ALBERT

Note: Contents List of contributors Preface 1 Antarctic Climate Evolution - second edition 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Structure and content of the book Acknowledgements References 2 Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic science - the role of SCAR 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Scientific value of research in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean 2.3 The international framework in which SCAR operates 2.4 The organisation of SCAR 2.5 Sixty years of significant Antarctic science discoveries 2.6 Scientific Horizon Scan 2.7 Summary References Appendix 3 Cenozoic history of Antarctic glaciation and climate from onshore and offshore studies 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Long-term tectonic drivers and ice sheet evolution 3.3 Global climate variability and direct evidence for Antarctic ice sheet variability in the Cenozoic 3.3.1 Late Cretaceous to early Oligocene evidence of Antarctic ice sheets and climate variability 3.3.2 The Eocene-Oligocene transition and continental-scale glaciation of Antarctica 3.3.3 Transient glaciations of the Oligocene and Miocene 3.3.4 Pliocene to Pleistocene 3.4 Regional seismic stratigraphies and drill core correlations, and future priorities to reconstruct Antarctica's Cenozoic 3.4.1 Ross Sea 3.4.2 Amundsen Sea 3.4.3 Bellingshausen Sea and Pacific coastline of Antarctic Peninsula 3.4.4 The Northern Antarctic Peninsula and South Shetland Islands 3.4.5 The Eastern Margin of the Antarctic Peninsula 3.4.6 The South Orkney Microcontinent and adjacent deep-water basins 3.4.7 East Antarctic Margin 3.4.7.1 Weddell Sea 3.4.7.1.1 Gondwana break-up, Weddell Sea opening and pre-ice-sheet depositional environment 3.4.7.1.2 The Eocene-Oligocene transition and paleoenvironment during increasing glacial conditions 3.4.7.1.3 Recent geophysical survey beneath the Ekström Ice Shelf and future directions for drilling 3.4.7.2 Prydz Bay 3.4.7.2.1 Early Cenozoic greenhouse and earliest glacial phase in late Eocene 3.4.7.2.2 Oligocene-Miocene ice-sheet development 3.4.7.2.3 The Polar Ice Sheet (late Miocene(?)-Pleistocene) 3.4.7.3 East Antarctic Margin - Sabrina Coast 3.4.7.4 Wilkes Land margin and Georges V Land 3.5 Summary, future directions and challenges Acknowledgements References 4 Water masses, circulation and change in the modern Southern Ocean 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Defining the Southern Ocean 4.2 Water masses - characteristics and distribution 4.2.1 Upper ocean 4.2.2 Intermediate depth waters 4.2.3 Deep water 4.2.4 Bottom water 4.3 Southern Ocean circulation 4.3.1 Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) 4.3.2 Southern Ocean meridional overturning circulation (SOMOC) 4.3.3 Deep western boundary currents 4.3.3.1 Pacific deep western boundary current 4.3.3.2 Indian deep western boundary currents 4.3.3.3 Atlantic deep western boundary current 4.3.4 Subpolar circulation - gyres, slope and coastal currents 4.3.4.1 Gyres 4.3.4.2 Antarctic slope and coastal currents 4.4 Modern Southern Ocean change 4.4.1 Climate change 4.4.2 Ocean change 4.4.3 Change in dynamics and circulation 4.5 Concluding remarks References 5 Advances in numerical modelling of the Antarctic ice sheet 5.1 Introduction and aims 5.2 Advances in ice sheet modelling 5.2.1 Grounding line physics 5.2.2 Adaptive grids 5.2.3 Parallel ice sheet model - PISM 5.2.4 Coupled models 5.3 Model input - bed data 5.4 Advances in knowledge of bed processes 5.5 Model intercomparison 5.6 Brief case studies 5.7 Future work References 6 The Antarctic Continent