air exchange rates by the exponential diffusion model. The best model correlation fit was obtained for hexane, but satisfactory results were also obtained for 2-ethylhexanol and dimethyloctanols. The decay results of linoleum did not allow for modeling leading to the conclusion that an internal concentration gradient had not yet been established under the experimental conditions

Notes: Adsorption, desorption and chemisorption are known to impact the dispersal of volatile organic and chemically reactive compounds in buildings. These same three processes may be used to advantage to control the levels of these compounds indoors using building sorption filtration devices. To add to the understanding of these processes, to provide the means to predict the impact of these processes on human exposure and to provide the tools needed to design gaseous filtration systems to mitigate the exposure to these compounds, a general approach to modeling the dynamics of these processes is presented. Equations are presented to account for the elemental advection, diffusion, sorption, and chemical transport steps affecting single component sorption dynamics in rooms and sorption filtration systems. These element equations are based on general principles and formulated in terms of fundamental physical parameters that may be determined using standard procedures. Models to predict room and sorption filtration system dynamics are formulated using assemblages of these element equations and a series of simplified models of these systems are derived. Initial applications to model single-component sorption transport in rooms and sorption filtration systems indicate that the approach has the potential to provide accurate predictions providing the sorption and chemical characteristics of the sorbate-sorbent system being considered are well-characterized. This potential is, however, compromised by the lack (or present uncertainty) of fundamental data relating to sorption equilibrium, porous diffusion, surface chemistry, and boundary layer mass transport

Notes: The results of subjective experiments to evaluate the efficiency of portable air cleaners for perceived air pollutants generated by tobacco smoke are described. The efficiency of the five types of air cleaners to remove perceived air pollutants was evaluated by a panel using the decipol unit, and the efficiency to remove particulate was evaluated from concentrations of particulate. It was found that the efficiency of the air cleaner in removing perceived air pollutants was quite different from that in removing particulate

Notes: A field experiment evaluated the effect of a furniture-inte-grated breathing-zone filtration (BZF) system on indoor air quality, worker comfort, health, and productivity. The BZF system tested filters office air to remove volatile organic compounds and airborne particulates. The BZF system was installed on one floor of a 29 story air-conditioned office building. Another floor of the building served as a control. Comparisons of pre-installation and three month post-instal-lation surveys showed improvements in indoor air quality, sick building syndrome symptoms, and self-reported pro-ductivity with the BZF system References

Notes: The aim of the present study is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of the membrane absorber as an air cleaner with small-scale modules. Six small-scale membrane modules with different fibre lengths and fibre diameters have been investigated. Each module has been tested as a membrane absorber treating air with 4 different chemicals, formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia and acetone, with tap water. The pressure drop and the filtration efficiency has been measured at different flow rates. From these results the optimal membrane module has been selected for the following reasons: low pressure drop, small required membrane surface area and high filtration efficiency. The experiments were continued with the selected module for ETS in a test room. Water soluble compounds were removed with an efficiency of at least 95%. The efficiency was inconsistent for NO, (not expected) and low for hydrocarbons (as expected). The sensory filtration efficiency was also measured with two different methods, the threshold method and the decipol method. Both efficiencies were about 50%. Recommendations for future research are given.

Notes: A “fungal index” is proposed as a new climate parameter for the characterization of the indoor environment. The index quantifies the environmental conditions in relation to the ability of fungi to grow by means of the response of a xerophilic fungus Eurotium herbariorum. The growth response of this fungus was found to be climate-dependent. The indoor environment in a residential building in Japan (1991-1992) was quantitatively assessed by this approach. In the assessment, the variation in microclimate, which differs greatly within and between rooms, could be demonstrated.

Notes: The purpose of this study was to characterize mold problem buildings by determining concentrations and flora of viable fungi. The composition and concentrations of fungal flora in mold problem (n = 9) and reference buildings (n = 9) were determined by means of four different sampling methods: six-stage impactor (Andersen sampler), sedimentation plate, surface and house dust samples. Samples were taken in the fall and in the winter, and the concentrations and flora in mold problem buildings were compared with those of matched reference buildings. The differences between mold problem and reference buildings were most clearly seen with the impactor samples. The total concentrations of airborne fungi were higher in moldy buildings. In addition, the concentrations of the genera Aspergillus and Oidiodendron in the fall and the concentrations of Aspergillus and Penicillium in the winter were higher in mold problem than in reference buildings. In the winter, certain fungal genera (Stachybotrys, Acremonium, Oedocephalum and Botryosporium) were detected only in the problem buildings in impactor samples. These results indicate that there may be an unusual composition of fungal flora in mold problem buildings. The results of the sedimentation plate samples showed a trend similar to that of impactor samples in the winter. In addition, the results of surface samples supported the data on the fungal flora in the winter-time air samples. The house dust samples did not reveal any differences between mold problem and matched reference buildings.

