ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: Over 25 years ago, Volume 9 of Reviews in Mineralogy: Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyriboles seemed to contain all that was possible to know about this group of fascinating minerals. The subsequent twenty-five years have shown that this assessment was wrong: Nature was keeping a lot in reserve, and has since revealed considerable new complexity in the constitution and behavior of amphiboles. Some of the advances in knowledge have been due to the use of new experimental techniques, some have been due to the investigation of hitherto neglected rock-types, and some have been due to the development of new ideas. The identification and systematic investigation of variable LLE (Light Lithophile Elements), particularly Li and H, led to the identification of several new amphibole species and the recognition that variable Li and H play an important role in chemical variations in amphiboles from both igneous and metamorphic parageneses. In turn, this work drove the development of microbeam SIMS to analyze LLE in amphiboles. Detailed mineralogical work on metasyenites showed hitherto unexpected solid-solution between Na and Li at the M(4) site in monoclinic amphiboles, a discovery that has upset the current scheme of amphibole classification and nomenclature and initiated new efforts in this direction. Systematic and well-planned synthesis of amphiboles, combined with careful spectroscopy, has greatly furthered our understanding of cation and anion order in amphiboles. The use of bond-valence theory to predict patterns of SRO (Short-Range Order) in amphiboles, and use of these predictions to understand the infrared spectra of well-characterized synthetic-amphibole solid-solutions, has shown that SRO is a major feature of the amphibole structure, and has resulted in major advances in our understanding of SRO in minerals. There has been significant progress relating changes in amphibole composition and cation ordering to petrogenetic conditions and trace-element behavior. Work on the nature of fibrous amphiboles and their toxicity and persistence in living organisms has emphasized the importance of accurate mineralogical characterization in environmental and health-related problems. The current volume has taken a different approach from previous volumes concerned with major groups of rock-forming minerals. Some of the contents have previously been organized by the investigative technique or groups of similar techniques: crystal-structure refinement, spectroscopy, TEM etc. Here, we have taken an approach that focuses on aspects of amphiboles rather than experimental techniques: crystal chemistry, new compositions, long-range order, short-range order etc., and all experimental results germane to these topics are discussed in each chapter. The intent of this approach is to focus on amphiboles, and to emphasize that many techniques are necessary to fully understand each aspect of the amphiboles and their behavior in both natural and industrial processes.

Description / Table of Contents: The idea for this book was conceived in early June, 2005 at a paleoaltimetry workshop held at Lehigh University, Lehigh, Pennsyalvania and organized by Dork Sahagian. The workshop was funded by the tectonics program at NSF, and was designed to bring together researchers in paleoaltimetry to discuss different techniques and focus the community on ways of improving paleoelevation estimates and consequent interpretations of geodynamics and tectonics. At this meeting, some commented that a comprehensive volume describing the different methods could help advance the field. I offered to contact the Mineralogical Society of America and the Geochemical Society about publishing a RiMG volume on paleoaltimetry. Because many of the techniques used to infer paleoelevations are geochemically-based or deal with thermodynamic principles, the GS and MSA agreed to the project. Two years and roughly 1000 e-mails later, our book has arrived. The book is organized into 4 sections: Geodynamic and geomorphologic rationale (Clark). This chapter provides the broad rationale behind paleoaltimetry, i.e., why we study it. Stable isotope proxies. These 4 chapters cover theory of stable isotopes in precipitation and their response to altitudinal gradients (Rowley), and stable isotopes sytematics in paleosols (Quade, Garzione and Eiler), silicates (Mulch and Chamberlain) and fossils (Kohn and Dettman). Proxies of atmospheric properties. These 4 chapters cover temperature lapse rates (Meyer), entropy (Forest), and atmospheric pressure proxies, including total atmospheric pressure from gas bubbles in basalt (Sahagian and Proussevitch), and the partial pressure of CO2 (Kouwenberg, Kürshner, and McElwain). Note that clumped isotope thermometry (Quade, Garzione and Eiler) also provides direct estimates of temperature. Radiogenic and cosmogenic nuclides. These 2 chapters cover low-temperature thermochronologic approaches (Reiners) and cosmogenic isotopes (Riihimaki and Libarkin). Some chapters overlap in general content (e.g., basic principles of stable isotopes in precipitation are covered to different degrees in all stable isotope chapters), but no attempt was made to limit authors' discussion of principles, or somehow attempt to arrive at a "consensus view" on any specific topic. Because science advances by critical discussion of concepts, such restrictions were viewed as counterproductive. This does mean that different chapters may present different views on reliability of paleoelevation estimates, and readers are advised to read other chapters in the book on related topics – they may be more closely linked than they might at first appear! I hope readers of this book will discover and appreciate the synergy among paleoaltimetry, climate change, and tectonic geomorphology. These interrelationships create a complex, yet rich field of scientific enquiry that in turn offers insights into climate and geodynamics.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: What is a Self-Organizing Map? - Applications of Different Self-Organizing Map Variants to Geographical Information Science . - An Integrated Exploratory Geovisualization Environment Based on Self-Organizing Map. - Visual Exploration of Spatial Interaction Data with Self-Organizing Maps. - Detecting Geographic Associations in English Dialect Features in North America within a Visual Data Mining Environment Integrating Self-Organizing . - Self-Organizing Maps for Density-Preserving Reduction of Objects in Cartographic Generalization. - Visualizing Human Movement in Attribute . - Climate Analysis, Modelling, and Regional Downscaling Using Self-Organizing. - Prototyping Broad-Scale Climate and Ecosystem Classes by Means of Self-Organising. - Self-Organising Map Principles Applied Towards Automating Road Extraction from Remotely Sensed Imagery . - Intelligent Systems for GIScience: Where Next? A GIScience Perspective