in Gondwana: a perspective from the Ross Embayment and Potential Research Targets for Future Investigations 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Antarctic plate and the present-day geological setting of the Ross Embayment 6.3 East Antarctica 6.3.1 The Main Geological Units during the Paleoproterozoic-Early Neoproterozoic Rodinia Assemblage 6.3.2 From Rodinia breakup to Gondwana (c. 800-650 Ma) 6.3.3 The 'Ross Orogen' in the Transantarctic Mountains during the late Precambrian-early Paleozoic evolution of the paleo-Pacific margin of Gondwana (c. 600-450 Ma) 6.4 West Antarctic Accretionary System 6.4.1 West Antarctica in the Precambrian to Mesozoic (c. 180 Ma) evolution of Gondwana until the middle Jurassic breakup 6.4.1.1 Precambrian to Cambrian metamorphic basement 6.4.1.2 Devono-Carboniferous arc magmatism ('Borchgrevink Event') (c. 370-350 Ma) 6.4.1.3 Beacon Supergroup (Devonian-Permo-Triassic-earliest Jurassic) 6.4.1.4 The Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains Terrane and the Permo-Triassic arc magmatism 6.4.1.5 Ferrar Supergroup and the Gondwana breakup (c. 180Ma) 6.4.1.6 The Antarctic Andean Orogen 6.5 Mesozoic to Cenozoic Tectonic Evolution of the Transantarctic Mountains 6.6 Tectonic evolution in the Ross Sea Sector during the Cenozoic 6.7 Concluding remarks, open problems and potential research themes for future geoscience investigations in Antarctica 6.7.1 Persistent challenges for onshore geoscience investigations 6.7.2 Antarctica and the Ross Orogen in the Transantarctic Mountains 6.7.3 Antarctica after Gondwana fragmentation Acknowledgements References 7 The Eocene-Oligocene boundary climate transition: an Antarctic perspective 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Background 7.2.1 Plate tectonic setting 7.2.2 Antarctic paleotopography 7.2.3 Paleoceanographic setting 7.2.4 Global average and regional sea level response 7.2.5 Proxies to reconstruct past Antarctic climatic and environmental evolution 7.2.6 Far-field proxies 7.3 Antarctic Sedimentary Archives 7.3.1 Land-based outcrops 7.3.1.1 Antarctic Peninsula Region 7.3.1.2 King George (25 de Mayo) Island, South Shetland Islands 7.3.1.3 The Ross Sea Region 7.3.2 Sedimentary archives from drilling on the Antarctic Margin 7.3.2.1 Drill cores in the western Ross Sea 7.3.2.2 The Prydz Bay Region 7.3.2.3 Weddell Sea 7.3.2.4 Wilkes Land 7.4 Summary of climate signals from Antarctic sedimentary archives 7.4.1 Longer-term changes 7.4.2 The climate of the Eocene-Oligocene transition 7.5 The global context of Earth and climate system changes across the EOT 7.5.1 Climate modelling 7.5.2 Relative sea-level change around Antarctica 7.6 Summary 7.6.1 Early-middle Eocene polar warmth 7.6.2 Late Eocene cooling 7.6.3 Eocene-Oligocene transition Acknowledgements References 8 Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene: climatic conundrums revisited 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Oligocene-Miocene Transition in Antarctic geological records and its climatic significance 8.3 Conundrums revisited 8.3.1 What caused major transient glaciation of Antarctica across the OMT? 8.3.2 Apparent decoupling of Late Oligocene climate and ice volume? 