Notes: An environmental assessment of Legionella bacteria was conducted in five office buildings in the continental United States where no legionellosis was reported. The purpose of this investigation was to (i) determine the presence of Legionella bacteria in potable and non-potable water systems, (ii) provide a baseline information for management, and (iii) evaluate the effectiveness of the remedial actions taken. Water samples were collected from all possible water sources in surveyed buildings. The samples were analyzed by both direct fluorescent antibody microscopy (DFA) and the bacterial cultural method for the presence of Legionella species. Legionella bacteria were detected in some samples collected from various water distribution systems in the buildings. Remedial action was taken to eliminate these bacteria, and case-by-case results are presented.

Notes: We compare data sets from two different Swedish studies which included measuremem of the indoor radon concentration both in 1955 and in 1990 in 178 of the same houses. The purpose is to learn more about how the indoor radon concentration changes over a time scale of years in the same houses. Many sources of both systematic and random errors exist when comparing these types of data sets. Specific types of errors are due to uncertainties in the calibration of the epuipment, the influence of the weather, the time lengths of sampling, airing of some of the dwellings, and changes in ventilation rates. The data indicate a general increase of the radon concentration in the dwellings between 1955 and 1990, with a 1990/1955 ratio of the averages of 1.3. The average radon concentration in all alum shale houses, (where the building material is a source of radon) in 1990 versus 1955 is 204 ± 22 and 163 ± 23 Bq/m3 and in non-alum shale houses is 62 ± 8 and 42 ± 7 Bq/m3, respectively.

Notes: Water used to control a fire on an upper floor in a highrise office building wetted furnishings and construction materials on lower floors and resulted in the amplification of microorganisms especially mesophilic and thermotolerant fungi. Concentrations of fungi in indoor air including Aspergillus, Penicillium and Paecilomyces approached or exceeded 104 colony forming units per cubic meter (cfu/m3). Airborne endotoxin levels increased about 1 order of magnitude over background levels. Sampling for fungi using both culture plate impactors and spore traps showed that spores were migrating from water damaged to undamaged areas in the office complex. Elevator shafts traversing water damaged floors likely provided the major dispersion pathway of spores into occupied areas. Construction materials such as plaster ceilings that had been wetted during the fire but were free of visual fungal contamination were found to be strong fungal reservoirs after the building had thoroughly dried. Management of microbial contaminants after a fire in a highrise building is an important public health concern and therefore an essential aspect of building restoration.

Notes: An empirical statistical model is described for the use of indoor radon monitoring data as an indicator of the areal radon risk from soil and bedrock. The percentages of future homes expected to have radon concentrations exceeding the design level of 200 Bq/m3 unless constructed to provide protection against the entry of radon were assessed. The radon prognosis was made for different subareas, soil types and foundation types. This kind of report is used by the health and building authorities.In this study, 2689 indoor radon measurements were made in one of Finland's most radon-prone areas, consisting of eleven municipalities with a total area of 4600 km2 and a population of 186,000. Radon concentrations were seasonally adjusted. Data on the location, geology and construction of buildings were determined from maps and questionnaires. The measurements covered different kinds of geological units in the area.The radon risk is highest in the gravel-dominated subarea in an ice-marginal formation and lowest in the northern half of the area in buildings constructed on bedrock. In these two areas, the design level of 200 Bq/m3 would be exceeded in 99% and 39% of new houses with slab-on-grade.

Notes: Sealants for radon-resistant foundation construction must seal the gap between concrete sections. Modern sealants have such low permeability that seal performance depends only on the permeability of the material that contacts the sealant. The surface permeability of concrete walls and floors was measured by a specially designed permeameter, which measures the airflow induced by a pressure difference across a temporary test seal applied to the surface. The permeability of bulk concrete is about 10−16 m2. Areas free of the surface defects had surface permeability ranging from 10−14 to 10−16 m2. However, surface defects are common on concrete wall surfaces, which increase the permeability to 〉 10−12 m2, too high for standard seal designs to be adequate as the only method of soil gas and radon exclusion. Radon-resistant seals require either extended contact widths or mechanical removal of the surface layer and defects.