Description / Table of Contents: In situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides can provide chronologies of environmental change over the past few thousand to several millions of years and may be used to quantify a wide range of weathering and sediment transport processes. These nuclides are thus now used across a broad spectrum of earth science disciplines, including paleoclimatology, geomorphology, and active tectonics. This book is organized around sections that focus on specific aspects of the utilization of cosmogenic nuclides in earth sciences: (1) development of new methods for application of in situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides (burial dating methods, extending their utilization to carbonate-rich and mafic environments); (2) glacial geology (Laurentide Ice Sheet, northern Alps); (3) active tectonics, focusing on applications to constrain slip rates of active faults in Asia (Tibet and Mongolian Gobi-Altay); and (4) landscape development (quantifying sediment production or erosion rates and processes and application of exposure dating to landslides in Hong Kong).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Isotopes and radioactivity; 2. The principles o radioactive dating; 3. Radiometric dating methods; 4. Dating by cosmogenic isotopes; 5. Uncertainties and results of radiometric dating; 6. Radiogenic isotope geochemistry; 7. Stable isotope geochemistry; 8. Isotope geology and dynamic reservoir analysis

Description / Table of Contents: Cultural studies -- Semantics -- Similarity -- Mapping and representation -- Perception and cognition -- Reasoning and algorithms -- Navigation and landmarks -- Unceratainty and Imperfection