8.4 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 9 Antarctic environmental change and ice sheet evolution through the Miocene to Pliocene - a perspective from the Ross Sea and George V to Wilkes Land Coasts 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Overview and relevance 9.1.2 Far-field records of climate and ice sheet variability 9.1.2.1 The Early Miocene 9.1.2.2 The mid-Miocene 9.1.2.3 The Late Miocene 9.1.2.4 The Pliocene 9.1.3 Southern Ocean Paleogeography and Paleoceanography 9.1.4 Land elevation change and influences on Antarctic Ice Sheet evolution 9.2 Records of Miocene to Pliocene climate and ice sheet variability from the Antarctic margin 9.2.1 Introduction to stratigraphic records 9.2.2 George V Land to Wilkes Land Margin 9.2.2.1 Geological setting 9.2.2.2 Oceanography of the Adelie coast 9.2.2.3 Seismic stratigraphy off the George V Land to Wilkes Land Margin 9.2.2.4 Drill core records from the George V Land to Wilkes Land Margin 9.2.2.5 Neogene history of the George V Land to Wilkes Land margin 9.2.3 The Ross Sea Embayment and Southern Victoria Land 9.2.3.1 Geological setting 9.2.3.2 Oceanography and climate in the Ross Sea Region 9.2.3.3 Seismic stratigraphic records in the Ross Sea 9.2.3.4 Stratigraphic records from drill cores in the Ross Sea 9.2.3.5 Terrestrial records from Southern Victoria Land 9.2.3.6 Neogene history in the Ross Sea Region 9.3 Numerical modelling 9.3.1 Miocene

Note: Contents Contributors Editorial foreword Preface CHAPTER 1 Snow and ice-related hazards, risks, and disasters: Facing challenges of rapid change and long-term commitments / Wilfried Haeberli and Colin Whiteman 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Costs and benefits: Living with snow and ice 1.3 Small and large, fast and slow, local to global: Dealing with constraints 1.4 Beyond historical experience: Monitoring, modeling, and managing rapid and irreversible changes Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 2 Physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of snow, ice, and permafrost / Lukas Arenson (U.), William Colgan, and Hans Peter Marshall 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Density and structure 2.2.1 Snow 2.2.2 Ice 2.2.3 Frozen ground/permafrost 2.3 Thermal properties 2.3.1 Snow 2.3.2 Ice 2.3.3 Frozen ground 2.4 Mechanical properties 2.4.1 Brittle behavior 2.4.2 Ductile behavior 2.5 Electromagnetic and wave properties 2.5.1 Snow 2.5.2 Ice 2.5.3 Frozen ground 2.6 Summary Acknowledgment References.. CHAPTER 3 Snow and ice in the climate system / Atsumu Ohmura 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Physical extent of the cryosphere 3.3 Climatic conditions of the cryosphere 3.3.1 Snow cover 3.3.2 Sea ice 3.3.3 Permafrost 3.3.4 Glaciers References CHAPTER 4 Snow and ice in the hydrosphere / Jan Seibert, Michal Jenicek, Matthias Huss, Tracy Ewen, and Daniel Viviroli 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Snow accumulation and melt 4.2.1 Snowpack description 4.2.2 Snow accumulation 4.2.3 Snow redistribution, metamorphism, and ripening process 4.2.4 Snowpack development 4.2.5 Snowmelt 4.3 Glaciers and glacial mass balance 4.3.1 Glacier mass balance 4.3.2 Glacial drainage system 4.3.3 Modeling glacier discharge 4.4 Hydrology of snow- and ice-covered catchments 4.4.1 Influence of snow on discharge 4.4.2 Snowmelt runoff and climate change 4.4.3 Influence of glaciers on discharge 4.4.4 River ice 4.4.5 Seasonally frozen soil and permafrost 4.5 Concluding remarks References CHAPTER 5 Snow, ice, and the biosphere / Terry V. Callaghan and Margareta Johansson 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Adaptations to snow, ice, and permafrost. 5.3 Snow and ice as habitats 5.4 Snow as a moderator of habitat 5.4.1 Modification of winter habitat 5.4.2 Modification of nonwinter habitat 5.4.3 Effects of changing snow on the biosphere 5.5 Ice as a moderator of habitat 5.5.1 Mechanical effects of ice 5.5.2 Effects of changing lake and river ice on the biosphere 5.5.3 Effects of changing sea ice on the biosphere 5.6 Permafrost as a moderator of habitat 5.6.1 Effects of changing permafrost on the biosphere 5.6.2 Snow-permafrost-vegetation interactions 5.7 Vegetation as a moderator of snow, ice, and permafrost habitats 5.