ALBERT

Note: Contents Acknowledgments Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Discovery 1.2 General Introduction 1.3 Just for Fun — An Isotope Biography of Mr. Polychaete Chapter 2. Isotope Notation and Measurement Overview 2.1 The Necessary Minimum for Ecologists 2.2 Why Use the 5 Notation? 2.3 Why Is 8 a Good Substitute for % Heavy Isotope? 2.4 8 and the Ratio-of-Ratios 2.5 Chapter Summary Chapter 3. Using Stable Isotope Tracers Overview 3.1 Isotope Circulation in the Biosphere 3.2 Landscape Ecology and Isotope Maps 3.3 Community Ecology and Invasive Species in Food Webs 3.4 Life History Ecology and Animal Migrations 3.5 Plants, Microbes, and Scaling Up 3.6 Chapter Summary Chapter 4. Isotope Chi ("I Chi") Overview 4.1 Chocolate Isotopes 4.2 Oxygen in the Sea 4.3 Equations for Isotope Chi ("I Chi") 4.4 Building an I Chi Gain-Loss Model, Step by Step 4.5 Errors in I Chi Models 4.6 Exact Equations for I Chi Models 4.7 Cows in a Pasture 4.8 Chapter Summary Chapter 5. Mixing Overview 5.1 Isotope Mixing in Food Webs 5.2 Isotope Sourcery 5.3 Mixing Mechanics 5.4 Advanced Mixing Mechanics 5.5 Mixing Assumptions and Errors or the Art and Wisdom of Using Isotope Mixing Models 5.6 River Sulfate and Mass-Weighted Mixing 5.7 A Special Muddy Case and Mixing Through Time 5.8 The Qualquan Chronicles and Mixing Across Landscapes 5.9 Dietary Mixing, Turnover, and a Stable Isotope Clock 5.10 Chapter Summary Chapter 6. Isotope Additions Overview 6.1 Addition Addiction 6.2 The Golden Spike Award for Isotopes 6.3 Chapter Summary Chapter 7. Fractionation Overview 7.1 Fractionation Fundamentals 7.2 Isotopium and Fractionation in Closed Systems 7.3 A Strange and Routine Case 7.4 A Genuine Puzzle — Fractionation or Mixing? 7.5 Cracking the Closed Systems 7.6 Equilibrium Fractionation, Subtle Drama in the Cold 7.7 A Supply/Demand Model for Open System Fractionation 7.8 Open System Fractionation and Evolution of the Earth's Sulfur Cycle 7.9 Open System Legacies 7.10 Conducting Fractionation Experiments 7.11 Chapter Summary Chapter 8. Scanning the Future Overview 8.1 The Isotope Scanner 8.2 Mangrove Maude 8.3 The Beginner's Advantage—Imagine! 8.4 Chapter Summary Appendix. Important Isotope Equations and Useful Conversions Index Supplemental Electronic Materials on the Accompanying CD A. Chapter 1 Color Figures and Cartoon Problems B. Chapter 2 Color Figures and Cartoon Problems Technical Supplement 2A: Measuring Spiked Samples Technical Supplement 2B: Ion Corrections Technical Supplement 2C: The Ratio Notation and The Power of 1 C. Chapter 3 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems D. Chapter 4 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets E. Chapters 5 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets F. Chapter 6 Color Figure and Cartoon Problems I Chi Spreadsheet Technical Supplement 6A: How Much Isotope Should I Add? Technical Supplement 6B: Noisy Data and Data Analysis with Enriched Samples G. Chapter 7 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I Chi Spreadsheets Technical Supplement 7A: A Chemist's View of Isotope Effects Technical Supplement 7B: Derivations of Closed System Isotope Equations H. Chapter 8 Color Figures and Cartoons Problems I. All Problems for Chapters 1-8 J. All Answers to Problems for Chapters 1-8 K. All Figures and Cartoons L. All I Chi Spreadsheets M. A Reading List

Note: Contents: 1. Introduction. 2. RC Filter. 3. General linear time invariant systems. 4. The seismometer. 5. The sampling process. 6. Analog-to-digital conversion. 7. From infinitely continuous to finite discrete. 8. The digital anti-alias filter. 9. Inverse and simulation filtering of digital seismograms. 10. The measurement of wavelet parameters from digital seismograms. References. Appendix: Solution to problems.