Description / Table of Contents: Microorganisms cause mineral precipitation and dissolution and control the distribution of elements in diverse environments at and below the surface of the Earth. Conversely, mineralogical and geochemical factors exert important controls on microbial evolution and the structure of microbial communities. This was the rationale for the Short Course on Geomicrobiology presented by the Mineralogical Society of America on October 18 and 19, 1997, at the Alta Peruvian Lodge in Alta, Utah. Minerals have been known and honored since humans realized their essential contributions to the "terra firma" and stone tools thrust our species on the path of cultural evolution. Microbes are the oldest living creatures, probably inhabiting at least a few salubrious environments on the earth as early as 3.8 billion years ago. At this moment in history we are only beginning to appreciate the intimate juxtaposition and interdependence of minerals and microbes. We have been nudged into this position by the realization that our earth is finite, and the recognition of many global environmental problems that minerals and microbes contribute to, both positively and negatively. In addition, our globe may not be the only site in the solar system where 'life' arose, or may persist. What all of these concerns enunciate is that we as scientists only dimly comprehend our own dynamic "terrestrial halls." This short course and volume have been generated with great enthusiasm for grasping as much as possible of the whole panorama of possibilities that involve both the inorganic and biologic realms . Over 3600 mineral species have been defined and their relationships to each other and the environments in which they form have been documented. This vast data base, collected over the past several hundred years and constantly added to and upgraded, is a monument to the research efforts of many geoscientists focused on the inorganic realm. Much of this data has come from investigators intrigued by the novelty, beauty, and versatility of minerals, direct expressions of the chemistry and physics of geologic processes. We are now adding a new dimension to questions of mineral formation, dissolution, and distribution: what were, are, and will be the contributions of microbes to these basic components of the environment. Microbes have also been known for hundreds of years. However, their small size (0.5 to 5 µm in diameter) and the difficulties associated with identifying a species unless it was grown in the laboratory (cultured), precluded thorough analysis. The advent of molecular biology has only recently made it possible to evaluate microbial evolutionary relatedness (phylogeny) and physiological diversity. These techniques are now being applied to study of microbial populations in natural environments. It is becoming very clear that the surface of Earth is populated by far more species of microbes than there are types of minerals. We are now exploring every portion of the globe and finding the relationships under the rubric "geomicrobiology." The ocean deeps are characterized by a diversity of microorganisms, including those associated with manganese nodules. The profusion and concentration of minerals created at ocean ridges and vents matches the variety of microorganisms, large animals, and plants there. The snowy tops of mountain ranges and glaciers of Antarctica harbor not just ice but whole bacterial communities whose cellular types and activities need elucidation. The equatorial jungles and the deserts, with their enormous diversity of ecological niches, further challenge us. The diversity of geographic, geologic, and biologic environments, including some contributed by humans (e.g. mines, air-conditioning equipment), can now also be explored in detail. Modern studies use protocols developed to preserve or measure in situ chemical and physical characteristics. Electron microscopes allow direct characterization of mineral and biological morphology and internal structures. Spectroscopic techniques permit complimentary chemical analysis, including determination of oxidation states, with very high spatial resolution. Other studies quantitatively measure isotopic abudances. These data serve to distinguish biologically mediated, or biologically controlled formation of the mineral from an abiotic process and mechanism. Each ecological niche requires accurate characterization of the mineralogic and biologic entities in order for us to begin to understand the range of dynamic relationships. We can pose many questions. Is the mineral only a substrate, or is its occurrence and stability impacted by microbiologic activity and metabolic requirements? Which minerals are of microbiological rather than inorganic origin and what are the mechanisms by which organisms dictate the morphology and structure of the solid phase formed? How do organic metabolic products bind metals and change their form and distribution, with implications for metal toxicity and geochemical cycles? How do inorganic reactions such as mineral dissolution and precipitation impact microbial populations through control of their physical and chemical environments? Clearly, new and excitingly research areas exist for all varieties of scientists. Although published by the Mineralogical Society of America, the authors of this volume include microbiologists, molecular biologists, biochemists, biophysicists, bioengineers as well as biomineralogists. Here, they bring together their respective expertise and perspectives to provide disciplinary and interdisciplinary background needed to define and further explore the topic of geomicrobiology. The volume is organized so as to first introduce the nature, diversity, and metabolic impact of microorganisms and the types of solid phases they interact with. This is followed by a discussion of processes that occur at cell surfaces, interfaces between microbes and minerals, and within cells, and the resulting mineral precipitation, dissolution, and changes in