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 6 Ice and snow as land-forming agents / Darrel A. Swift, Simon Cook, Tobias Heckmann, Isabelle Gärtner-Roer, Oliver Korup, and Jeffrey Moore 6.1 Glacial processes and landscapes 6.1.1 Erosion mechanisms and their controls 6.1.2 Landforms and associated hazards 6.1.3 Landscape evolution and rates of glacial incision 6.1.4 Recommended avenues for further research 6.2 Periglacial and permafrost processes and landforms 6.2.1 Landforms and processes related to seasonal frost and permafrost 6.3 The role of snow in forming landscapes 6.3.1 Influence of snow cover on geomorphic processes 6.3.2 Snow-related geomorphic processes and landforms 6.3.3 Potential impacts of global change on snow-related geomorphic processes 6.3.4 Quantifying rates 6.3.5 Modeling 6.4 Conclusions and outlook Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 7 Mountains, lowlands, and coasts: The physiography of cold landscapes / Tobias Bolch and Hanne H. Christiansen 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Physiography of the terrestrial cryosphere 7.2.1 High altitudes/mountains 7.2.2 Cold lowlands 7.2.3 Cold coasts 7.3 Glaciers and ice sheets: Extent and distribution 7.4 Permafrost types, extent, and distribution 7.5 Glacier-permafrost interactions References CHAPTER 8 A socio-cryospheric systems approach to glacier hazards, glacier runoff variability, and climate change / Mark Carey, Graham McDowell, Christian Huggel, Becca Marshall, Holly Moulton, Cesar Portocarrero, Zachary Provant, John M. Reynolds, and Luis Vicuña 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Integrated adaptation in dynamic socio-cryospheric systems 8.3 Glacier and glacial lake hazards 8.3.1 Cordillera Blanca, Peru 8.3.2 Santa Teresa, Peru 8.3.3 Nepal 8.4 Volcano-ice hazards 8.5 Glacier runoff, hydrologic variability, and water use hazards 8.5.1 Nepal 8.5.2 Peru 8.6 Coastal resources and hazards 8.7 Discussion and conclusions Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 9 Integrative risk management: The example of snow avalanches / Michael Bründl and Stefan Margreth 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Risk analysis 9.2.1 Hazard analysis 9.2.2 Exposure and vulnerability analysis 9.2.3 Consequence analysis and calculation of risk 9.3 Risk evaluation 9.3.1 Evaluation of individual risk 9.3.2 Evaluation of collective risk 9.4 Mitigation of risk 9.4.1 Meaning of mitigation of risk 9.4.2 Technical avalanche mitigation measures 9.4.3 Land-use planning 9.4.4 Biological measures and protection forests 9.4.5 Organizational measures 9.5 Methods and tools for risk assessment and evaluation of mitigation measures 9.6 Case study “Evaluation of avalanche mitigation measures for Juneau, Alaska” 9.6.1 Introduction 9.6.2 Avalanche situation 9.6.3 Hazard analysis 9.6.4 Consequence analysis and risk evaluation 9.6.5 Protection measures 9.6.6 Conclusions 9.7 Final remarks References CHAPTER 10 Permafrost degradation / Dmitry Streletskiy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Drivers of permafrost and active-layer change across space and time 10.2.1 Role of climate: Air temperature and liquid precipitation 10.2.2 Role of topography 10.2.3 Role of vegetation and snow 10.2.4 Role of soil properties 10.3 Observed permafrost and active-layer changes 10.4 Permafrost modeling and forecasting 10.5 Permafrost