Notes: Questionnaire reports on symptoms and sensations from 4943 office workers, measurements of indoor climate from 540 office rooms in 160 buildings, and measurements of TVOC in 85 rooms were used in an analysas of the role of indoor air humidity and the sensation of dryness as risk indicators of SBS (Sick Building Syndrome) symptoms. The sensation of dryness was strongly associated with the prevalence of SBS symptom reports. There were no associations between measured indoor air humidity and the prevalence of SBS symptoms or the sensation of dryness. A number of significant associations were demonstrated between the sensation of dryness and technical, air quality, psychosocial and personal variables. The frequency of reports of perceived “dry air” is an important indicator of the “sickness” of a building; indoor air humidity is not an indicator.

Notes: As part of the energy and indoor climate survey recently carried out in Sweden (the ELIB study) a simple, inexpensive but reliable passive sampler for estimating monthly averages of relative humidity has been developed. The diffusion sampler consists of a 5 ml plastic tube prepared with lithium chloride monohydrate (LiCl. H2O) as trapping medium. After necessary calibration of this particular design of sampler the relative humidity can be calculated from the weight change of the sampler, the time of sampling and the average temperature during this period. The estimated accuracy of the method is better than k 2% RH up to65% RH.

Notes: The objective of this study was to assess the effect of air humidification and temperature on thermal comfort in sedentary office work. A blinded twelve-period cross-over trial was carried out in two similar wings of an office building, contrasting 28–39% steam humidification with no humidification, corresponding to 12–28% relative humidity. The length of each period was one working week. The study population was 169 workers who judged their thermal sensations in a weekly questionnaire. The percentage of dissatisfied was lowest when the air temperature was 22 °C. At 22 °C an increase in relative humidity raised the mean thermal sensation only slightly. At 20 °C when the air was humidified there were fewer workers who judged their air temperature as being too low. On the other hand, at 24 °C humidification increased the percentage of workers who judged their air temperature to be too high. The percentage of dissatisfied increased rapidly when the air temperature was outside of its optimum value, 22 °C. The percentage of workers complaining about draft increased when the air temperature was lower than 22 °C. Thus we consider that the temperature range from 20 to 24 °C during wintertime may be too wide without individual temperature control from the point vzew of thermal comfort. We recommend that the air temperature should be kept between 21 and 23 °C if no individual control is available. The best solution would be individual temperature control permitting adjustment of the temperature at 22 ± 2 °C.

Notes: Ten healthy humans were exposed to combinations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and air temperature (0 mg/m3 and 10 mg/m3 of a mixture of 22 volatile organic compounds and 18, 22 and 26° C). Previously demonstrated effects of VOCs and thermal exposures were replicated. For the first time nasal cross-sectional areas and nasal volumes, as measured by acoustic rhinometry, were shown to decrease with decreasing temperature and increasing VOC exposure. Temperature and pollutant exposures affected air quality, the need for more ventilation, skin humidity on the forehead, sweating, acute sensory irritation and possibly watering eyes in an additive way. Interactions were found for odor intensity (p = 0.1), perceived facial skin temperature and dryness, general well-being, tear film stability, and nasal cavity dimension. The presence of interactions implies that in the future guidelines for acceptable indoor air concentrations of VOCs should depend on room air temperature.

Notes: This paper investigates the conscious experience of thermal transients, both experimentally and by means of a model of dynamic thermoreception. The experiments involved a sample of twelve human subjects, each undergoing twelve different ambient temperature step-changes. The research design included both temperature up-steps and down-steps, clothed and naked subjects, and transients both away from, and towards, neutrality. Each experiment lasted three hours, with the step- change occurring after 1.5 h when the subjects crossed between the twin climate chambers. Immediate sensations resulting from the temperature up-steps closely resembled later steady-state responses to the warmer environment, while initial impressions of temperature down-steps were typically twice the magnitude of their up-step counterparts. These experimental findings were accurately simulated by a simple thermoreceptor model coupled to a numerical model of heat transfer through clothing and cutaneous tissue. This heightened subjective sensitivity to temperature down-steps was achieved with the model by taking the subcutaneous depth of cold thermoreceptors to be less than that of the warm units, as noted by Hensel in his review of this specialized field (1981).