aqueous geochemistry. The volume concludes with a discussion of the carbon cycle over geologic time. In detail: Nealson and Stahl acquaint us with the basic properties of prokaryotes, including their size and structure. They define the types and ranges of microorganisms and their metabolisms and describe their impacts on some important biogeochemical cycles. Barns and Nierzwicki-Bauer document the phylogenetic relationships and evolution of microorganisms, begging some fundamental questions that might be now just beyond our grasp: What was the 'last common ancestor'? The physiology, biochemistry and ecology of hyperthermophilic, and the many diverse geologically important microbial species from the lithosphere and hydrosphere, as well as some of the techniques employed, are presented. Banfield and Hamers describe and integrate the processes acting on minerals and at surfaces relevant to microorganisms, examining the factors that control mineralogy, mineral forms, and the stability of phases. Surface properties and reaction rates for dissolution, precipitation, and growth of important classes of minerals are discussed. The possible role of mineral surfaces in formation of prebiotic molecules needed to explain the origin of life is examined. Little, Wagner and Lewandowski describe biofilms, an essential interface between microbes and minerals. They demonstrate that these membranes, with their unique morphological and structural attributes, are sites where much activity related to dissolution and/or formation of minerals takes place. Biology makes it possible to move molecules and elements against a gradient. Many questions regarding the transfer of elements from minerals to microbes at this important heterogeneous interface remain. Fortin, Ferris and Beveridge review surface-mediated mineral development by bacteria. Fresh or oceanic waters, anaerobic or aerobic environments provide discretely different ecologies, bacterial entities, and resulting mineralogies. It is obvious from this presentation that investigators have just scratched the surface of microbial mineralization processes. Bazlinski and Moskowitz review the magnetic biominerals and provide insights into the environmental and biological significance of these few tens of nanometer-sized mineral products. The magnetosome chemistry and biochemistry is probably the best understood of any biologically precipitated mineral. Their formation and unique properties underscore the roles these biomaterials play in the rock magnetic record and in geochemical cycles. Tebo, Ghiorse, van Waasbergen, Siering and Caspi contribute data on the roles of Mnminerals and Mn(II) oxidation in geologic environments. Their chapter encompasses molecular genetic and biochemical investigations. Manganese oxides and oxyhydroxides are notoriously difficult to identify and the crystal chemistry of these phases is a research effort on its own. The prospect of learning how microbes utilize the multiple oxidation states of Mn (2+, 3+ and 4+) as a source of energy sharpens the motivation for interdisciplinary study. Manganese is also known as a cofactor in the production and activation of the enzymes that digest large biomolecules that must be the source of the smaller molecular species and ultimately the building blocks of C, N, 0, H required by all species. How have the mechanisms identified in the bacterial systems been transferred up the phylogenetic tree to plants and humans? This is an expanding and intriguing area for further investigation. DeVrind-de Jong and de Vrind address silicate and carbonate deposition by algae (eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms). This chapter documents the mechanisms of biomineralization of diatoms and coccoliths. These abundant aquatic organisms are responsible for huge volumes of siliceous sediments and calcium carbonate deposits world wide. The implications of algal biomineralization for climatic variation throughout much of the Earth's history may be quite significant. Stone leads us though a quantitative approach to evaluating reactions between organic molecules and cations. He considers available extracellular organic ligands and the roles these play in uptake of metals. He documents the basic chemical speciation and complexation for several elements, making metal to metal comparisons. Remaining challenges involve coordinating the organic and inorganic results of biologic activity. Following the discussion of biomineralization and interactions between organic compounds and cations, Silver discusses the strategies microorganisms have evolved to deal with toxic metal concentrations in solution. Beyond the fundamental biological significance, this has important implications for understanding microbial populations in contaminated environments. The impact on the geochemical form (speciation) and distribution of elements is also discussed. Nordstrom and Southam summarize sulfide mineral oxidation and dissolution kinetics and devote considerable effort to describing the specific contributions of microorganisms, mostly bacteria. Despite the vast amount of accumulated information, many unanswered questions remain. Barker, Welch and Banfield address weathering of silicate minerals. This topic encompasses not only mineralogy but geomorphology, microbiology, and geochemistry. The necessary interdisciplinary mode of these investigations is highlighted by discussion of the role(s) of bacterial nutrition, groundwater chemistry, and biochemistry. There are obvious implications for hazardous waste storage, a currently daunting and politicized topic that requires predictions over thousands to millions of years. Finally, Des Marais treats the long term evolution of the carbon cycle, adopting a biogeochemical view. He discusses the sources, sinks and the transfer of the element over geologic time. Consideration of such a basic series of questions relating to the partitioning of carbon necessitate interdisciplinary crossovers. It is a fitting conclusion to a dialogue in progress.