degradation and infrastructure hazards 10.5.1 Buildings on permafrost 10.5.2 Pipelines on permafrost 10.5.3 Railroads, roads, and utility on permafrost 10.6 Coastal erosion and permafrost 10.7 Summary Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 11 Radioactive waste under conditions of future ice ages / Urs H. Fischer, Anke Bebiolka, Jenny Brandefelt, Denis Cohen, Joel Harper, Sarah Hirschorn, Mark Jensen, Laura Kennell, Johan Liakka, Jens-Ove Näslund, Stefano Normani, Heidrun Stück, and Axel Weitkamp 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Timing of future glacial inception 11.2.1 Introduction 11.2.2 Definition of glacial inception 11.2.3 Controlling factors of glacial inception 11.2.4 Future long-term variations of insolation and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations 11.2.5 Modeling of future glacial inception 11.2.6 Timing of future glacial inception and concluding remarks 11.3 The glacier ice-groundwater interface: Constraints from a transect of the modern Greenland Ice Sheet 11.3.1 Background 11.3.2 Basal thermal state 11.3.3 Framework of the ice-bed interface 11.3.4 Basal water 11.3.5 Summary 11.4 Deep glacial erosion in the Alpine Foreland of northern Switzerland 11.4.1 Background 11.4.2 Ice age conditions 11.4.3 Processes of glacial erosion and glacial overdeepening 11.4.4 Water flow in overdeepenings 11.4.5 Deep glacial erosion in the Swiss Plateau 11.4.6 Future research focus 11.5 Tunnel valleys in Germany and their relevance to the long-term safety of nuclear waste repositories 11.5.1 Background 11.5.2 Formation of tunnel valleys 11.5.3 Tunnel valleys in Northern Germany 11.5.4 Tunnel valleys in the German North Sea 11.5.5 Glacial overdeepening in Southern Germany 11.5.6 Impact of tunnel valley formation on host rocks 11.6 Assessment of glacial impacts on geosphere stability and barrier capacity—Canadian perspective 11.6.1 Background 11.6.2 Bruce Nuclear Site—Location and geologic setting Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 12 Snow avalanches / Jürg Schweizer, Perry Bartelt, and Alec van Herwijnen 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The avalanche phenomenon 12.3 Avalanche release 12.3.1 Dry-snow avalanches 1

Note: Front Cover --- Introduction to Satellite Remote Sensing --- Introduction to Satellite Remote Sensing: Atmosphere, Ocean, Land and Cryosphere Applications --- Copyright --- Dedication --- Contents --- 1 - THE HISTORY OF SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING --- 1.1 THE DEFINITION OF REMOTE SENSING --- 1.2 THE HISTORY OF SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING --- 1.2.1 THE NATURE OF LIGHT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY --- 1.2.2 THE BIRTH OF EARTH-ORBITING SATELLITES --- 1.2.3 THE FUTURE OF POLAR-ORBITING SATELLITES --- 1.2.3.1 The Cross-Track Infrared Sounder --- 1.2.4 OTHER HISTORICAL SATELLITE PROGRAMS --- 1.2.4.1 The NIMBUS Program --- 1.2.4.2 The Landsat Program --- 1.2.4.3 The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program --- 1.2.4.4 Geostationary Weather Satellites --- 1.2.4.4.1 GOES-R --- 1.3 STUDY QUESTIONS --- 2 - BASIC ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS TO OPTICAL SENSORS --- 2.1 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS --- 2.2 THE BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION --- 2.3 THE REMOTE SENSING PROCESS --- 2.4 THE CHARACTER OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES --- 2.4.1 DEFINITION OF RADIOMETRIC TERMS --- 2.4.2 POLARIZATION AND THE STOKES VECTOR --- 2.4.3 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT THE INTERFACE OF TWO FLAT MEDIA --- 2.4.4 BREWSTER'S ANGLE --- 2.4.5 CRITICAL ANGLE --- 2.4.6 ALBEDO VERSUS REFLECTANCE --- 2.