Note: Zugl.: Bremen, Univ., Diss., 2006

Note: Zugl.: München,Univ. der Bundeswehr, Diss., 2005

Note: Meet the Authors ... vi --- Preface ... xiii --- The Modern Theory and Practice of Geology --- The Earth System ... 1 --- The Scientific Method ... 2 --- Earth's Shape and Surface ... 3 --- The Geologic Record ... 4 --- Peeling the Onion: Discovery of a Layered Earth ... 6 --- Earth as a System of Interacting Components ... 10 --- An Overview of Geologic Time ... 14 --- Plate Tectonics: The Unifying Theory ... 18 --- The Discovery of Plate Tectonics ... 19 --- The Mosaic of Plates ... 22 --- Rates and History of Plate Motions ... 30 --- The Grand Reconstruction ... 35 --- Mantle Convection: The Engine of Plate Tectonics ... 37 --- The Theory of Plate Tectonics and the Scientific Method ... 42 --- Basic Geologic Processes --- Earth Materials: Minerals and Rocks ... 44 --- What Are Minerals? ... 45 --- The Atomic Structure of Matter ... 46 --- Chemical Reactions ... 47 --- Chemical Bonds ... 49 --- The Atomic Structure of Minerals ... 49 --- Rock-Forming Minerals ... 52 --- Physical Properties of Minerals ... 56 --- What Are Rocks? ... 62 --- Igneous Rocks ... 63 --- Sedimentary Rocks ... 64 --- Metamorphic Rocks ... 66 --- The Rock Cycle: Interactions Between the Plate Tectonic and Climate Systems ... 66 --- Minerals Occur in Rocks as Valuable Resources ... 68 --- Earth Issues: Sulfide Minerals React to Form Acid Waters on Earth and Mars ... 57 --- Igneous Rocks: Solids from Melts ... 76 --- How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another? ... 78 --- How Do Magmas Form? ... 83 --- Where Do Magmas Form? ... 85 --- Magmatic Differentiation ... 85 --- Forms of Magmatic Intrusions ... 88 --- Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics ... 91 --- Sedimentation: Rocks Formed by Surface Processes ... 100 --- Sedimentary Rocks Are Produced by Surface Processes in the Rock Cycle ... 102 --- Sedimentary Basins: The Sinks for Sediments ... 106 --- Sedimentary Environments ... 108 --- Sedimentary Structures ... 111 --- Burial and Diagenesis: From Sediment to Rock ... 114 --- Classification of Siliciclastic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks ... 116 --- Classification of Chemical and Biological Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks ... 119 --- Earth Policy: Darwin's Coral Reefs and Atolls ... 124 --- Metamorphism: Modification of Rocks by Temperature and Pressure ... 130 --- Metamorphism and the Earth System ... 132 --- Causes of Metamorphism ... 133 --- Types of Metamorphism ... 134 --- Metamorphic Textures ... 136 --- Regional Metamorphism and Metamorphic Grade ... 141 --- Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism ... 144 --- Deformation: Modification of Rocks by Folding and Fracturing ... 150 --- Mapping Geologic Structure ... 152 --- How Rocks Deform ... 154 --- Basic Deformation Structures ... 156 --- Styles of Continental Deformation ... 163 --- Unraveling Geologic History ... 165 --- Earth and Planets Through Geologic Time --- Clocks in Rocks: Timing the Geologic Record ... 168 --- Reconstructing Geologic History from the Stratigraphic Record ... 170 --- Geologic Time Scale: Relative Ages ... 178 --- Measuring Absolute Time with Radioactive Clocks ... 180 --- Geologic Time Scale: Absolute Ages ... 183 --- Timing the Earth System ... 184 --- Earth Issues: The Grand Canyon Sequence and Regional Correlation of Strata ... 176 --- Early History of the Terrestrial Planets ... 188 --- Origin of the Solar System ... 190 --- Early Earth: Formation of a Layered Planet ... 192 --- Diversity of the Planets ... 195 --- What's in a Face? The Age and Complexion of Planetary Surfaces ... 197 --- Mars Rocks! ... 204 --- Exploring the Solar System and Beyond ... 210 --- Evolution of the Continents ... 214 --- The Tectonics of North America ... 216 --- Tectonic Provinces Around the World ... 221 --- How Continents Grow ... 224 --- How Continents Are Modified ... 226 --- The Formation of Cratons ... 235 --- The Deep Structure of Continents ... 236 --- Geobiology: Life Interacts with the Earth ... 240 --- The Biosphere as a System ... 242 --- Microbes: Nature's Tiny Chemists ... 246 --- Geobiological Events in Earth's History ... 254 --- Astrobiology: The Search for Extraterrestrial Life ... 265 --- Earth Issues: The Mother of all Mass Extinctions: Whodunit? ... 