Description / Table of Contents: Stable Isotope Geochemistry is an introduction to the use of stable isotopes in the geosciences. It is subdivided into three parts: theoretical and experimental principles; fractionation processes of light and heavy elements; the natural variations of geologically important reservoirs. Since the application of stable isotopes to earth sciences has grown in the last few years, a new edition appears necessary. Recent progress in analysing the rare isotopes of certain elements for instance allow the distinction between mass-dependent and mass-independent fractionations. Special emphasis has been given to the growing field of heavy elements. Many new references have been added, which will enable quick access to recent literature. For students and scientists alike the book will be a primary source of information with regard to how and where stable isotopes can be used to solve geological problems.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Open Source software and GIS ; 2. GIS concepts ; 3. Getting started with GRASS ; 4. GRASS data models and data exchange ; 5. Working with raster data ; 6. Working with vector data ; 7. Graphical output and visualization ; 8. Image processing ; 9. Notes on GRASS programming ; 10. Using GRASS with other Open Source tools ; A. Appendix ; References ; Index

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Development in the Treatment of Spatial Data Quality, Nicholas Chrisman.2. Spatial Data Quality: Concepts, Rodolphe Devillers and Robert Jeansoulin.3. Approaches to Uncertainty in Spatial Data, Peter Fisher, Alexis Comber and Richard Wadsworth.4. Quality of Raster Data, Serge Riazanoff and Richard Santer.5. Understanding the Nature and Magnitude of Uncertainty in Geopolitical and Interpretative Choropleth Maps, Kim Lowell.6. The Impact of Positional Accuracy on the Computation of Cost Functions, Alfred Stein and Pepijn Van Oort.7. Reasoning Methods for Handling Uncertain Information in Land Cover Mapping, Alexis Comber, Richard Wadsworth and Peter Fisher.8. Vector Data Quality: A Data Provider's Perspective, Jenny Harding.9. Spatial Integrity Constraints: A Tool for Improving the Internal Quality of Spatial Data, Sylvain Vallières, Jean Brodeur and Daniel Pilon.10. Quality Components, Standards and Metadata, Sylvie Servigne, Nicolas Lesage and Thérèse Libourel.11. Spatial Data Quality Assessment and Documentation, Jean-François Hangouët.12. Communication and Use of Spatial Data Quality Information in GIS, Rodolphe Devillers and Kate Beard.13. External Quality Evaluation of Geographical Applications: An Ontological Approach, Bérengère Vasseur, Robert Jeansoulin, Rodolphe Devillers and Andrew Frank.14. A Case Study in the Use of Risk Management to Assess Decision Quality, Gary Hunter and Sytze De Bruin.15. On the Importance of External Data Quality in Civil Law, Marc Gervais.

Description / Table of Contents: Contens: Towards the Geospatial Web.- Infrastructure for the Geospatial Web.- Imaging on the Geospatial Web Using JPEG 2000.- What's so Special about Spatial?- Conceptual Search.- Location-based Web Search.- Ubiquitous Browsing of the World.- Spatiotemporal-Thematic Data Processing for the Semantic Web.- A Semantic Approach for Geospatial Information Extraction from Unstructured Documents.- Enhancing RSS Feeds with Extracted Geospatial Information for further Processing and Visualization.- A Supervised Machine Learning Approach to Toponym Disambiguation.- Geospatial Information Integration for Science Activity Planning at the Mars Desert Research Station.- Inferences of Social and Spatial Communities over the World Wide Web.- A Geospatial Web Platform for Natural Hazard Exposure Assessment in the Insurance Sector.- Development, Implementation and Application of the WebGIS 'MossMet'- Geospatial Web Services.- Geospatial Data Integration with Semantic Web Services.

Description / Table of Contents: Content: Partial table of contents: Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits: What We Do and Don Know (B. Skinner). Magmas and Hydrothermal Fluids (C. Burnham). Thermal Aspects of Ore Formation (L. Cathles). Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Relationships in Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits (H. Taylor). Hydrothermal Alteration and Its Relationship to Ore Fluid Composition (M. Reed). Sulfide Ore Mineral Stabilities, Morphologies, and Intergrowth Textures (D. Vaughan & J. Craig). Gangue Mineral Transport and Deposition (J. Rimstidt). Fluid Inclusion Studies of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits (E. Roedder & R. Bodnar). Geothermal Systems and Mercury Deposits (H. Barnes & T. Seward). Submarine Hydrothermal Systems and Deposits (S. Scott). Ore-Forming Brines in Active Continental Rifts (M. McKibben & L. Hardie). Appendix. Index.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Part I: Data Issues. Part II: Database Trends and Challenges. Part III: Visualization. Part IV: Knowledge Elicitation. Part V: Spatial Analysis. Part VI GIS and Society. Part VII: Future Trends and Challenges. Index

Description / Table of Contents: The storage and retrieval of spatial data in computer systems has matured greatly over recent years, from the earliest approaches (of simple digitised linework and text) to the representation of features and their attributes, with the semantics of their behaviour associated. This has led to massive cost savings where data, which might have been captured for a specific purpose, can be shared and reused for other purposes.

Description / Table of Contents: The Encyclopedia of GIS features an alphabetically arranged comprehensive and authoritative treatment of this subject matter. Authored by world experts and peer-reviewed for accuracy and currency, the entries explain the key software, data sets, and processes used by geographers and computational scientists. Nearly 200 topics include major overviews, such as Geoinformatics, Spatial Cognition, and Location-Based Services. Short entries define specific terms and concepts, such as the Global Positioning System, Digital Elevation/Terrain Model, and Remote Sensing. Larger entries include key citations to the literature, and (online) internal hyperlinks to definitional entries and current standards.The reference will be published as a print volume with abundant black and white art, and simultaneously as an XML online reference with hyperlinked citations, cross-references, four-color art, links to web-based maps, and other interactive features.