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: DISTRIBUTION OF RADIANT ENERGIES --- 2.5.1 GAMMA, X-RAY, AND ULTRAVIOLET PORTIONS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM --- 2.5.2 VISIBLE SPECTRUM --- 2.5.3 THERMAL INFRARED SPECTRUM --- 2.5.4 MICROWAVE SPECTRUM --- 2.6 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION --- 2.6.1 SPECTRAL WINDOWS --- 2.6.2 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS --- 2.6.2.1 Beer-Lambert Absorption Law --- 2.6.2.2 Beer-Lambert Absorption Law: Opacity --- 2.6.2.3 Atmospheric Scattering --- 2.7 SENSORS TO MEASURE PARAMETERS OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE --- 2.8 INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION --- 2.9 INFRARED EMISSIONS --- 2.10 SURFACE REFLECTANCE: LAND TARGETS --- 2.10.1 LAND SURFACE MIXTURES --- 2.11 STUDY QUESTIONS --- 3 - OPTICAL IMAGING SYSTEMS --- 3.1 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES --- 3.2 BASIC OPTICAL SYSTEMS --- 3.2.1 PRISMS --- 3.2.2 FILTER-WHEEL RADIOMETERS --- 3.2.2.1 An Example: The Cloud Absorption Radiometer --- 3.2.2.2 Filters --- 3.2.3 GRATING SPECTROMETER --- 3.2.4 INTERFEROMETER --- 3.3 SPECTRAL RESOLVING POWER --- THE RAYLEIGH CRITERION --- 3.4 DETECTING THE SIGNAL --- 3.5 VIGNETTING --- 3.6 SCAN GEOMETRIES --- 3.7 FIELD OF VIEW --- 3.8 OPTICAL SENSOR CALIBRATION --- 3.8.1 VISIBLE WAVELENGTHS CALIBRATION --- 3.8.2 POLARIZATION FILTERS --- 3.9 LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING --- 3.9.1 PHYSICS OF THE MEASUREMENT --- 3.9.2 OPTICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS --- 3.9.3 APPLICATIONS OF LIDAR SYSTEMS --- 3.9.4 WIND LIDAR --- 3.9.4.1 Vector Wind Velocity Determination --- 3.9.4.1.1 Velocity Azimuth Display LIDAR Vector Wind Method --- 3.9.4.1.2 Doppler Beam Swinging LIDAR Vector Wind Method --- 3.9.4.2 Direct Detection Doppler Wind LIDAR --- 3.9.4.3 LIDAR Wind Summary --- 3.10 STUDY QUESTIONS --- 4 - Microwave Radiometry --- 4.1 Basic Concepts on Microwave Radiometry --- 4.1.1 Blackbody Radiation --- 4.1.2 Gray-body Radiation: Brightness Temperature and Emissivity --- 4.1.3 General Expressions for the Emissivity --- 4.1.3.1 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Perfect Specular Surface --- 4.1.3.2 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Lambertian Surface --- 4.1.3.1 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Perfect Specular Surface --- 4.1.3.2 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Lambertian Surface --- 4.1.4 Power Collected by an Antenna Surrounded by a Blackbody --- 4.1.5 Power Collected by an Antenna Surrounded by a Gray body: Apparent Temperature and Antenna Temperature --- 4.2 The Radiative Transfer Equation --- 4.2.1 The Complete Polarimetric Radiative Transfer Equation --- 4.2.2 Usual Approximations to the Radiative Transfer Equation --- 4.3 Emission Behavior of Natural Surfaces --- 4.3.1 The Atmosphere --- 4.3.1.1 Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases --- 4.3.1.2 Attenuation by Rain --- 4.3.1.3 Attenuation by Clouds and Fog --- 4.3.2 The Ionosphere --- 4.3.2.1 Faraday Rotation --- 4.3.2.2 Ionospheric Losses: Absorption and Emission --- 4.3.3 Land Emission --- 4.3.3.1 Soil Dielectric Constant Models --- 4.3.3.2 Bare Soil Emission --- 4.3.3.3 Vegetated Soil Emission --- 4.3.3.4 Snow-Covered Soil Emission --- 4.3.3.5 Topography Effects --- 4.3.4 Ocean Emission --- 4.3.4.1 Water Dielectric Constant Behavior --- 4.3.4.2 Calm Ocean Emission --- 4.3.4.2.1 