264 --- Internal Geosystems --- Volcanoes ... 270 --- Volcanoes as Geosystems ... 272 --- Lavas and Other Volcanic Deposits ... 273 --- Eruptive Styles and Landforms ... 277 --- Geosystem Interactions ... 282 --- The Global Pattern of Volcanism ... 284 --- Volcanism and Human Affairs ... 288 --- Earth Policy: Mount St. Helens: Dangerous but Predictable ... 292 --- Earthquakes ... 296 --- What Is an Earthquake? ... 298 --- Studying Earthquakes ... 301 --- Earthquakes and Patterns of Faulting ... 309 --- Earthquake Destructiveness ... 313 --- Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? ... 320 --- Earth Issues: The Great Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 ... 312 --- Earth Issues: Seven Steps to Earthquake Safety ... 319 --- Exploring: Earth's Interior ... 324 --- Exploring the Interior with Seismic Waves ... 325 --- Layering and Composition of the Interior ... 328 --- Earth's Internal Heat and Temperature ... 332 --- The Three-Dimensional Structure of the Mantle ... 338 --- Earth's Magnetic Field and the Geodynamo ... 337 --- Earth Issues: The Uplift of Scandinavia: Nature's Experiment with Isostasy ... 331 --- Earth Issues: The Geoid: Shape of Planet Earth ... 338 --- Surficial Geosystems --- The Climate System ... 346 --- Components of the Climate System ... 348 --- The Greenhouse Effect ... 352 --- Climate Variability ... 355 --- The Carbon Cycle ... 362 --- Twentieth-Century Warming: Human Fingerprints of Global Change ... 366 --- Earth Issues: Vostok and GRIP: Ice-Core Drilling in Antarctica and Greenland ... 358 --- Earth Issues: El Nino: The Wayward Child ... 360 --- Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics ... 370 --- Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting, and the Rock Cycle ... 372 --- Controls on Weathering ... 372 --- Chemical Weathering ... 373 --- Physical Weathering ... 378 --- Soil: The Residue of Weathering ... 381 --- Mass Wasting ... 384 --- Classification of Mass Movements ... 388 --- Understanding the Origins of Mass Movements ... 395 --- The Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater ... 400 --- Flows and Reservoirs ... 402 --- Hydrology and Climate ... 404 --- The Hydrology of Runoff ... 406 --- Groundwater ... 408 --- Water Resources from Major Aquifers ... 415 --- Erosion by Groundwater ... 417 --- Water Quality ... 418 --- Water Deep in the Crust ... 421 --- Earth Issues: Water Is a Precious Resource: Who Should Get It? ... 404 --- Earth Issues: When Do Groundwaters Become Nonrenewable Resources? ... 416 --- Stream Transport: From Mountains to Oceans ... 426 --- Stream Valleys, Channels, and Floodplains ... 428 --- Drainage Networks ... 432 --- Where Do Channels Begin? How Running Water Erodes Solid Rock ... 435 --- How Stream Waters Flow and Transport Sediment ... 437 --- Deltas: The Mouths of Rivers ... 440 --- Streams as Geosystems ... 443 --- Earth Issues: The Development of Cities on Floodplains ... 432 --- Winds and Deserts ... 452 --- Wind as a Flow of Air ... 454 --- Wind as a Transport Agent ... 455 --- Wind as an Agent of Erosion ... 458 --- Wind as a Depositional Agent ... 460 --- The Desert Environment ... 464 --- Earth Issues: Martian Dust Storms and Dust Devils ... 457 --- Coastlines and Ocean Basins ... 472 --- Basic Differences Between Ocean Basins and Continents ... 474 --- Coastal Processes ... 474 --- Shorelines ... 485 --- Sea Level Change as a Measure of Global Warming ... 488 --- Continental Margins ... 491 --- The Deep Oceans ... 494 --- Ocean Sedimentation ... 500 --- Earth Policy: The Great New Orleans Flood ... 480 --- Earth Issues: Preserving Our Beaches ... 490 --- Glaciers: The Work of Ice ... 504 --- Ice as a Rock ... 506