Description / Table of Contents: Workshop Proceedings introduce research results received in the areas of information integration, development of GIS and GIS-applications for a wide spectrum of information systems varying considerably in purpose and scale. The new class of GIS - intelligent GIS - is considered, including principles of their building and programming technologies. Special attention is drawn to ontologiesï development and their use in GIS and GIS-applications.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. The Discovery of Silicate Melts. An Industrial and Geological Perspective. 2. Glass Versus Melt. 3. Glasses and Melts vs. Crystals. 4. Melt and Glass Structure - Basic Concepts. 5. Silica - A Deceitful Simplicity. 6. Binary Metal Oxide-Silica Systems I. Physical Properties.7. Binary Metal Oxide-Silica Systems II. Structure. 8. Aluminosilicate Systems I. Physical Properties. 9. Aluminosilicate Systems II. Structure. 10. Iron-bearing Melts I. Physical Properties. 11. Iron-bearing Melts II. Structure. 12. The Titanium Anomalies. 13. Phosphorus. 14. Water - An Elusive Component. 15. Volatiles I. The System C-O-H-S. 16. Volatiles II. Noble Gases and Halogens. 17. Natural Melts.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Basics of standards.- Geomatics standards.- Detailed description of graphic standards.- Liaison members of ISO/TC211.- Applications.

Description / Table of Contents: Hydrogen may be the most abundant element in the universe, but in science and in nature oxygen has an importance that is disproportionate to its abundance. Human beings tend to take it for granted because it is all around us and we breathe it, but consider the fact that oxygen is so reactive that in a planetary setting it is largely unstable in its elemental state. Were it not for the constant activity of photosynthetic plants and a minor amount of photo dissociation in the upper atmosphere, we would not have an oxygen-bearing atmosphere and we would not be here. Equally, the most important compound of oxygen is water, without which life (in the sense that we know it) could not exist. The role of water in virtually all geologic processes is profound, from formation of ore deposits to igneous petrogenesis to metamorphism to erosion and sedimentation. In planetary science, oxygen has a dual importance. First and foremost is its critical role in so many fundamental Solar System processes. The very nature of the terrestrial planets in our own Solar System would be much different had the oxygen to carbon ratio in the early solar nebula been somewhat lower than it was, because elements such as calcium and iron and titanium would have been locked up during condensation as carbides, sulfides and nitrides and even (in the case of silicon) partly as metals rather than silicates and oxides. Equally, the role of water ice in the evolution of our Solar System is important in the early accretion and growth of the giant planets and especially Jupiter, which exerted a major control over how most of the other planets formed. On a smaller scale, oxygen plays a critical role in the diverse kinds of physical evolution of large rocky planets, because the internal oxidation state strongly influences the formation and evolution of the core, mantle and crust of differentiated planets such as the Earth. Consider that basaltic volcanism may be a nearly universal phenomenon among the evolved terrestrial planets, yet there are basalts and basalts. The basalts of Earth (mostly), Earth's Moon, Vesta (as represented by the HED meteorites) and Mars are all broadly tholeiitic and yet very different from one another, and one of the primary differences is in their relative oxidation states (for that matter, consider the differences between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline magma series on Earth). But there is another way that oxygen has proven to be hugely important in planetary science, and that is as a critical scientific clue to processes and conditions and even sources of materials. Understanding the formation and evolution of our Solar System involves reconstructing processes and events that occurred more than 4.5 Ga ago, and for which the only contemporary examples are occurring hundreds of light years away. It is a detective story in which most of the clues come from the laboratory analysis of the products of those ancient processes and events, especially those that have been preserved nearly unchanged since their formation at the Solar System's birth: meteorites; comets; and interplanetary dust particles. For example, the oxidation state of diverse early Solar System materials ranges from highly oxidized (ferric iron) to so reducing that some silicon exists in the metallic state and refractory lithophile elements such as calcium exist occur in sulfides rather than in silicates or carbonates. These variations reflect highly different environments that existed in different places and at different times. Even more crucial has been the use of oxygen 3-isotope variations, which began almost accidentally in 1973 with an attempt to do oxygen isotope thermometry on high-temperature solar nebula grains (Ca-, Al-rich inclusions) but ended with the remarkable discovery of non-mass-dependent oxygen isotope variations in high-temperature materials from the earliest Solar System. The presolar nebula was found to be very heterogeneous in its isotopic composition, and virtually every different planet and asteroid for which we have samples has a unique oxygen-isotopic fingerprint. The idea for this book originated with Jim Papike, who suggested the idea of a study initiative (and, ultimately, a published volume) focused on the element that is so critically important in so many ways to planetary science. He recognized that oxygen is such a constant theme through all aspects of planetary science that the proposed initiative would serve to bring together scientists from a wide range of disciplines for the kind of cross-cutting dialogue that occurs all too rarely these days. In this sense the Oxygen Initiative is modeled on the Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, which culminated in what remains to this day a hugely important reference volume (Basaltic Volcanism Study Project 1981). After obtaining community input and feedback, primarily through the Curation and Analysis Planning Team for Extraterrestrial Materials (CAPTEM) and the Management Operations Working Group for NASA's Cosmochemistry Program, a team of scientists was assembled who would serve as chapter writing leads, and the initiative was formally proposed to and accepted by the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI; Dr. Stephen Mackwell, Director) for sponsorship. A formal proposal was then submitted to and approved by the Mineralogical Society of America to publish the resulting volume in the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (RiMG) series. Three open workshops were held as preludes to the book: Oxygen in the Terrestrial Planets, held in Santa Fe, NM July 20-23, 2004; Oxygen in Asteroids and Meteorites, held in Flagstaff, AZ June 2-3, 2005; and Oxygen in Earliest Solar System Materials and Processes (and including the outer planets and comets), held in Gatlinburg, TN September 19-22, 2005. The workshops were each organized around a small number of sessions (typically 4-6), each focusing on a particular topic and consisting of invited talks, shorter contributed talks, and ample time for discussion after each talk. In all of the meetings, the extended discussion periods were lively and animated, often bubbling over into the breaks and later social events. As a consequence of the cross-cutting approach, the final book spans a wide range of fields relating to oxygen, from the stellar nucleosynthesis of oxygen, to its occurrence in the interstellar medium, to the oxidation and isotopic record preserved in 4.56 Ga grains formed at the Solar System's birth, to its abundance and speciation in planets large and small, to its role in the petrologic and physical evolution of the terrestrial planets.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1 From Riemann manifolds to Riemann manifolds.- 2 From Riemann manifolds to Euclidean manifolds.- 3 Coordinates.- 4 Surfaces of Gaussian curvature zero.- 5 Sphere to tangential plane" : polar (normal) aspect.- 6 Sphere to tangential plane" : transverse aspect.- 7 Sphere to tangential plane : oblique aspect.- 8 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to tangential plane.- 9 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to sphere and from sphere to plane.- 10 Sphere to cylinder : polar aspect.- 11 Sphere to cylinder : transverse aspect.- 12 Sphere to cylinder : oblique aspect.- 13 Sphere to cylinder : pseudeo-cylindrical projections.- 14 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to cylinder : polar aspect.- 15 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to cylinder : transverse aspect.- 16 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to cylinder : oblique aspect.- 17 Sphere to cone : polar aspect.- 18 Sphere to cone : pseudo-conic projections.- 19 Ellipsoid-of-revolution to cone : polar aspect.- 20 Geodetic mapping.- 21 Datum problems.- A. Law and Order.- B. The inverse of a multivariate homogeneous polynomial.- C. Elliptic integrals.- D. Korn-Lichtenstein and d'Alembert-Euler equations.- E. Geodesics.- F. Mixed cylindric map projections.- G. Generalized Mollweide projection.- H. Generalized Hammer projection.- I. Mercator projection and polycylindric projection.- J. Gauss surface normal coordinates in geometry and gravity space.- Bibliography.- Index.