Influence of the Salinity --- 4.3.4.2.2 Influence of Frequency --- 4.3.4.2.3 Influence of the Water Temperature --- 4.3.4.3 Influence of the Sea State --- 4.3.4.3.1 Influence of the Look Angle --- 4.3.4.4 Emissivity of the Sea Surface Covered With Oil --- 4.3.4.5 Emissivity of the Sea Ice Surface --- 4.4 Understanding Microwave Radiometry Imagery --- 4.5 Applications of Microwave Radiometry --- 4.6 Sensors --- 4.6.1 Historical Review of Microwave Radiometers and Frequency Bands Used --- 4.6.2 Microwave Radiometers: Basic Performance --- 4.6.2.1 Spatial Resolution --- 4.6.2.1.1 Real Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.2.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.2.2 Radiometric Resolution --- 4.6.2.2.1 Real Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.2.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.2.3 Trade-off Between Spatial Resolution and Radiometric Precision --- 4.6.3 Real Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.3.1 Instrument Considerations --- 4.6.3.1.1 Antenna Considerations --- 4.6.3.1.2 Receiver Considerations --- 4.6.3.1.3 Sampling Considerations --- 4.6.3.2 Types of Real Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.3.3 Radiometer Calibration --- 4.6.3.3.1 External Calibration --- 4.6.3.3.1.1 Using Hot and Cold Targets --- 4.6.3.3.1.2 Fully Polarimetric Radiometer Calibration Using External Targets --- 4.6.3.3.1.3 Tip Curves --- 4.6.3.3.1.4 Earth Targets: Vicarious Calibration --- 4.6.3.3.2 Internal Calibration --- 4.6.3.3.3 Radiometer Linearity --- 4.6.3.4 Radio Frequency Interference Detection and Mitigation --- 4.6.3.5 Example: Special Sensor Microwave Imager Radiometric and Geometric Corrections --- 4.6.4 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.4.1 Types of Synthetic Aperture Radiometers --- 4.6.4.1.1 Mills Cross --- 4.6.4.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers using Matched Filtering --- 4.6.4.1.3 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers using Fourier Synthesis --- 4.6.4.1.3.1 1D Synthetic Aperture Radiometers: Array Thinning --- 4.6.4.1.3.2 2D Synthetic Aperture Radiometers: Array Topologies --- 4.6.4.1.3.3 Other Synthetic Aperture Radiometer Concepts --- 4.6.4.2 Radiometer Calibration --- 4.6.4.2.1 Internal Calibration --- 4.6.4.2.2 External Calibration --- 4.6.4.3 Image Reconstruction --- 4.6.4.4 ESA's SMOS Mission and the MIRAS Instrument --- 4.6.5 Future Trends in Microwave Radiometers --- 4.7 Study Questions --- 5 - RADAR --- 5.1 A COMPACT INTRODUCTION TO RADAR THEORY --- 5.1.1 REMOTE RANGING --- 5.1.2 DOPPLER ANALYSIS --- 5.2 RADAR SCATTERING --- 5.2.1 RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS --- 5.2.2 NORMALIZATIONS OF THE RADAR REFLECTIVITY --- 5.2.3 POINT VERSUS DISTRIBUTED SCATTERERS --- 5.2.4 SPECKLE, MULTILOOK, AND RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION --- 5.2.5 RADAR EQUATION --- 5.2.6 RADAR WAVES AT AN INTERFACE --- 5.2.7 MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS: DOUBLE BOUNCE, TRIPLE BOUNCE, AND URBAN AREAS --- 5.2.8 BACKSCATTERING OF SURFACES --- 5.2.9 PERIODIC SCATTERING: THE BRAGG MODEL --- 5.2.10 BACKSCATTERING OF VOLUMES --- 5.2.11 OVERALL SUMMARY OF RADAR BACKSCATTER --- 5.2.12 DEPOLARIZATION OF RADAR WAVES --- 5.3 RADAR SYSTEMS --- 5.3.1 RANGE-DOPPLER RADARS --- 5.3.2 OPTIMAL RECEIVER FOR A SINGLE ECHO: THE MATCHED FILTER --- 5.3.3 MATCHED FILTER VERSUS INVERSE FILTER --- 5.3.4 OPTIMAL RECEIVER FOR RANGE-DOPPLER RADAR ECHOES: THE BACKPROJECTION OPERATOR --- 5.3.5 RADAR WAVEFORMS --- 5.3.6 A PARADIGMATIC EXAMPLE: LINEAR FREQUENCY MODULATED PULSES (CHIRPS) --- 5.3.7 GEOMET