Notes: A questionnaire on health symptoms, workplace conditions, and perceived indoor air quality was administered to 3948 employees of the Environmental Protection Agency in Washington, DC in the winter of 1989. The main goal was to determine the personal or workplace characteristics associated with health symptoms.A principal components analysis of 32 health symptoms identified 12 health factors. Each factor was generally associated with a particular body system (eyes, nose, throat, chest, central nervous system, etc.). The 12 health factors were regressed linearly on the 50-100 personal, workplace, and spatial characteristics identified from the questionnaire and building blueprints. Significant variables (p 〈 0.01) were included in a second logistic regression to determine a final model.Eleven variables were associated with multiple health factors. The main workplace variables were dust and glare. Personal characteristics of importance were mold allergies and sensitivity to chemicals. Among women, lack of a college degree was an important factor. Air quality factors of importance included hot stuffy air and dry air: The odor of paint and other chemicals, and the odor of cosmetics were also associated with four or more of the health factors. Two measures of stress – heavy workload and conflicting demands – were also associated with several health factors.

Notes: In order to investigate the health effects of NO2, emitted from gas cooking stoves, we compared the prevalence of several respiratory symptoms for people living in gas homes (homes with gas cooking stoves) with those for people living in electric homes (homes with electric cooking stoves) in Japan. The survey was conducted in September 1985, with a self-administered questionnaire. No statistically significant differences were found for several respiratory symptoms between electric homes and gas homes among both children (adjusted odds ratios: 0.64–1.80) and their parents (odds ratios: 0.39–0.94). This work represents a preliminary study in Japan. A longitudinal study should be conducted to further investigate the health effects associated with gas cooking stoves.

Notes: Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) are determined in intake, room-supply and room air in 86 office rooms in 29 office buildings in northern Sweden. Measurements of formaldehyde were also made in room air. Building and room characteristics were identified and symptom reports collected from 1087 office workers. Concentrations of TVOC and formaldehyde in room air were low, with mean values of 71 µg/m3 and 31 µg/m3, respectively. The TVOC concentration was generally lower in room air than in supply air or intake air. The “loss” (difference in measured values) of TVOC from supply to room air was associated with raised concentrations of formaldehyde and raised prevalences of occupant symptoms. High TVOC concentrations in room air were associated with reduced prevalences of occupant symptoms.

Notes: The present work is a study of reentrainment of a tracer gas formaldehyde via six rotary air-to-air heat exchangers (all enthalpy exchangers) in the northern part of Sweden. Five exchangers installed in office buildings and one in a day-care centre were included in the study. Formaldehyde in indoor was used as a monitor pollutant and was determined in air samples collected in the ducts at four positions around the rotor of the exchanger, in the supply-air duct and in the exhaust-air duct. Air sampling of homogeneous duct air was performed simultaneously at the four positions using 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine-impregnated glass fibre filters. The sample analysis of formaldehyde was made by high-performance liquid chromatography. The reentrainment of formaldehyde was calculated and found to be 1-9%. These results show that a rotary heat exchanger can be used in buildings where activities produce low levels of air pollutants, provided that the exchanger is properly installed and maintained.

Notes: In a subarctic climate the diurnal variation in temperature may cause water condensation in ducts placed in the unheated spaces of a building. In this study, germination time and sporulation of a fungus, Penicillium verrucosum, were studied on dusty, galvanized steel sheet under different moisture conditions at room temperature. The effect of condensed water in a supply air duct on spore amplification was studied in an experimental ventilation set-up. In the field, air temperatures and the dew point temperature of air in the duct were monitored continuously for a week. P. verrucosum germinated on steel surfaces during five-hour incubation of the surface under humid conditions; when the surface had been moist for half an hour, germ tubes appeared within 17 hours. During 24-hour incubation under moist conditions, P. verrucosum produced hypae and spores. In the experimental set-up the airborne spore counts increased when the air passed through a water-condensingsection of the duct. Penicillium was the most abundant fungus sporulated on the moist duct surface. In the field, during humid weather, the surface temperature on the air stream surface decreased to the dew point temperature of the air in the duct. Thus water condensation in air ducts may promote fungal growth.