Description / Table of Contents: The 32 research papers in this volume examine the mode and nature of igneous, metamorphic, tectonic, sedimentological and biological processes associated with the evolution of ophiolites in Earth's history. Divided into six sections, the book presents a wealth of new data and syntheses from ophiolites around the world. Introductory chapters review the distribution of ophiolites in space and time and present a synoptic discussion on their importance in Earth history. Papers in the second section present diverse data from Tethyan ophiolites and provide refined geodynamic models for their evolution. The following two sections present case studies documenting magmatic, metamorphic and tectonic processes in ophiolite genesis and hydrothermal and biogenic alteration of fossil oceanic crust. Mechanisms of ophiolite emplacement are explored in Section V with a focus on the Semail massif (Oman). The last section examines the regional occurrence and geodynamic significance of ophiolite belts on different continents. The book reflects the contemporary work of the international community in a most up-to-date treatment of process-oriented questions on the evolution of ophiolites.

Description / Table of Contents: Inhalt: 1 Die Bildung und Umwandlung von organischem Material. - 1.1 Der globale Kohlenstoffzyklus. - 1.1.1 Organische Geochemie und der Kohlenstoffzyklus: eine Einleitung. - 1.1.2 Kohlenstoffspeicher und -transport. - Organismen und der Kohlenstoffzyklus. - Die Anreicherung von organischem Sedimentmaterial. - Abweichungen vom Gleichgewichtszustand. - Marine Primärproduktion und Sedimentation. - 1.1.3 Biochemische und geochemische Subzyklen. - Organisch-reiche Sedimente und Primärproduktion. - 1.2 Photosynthese und die Evolution des Lebens. - 1.2.1 Atmosphärischer Sauerstoff, Photosynthese und die ersten Organismen. - 1.2.2 Evolution des marinen Lebens. - 1.2.3 Evolution des terrestrischen Lebens. - 1.2.4 Regionale Veränderungen von Ökosystemen. - 1.3 Quellen des sedimentären organischen Materials. - 1.3.1 Die wichtigsten heutigen Quellen. - 1.3.2 Fossile Aufzeichnungen der Quellen des organischen Materials. - 1.4 Photosynthese und stabile Kohlenstoffisotope. - 2 Die chemische Zusammensetzung biogener Stoffe. - 2.1 Die Struktur natürlich vorkommender Stoffe. - 2.1.1 Einleitung. - 2.1.2 Bindungen in organischen Verbindungen. - 2.1.3 Stereoisomerie. - 2.2 Kohlenhydrate. - 2.2.1 Zusammensetzung. - 2.2.2 Vorkommen und Funktion. - 2.3 Proteine. - 2.3.1 Zusammensetzung. - 2.3.2 Vorkommen und Funktion. - 2.4 Lipide. - 2.4.1 Glyceride. - Fette. - Phospholipide, Glycolipide und Etherlipide. - 2.4.2 Wachse und verwandte Verbindungen. - Wachse. - Kutin und Suberin. - 2.4.3 Terpene. - Monoterpene. - Sesquiterpene. - Diterpene. - Triterpene. - Steroide. - Tetraterpene. - 2.4.4 Tetrapyrrole Farbstoffe. - 2.5 Lignin, Tannin und verwandte Verbindungen. - 2.5.1 Lignin. - 2.5.2 Tannine und andere hydroxyaromatische Pigmente. - 2.6 Geochemische Auswirkungen der Veränderungen der Zusammensetzung. - 2.6.1 Veränderungen der Zusammensetzung von Organismen. - 2.6.2 Veränderungen durch die geologische Zeit. - 3 Bedingungen für die Bildung organisch-reicher Sedimente. - 3.1 Einleitung. - 3.2 Kontrollierende Faktoren der Primärproduktion. - 3.2.1 Die Schichtung der Wassersäule. - 3.2.2 Licht. - 3.2.3 Nährstoffe. - Ozeane in niedrigen Breitengraden. - Ozeane in mittleren Breitengraden. - Ozeane in höheren Breitengraden. - Geschichtete Seen. - 3.2.4 Räumliche Veränderungen der marinen Primärproduktion. - 3.2.5 Veränderungen der Phytoplanktonpopulationen. - 3.3 Die Erhaltung und der Abbau organischen Materials. - 3.3.1 Die Entwicklung der Primärproduktion in der Wassersäule. - 3.3.2 Der Werdegang des organischen Materials in den Sedimenten. - Der aerobe Abbau. - Der anaerobe Abbau. - Bakterielle Gemeinschaften und ihre Wechselwirkungen. - 3.3.3. Kontrollierende Faktoren bei der Erhaltung des organischen Sedimentmaterials. - 3.4 Ablagerungsbereiche. - 3.4.1 Lakustrine Bereiche. - Offene Seen. - Geschlossene Seen. - 3.4.2 Torfsümpfe und Kohlenbildung. - Okefenokee-Sumpf. - 3.4.3 Marine Bereiche. - Marine Schelfablagerungen. - Eingeschlossene und durch Schwellen abgetrennte Becken. - Bildung und Erhaltung organischen Materials im Schwarzen Meer. - Reduzierende Ereignisse der Kreide. - 4 Die Bildung von Huminstoffen, Kohle und Kerogen. - 4.1 Diagenese. - 4.1.1 Einleitung. - 4.1.2 Der mikrobielle Abbau des organischen Materials während der Diagenese. - 4.1.3 Die Bildung von Geopolymeren. - 4.2 Huminstoffe. - 4.2.1 Vorkommen und Klassifizierung. - 4.2.2 Komposition und Struktur. - 4.2.3 Die Bildung der Huminstoffe. - 4.3 Kohlen. - 4.3.1 Klassifizierung und Zusammensetzung. - Klassifizierung. - Petrologische Zusammensetzung. - Chemische Zusammensetzung. - 4.3.2 Die Bildung. - Torfbildung. - Die biochemische Stufe der Inkohlung. - Die geochemische Stufe der Inkohlung. - Strukturelle Veränderungen während der Bildung der Kohlen. - 4.4 Kerogen. - 4.4.1 Bildung. - Geopolymerbildung während der Diagenese. - Biomarker. - Schwefeleinbindung. - 4.4.2 Zusammensetzung des Kerogens. - 4.4.3 Klassifizierung des Kerogens. - Typ I-Kerogen. - Typ II-Kerogen. - Typ III-Kerogen. - Typ IV-Kerogen. - Verbesserte Kerogentypisierung. - 4.4.4 Die thermische Evolution des Kerogens. - Strukturelle Veränderungen. - Veränderungen der chemischen Zusammensetzung. - 5 Die Bildung und Zusammensetzung von Petroleum. - 5.1 Petroleumbildung. - 5.1.1 Einleitung. - 5.1.2 Kohlenwasserstoffbildung aus Kohlen. - 5.1.3 Kohlenwasserstoffzusammensetzung als Funktion der Kerogenreife. - 5.1.4 Reaktionen bei der Kohlenwasserstoffbildung. - Isotopenfraktionierung. - 5.2 Die Bedeutung von Zeit und Temperatur bei der Petroleumbildung. - 5.2.1 Der Einfluß von Zeit und Temperatur auf die Kohlenwasserstoffgeneration. - Temperatur. - Zeit. - 5.2.2 Kinetische Modelle der Petroleumbildung. - Zeit-Temperatur-Index. - Komplexe Modelle. - 5.3 Die Migration von Kohlenwasserstoffen. - 5.3.1 Primäre Migration. - Mechanismen der primären Migration. - Expulsionseffizienz. - 5.3.2 Sekundäre Migration. - 5.3.3 Fallen und Speicher. - 5.4 Die Zusammensetzung des Petroleums. - 5.4.1 Die Gesamtzusammensetzung von Erdölen. - 5.4.2 Kohlenwasserstoffe im Petroleum. - Die wichtigsten Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Biomarker. - 5.4.3 Vergleich der Rohölzusammensetzung mit dem Bitumen der Muttergesteine. - Migration. - Auswaschung. - Deasphaltierung. - Biodegradation. - Thermische Veränderungen. - 5.5 Die Vorkommen fossiler Brennstoffe. - 5.5.1 Die zeitliche Verteilung der fossilen Brennstoffe. - 5.5.2 Ölreserven. - Konventionelle Öle. - Schweröle. - Ölschiefer. - 5.5.3 Kohle. - 5.5.4 Gas. - 5.6 Die Bewertung von Erdöl- und Erdgasmuttergesteinen. - 5.6.1 Menge und Art des organischen Materials. - Menge des organischen Materials. - Typ des organischen Materials - optische Methoden. - Typ des organischen Materials - physikalisch-chemische Methoden. - 5.6.2 Reife des organischen Materials. - Optische Bestimmungen der Reife. - Pyrolytische Messungen der Reife. - Einfluß der Reife auf die Identifizierung des organischen Materials. - Chemische Bestimmungen der Reife anhand des Bitumens. - 5.6.3 Korrelationen zwischen Isotopenverteilung und Petroleummuttergestein. - 6 Die molekulare Bewertung rezenter Sedimente. - 6.1 Von Organismen vererbte Biomarkerverteilungen. - 6.1.1 Einleitung. - 6.1.2 Generelle Unterschiede zwischen den Hauptorganismengruppen. - 6.1.3 Faktoren, die die Lipidzusammensetzung der Organismen beeinflussen. - 6.2 Beispiele für Quellenindikatoren in rezenten Sedimenten. - 6.2.1 Fettsäuren. - Monoungesättigte Fettsäuren. - Polyungesättigte Fettsäuren. - 2- und 3-methylverzweigte Fettsäuren. - Intern-verzweigte und Cycloalkylfettsäuren. - Hydroxyfettsäuren. - 6.2.2 Sterole. - 6.2.3 Kohlenhydrate. - 6.2.4 Lignin. - 6.2.5 Kohlenstoffisotope. - 6.3 Die Diagenese auf molekularer Ebene. - 6.3.1 Allgemeine diagenetische Prozesse. - Kohlenhydrate und Lignine. - Biomarker. - 6.3.2 Die Lipiddiagenese in der Wassersäule. - 6.3.3 Die sedimentäre Diagenese der Lipide. - Fettsäuren. - Photosynthetisch aktive Farbstoffe. - Steroide. - Terpene. - 6.4 Paleotemperaturmessungen. - 6.4.1 Die Epimerisierung von Aminosäuren. - 6.4.2 Der Sättigungsgrad in langkettigen Ketonen. - 7 Molekulare Untersuchungen an Sedimenten und die Petroleumbildung. - 7.1 Quellenindikatoren. - 7.1.1 Einleitung. - 7.1.2 Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Normale und methyl-verzweigte Alkane. - Acyclische Isoprene. - Cycloalkane. - 7.1.3 Kohlenstoffisotope. - 7.2 Hinweise auf den Ablagerungsbereich. - 7.2.1 Hypersalinität. - 7.2.2 Redoxbedingungen. - Phytoldiagenese. - Nickel- und Vanadiumverteilungen. - 7.2.3 Die Erkennung unterschiedlicher mariner und lakustriner Bereiche. - 7.3 Thermische Reife und molekulare Umwandlungen. - 7.3.1 Strukturisomerie. - Acyclische Isoprenalkane. - Sterane. - Triterpane. - 7.3.2 Aromatisierung. - 7.3.3 Anreicherung von kurzkettigen Kohlenwasserstoffen und Crackprozesse. - Steroide. - Porphyrine. - 7.4 Molekulare Reife und Quellenparameter in der Erdölexploration. - 7.4.1 Molekulare Reifeparameter. - Leichte Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Kohlenstoffpräferenz-Index (Carbon Preference Index). - Pristanformations-Index. - Biomarker-Umwandlungen. - Methylgruppenisomerisierung in aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen. - 7.4.2 Der Einfluß von geothermischen Gradienten auf molekulare Reifeparameter. - 7.4.3 Öl/Muttergesteins-Korrelationen. - 7.5 Die Analyse der Biomarker-Kohlenwasserstoffe. - 7.5.1 Einleitung. - 7.5.2 Gaschromatographie-Massenspektrometrie. - 7.5.3 Die Bewertung der Biomarkerverteilungen. - 8 Das Verhalten anthropogener organischer Verbindungenin der Umwelt. - 8.1 Einleitung. - 8.2 Der Einfluß des Menschen auf den Kohlenstoffzyklus. - 8.2.1 Kohlendioxid und der Treibhauseffekt. - 8.2.2 Der Einfluß von Spurengasen auf die globale Erwärmung. - Methan. -Kohlenmonoxid. - Dimethylsulfide. - 8.2.3 Eutrophierung. - 8.3 Halogenkohlenwasserstoffe und Abbau des Ozons. - 8.4 Verschmutzungen durch Kohlenwasserstoffe im aquatischen Bereich. - 8.4.1 Die Verbrennung fossiler Brennstoffe. - Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in rezenten Sedimenten. - Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in vorzeitlichen Sedimenten. - 8.4.2 Ölverschmutzungen. - Die Effekte der Ölverschmutzung. - Die Überwachung von Ölverschmutzungen. - 8.5 Einige xenobiotische organische Substanzen. - 8.5.1 DDT und verwandte Verbindungen. - 8.5.2 Polychlorierte Biphenyle. - 8.6 Faktoren, die den Werdegang anthropogener Einträge beeinflussen. - 8.6.1 Allgemeine Betrachtungen. - 8.6.2 Huminstoffe und Schadstoffe. - Literatur. - Weiterführende Literatur. - Sachregister

Description / Table of Contents: Geofluids : Developments in Microthermometry, Spectroscopy, Thermodynamics, and Stable Isotopes is the definitive source on paleofluids and the migration of hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins-ideal for researchers in oil and gas exploration. There's been a rapid development of new non-destructive analytical methods and interdisciplinary research that makes it difficult to find a single source of content on the subject of geofluids. Geoscience researchers commonly use multiple tools to interpret geologic problems, particularly if the problems involve fluid-rock interaction. This book perfectly combines the techniques of fluid inclusion microthermometry, stable isotope analyses, and various types of spectroscopy, including Raman analysis, to contribute to a thorough approach to research. Through a practical and intuitive step-by-step approach, the authors explain sample preparation, measurements, and the interpretation and analysis of data related to thermodynamics and mineral-fluid equilibria.* Features working examples in each chapter with step-by-step explanations and calculations* Broad range of case studies aid the analytical and experimental data* Includes appendices with equations of state, stable isotope fractionation equations, and Raman identification tables that aid in identification of fluid inclusion minerals* Authored by a team of expert scientists who have more than 60 years of related experience in the field and classroom combined