Note: Contents: Preface to First Edition. - Preface to Second Edition. - Preface to Third Edition. - Acknowledgments. - Part I The Periglacial Domain. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 The Periglacial Concept. - 1.2 Disciplinary Considerations. - 1.2.1 The Growth of Geocryology. - 1.2.2 The Changing Nature of Quaternary Science. - 1.2.3 Modern Periglacial Geomorphology. - 1.3 The Growth of Periglacial Knowledge. - 1.4 The Periglacial Domain. - 1.5 The Scope of Periglacial Geomorphology. - 1.5.1 Permafrost-Related Processes and Landforms. - 1.5.2 Azonal Processes and Landforms. - 1.5.3 Paleo-Environmental Reconstruction. - 1.5.4 Applied Periglacial Geomorphology. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 2 Periglacial Landscapes?. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Proglacial, Paraglacial or Periglacial?. - 2.3 Unglaciated Periglacial Terrain. - 2.3.1 Beaufort Plain, Northwest Banks Island, Arctic Canada. - 2.3.2 Barn Mountains, Northern Interior Yukon Territory, Canada. - 2.4 Relict Periglacial Landscapes. - 2.4.1 Chalk Uplands, Southern England and Northern France. - 2.4.2 Pine Barrens, Southern New Jersey, Eastern USA. - 2.5 Conclusions. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 3 Periglacial Climates. - 3.1 Boundary Conditions. - 3.2 Periglacial Climates. - 3.2.1 High Arctic Climates. - 3.2.2 Continental Climates. - 3.2.3 Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau. - 3.2.4 Alpine Climates. - 3.2.5 Climates of Low Annual Temperature Range. - 3.2.6 Antarctica: A Special Case. - 3.3 Ground Climates. - 3.3.1 The n-Factor. - 3.3.2 The Thermal Offset. - 3.4 Periglacial Climates and the Cryosphere. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - Part II Present-Day Periglacial Environments. - 4 Cold-Climate Weathering. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Ground Freezing. - 4.2.1 The Freezing Process. - 4.2.2 Ice Segregation. - 4.2.3 The Frozen Fringe. - 4.2.4 Frost Heave. - 4.3 Freezing and Thawing. - 4.4 The Ground-Temperature Regime. - 4.4.1 The Seasonal Regime. - 4.4.2 Short-Term Fluctuations. - 4.5 Rock (Frost?) Shattering. - 4.5.1 Frost Action and Ice Segregation. - 4.5.2 Frost Weathering Models. - 4.5.3 Insolation Weathering and Thermal Shock. - 4.5.4 Discussion and Perspective. - 4.6 Chemical Weathering. - 4.6.1 General. - 4.6.2 Solution and Karstification. - 4.6.3 Salt Weathering. - 4.7 Cryogenic Weathering. - 4.8 Cryobiological Weathering. - 4.9 Cryopedology. - 4.9.1 Cryosols. - 4.9.2 Soil Micromorphology. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 5 Permafrost. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.1.1 Definition. - 5.1.2 Moisture and Ice within Permafrost. - 5.2 Thermal and Physical Properties. - 5.2.1 The Geothermal Regime. - 5.2.2 Physical Properties. - 5.2.3 Thermal Properties. - 5.3 How Does Permafrost Aggrade?. - 5.3.1 General Principles. - 5.3.2 The Illisarvik Drained-Lake Experiment. - 5.4 Distribution of Permafrost. - 5.4.1 Latitudinal Permafrost. - 5.4.2 Alpine (Mountain) Permafrost. - 5.4.3 Montane Permafrost of Central Asia and China. - 5.5 Relict Permafrost. - 5.5.1 Sub-Sea Permafrost. - 5.5.2 Relict (Terrestrial) Permafrost. - 5.6 Permafrost Hydrology. - 5.6.1 Aquifers. - 5.6.2 Hydrochemistry. - 5.6.3 Groundwater Icings. - 5.7 Permafrost and Terrain Conditions. - 5.7.1 Relief and Aspect. - 5.7.2 Rock Type. - 5.7.3 Vegetation. - 5.7.4 Snow Cover. - 5.7.5 Fire. - 5.7.6 Lakes and Surface Water Bodies. - 5.8 The Active Layer. - 5.8.1 The Transient Layer. - 5.8.2 The Stefan Equation. - 5.8.3 Active-Layer Thermal Regime. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 6 Surface Features of Permafrost. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Thermal-Contraction-Crack Polygons. - 6.2.1 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Contraction. - 6.2.2 Ice, Sand, and Soil Wedges. - 6.2.3 Development of the Polygon Net. - 6.2.4 Polygon Morphology. - 6.2.5 Controls Over Cracking. - 6.2.6 Climatic Significance. - 6.3 Organic Terrain. - 6.3.1 Palsas. - 6.3.2 Peat Plateaus. - 6.4 Rock Glaciers. - 6.4.1 Creeping Permafrost. - 6.4.2 Types and Distribution. - 6.4.3 Origin. - 6.5 Frost Mounds. - 6.5.1 Perennial-Frost Mounds. - 6.5.2 Hydraulic (Open) System Pingos. - 6.5.3 Hydrostatic (Closed) System Pingos. - 6.5.4 Other Perennial-Frost Mounds. - 6.5.5 Seasonal-Frost Mounds. - 6.5.6 Hydrolaccoliths and Other Frost-Induced Mounds. - 6.6 Active-Layer Phenomena. - 6.6.1 Bedrock Heave. - 6.6.2 Needle Ice. - 6.6.3 Cryoturbation and Frost Heave. - 6.6.4 Frost Sorting. - 6.6.5 Patterned Ground. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 7 Ground lce. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Classification. - 7.2.1 Pore Ice. - 7.2.2 Segregated Ice. - 7.2.3 Intrusive Ice. - 7.2.4 Vein Ice. - 7.2.5 Other Types of Ice. - 7.3 Ice Distribution. - 7.3.1 Amounts. - 7.3.2 Distribution with Depth. - 7.3.3 Ice in Bedrock. - 7.3.4 Ice in Unconsolidated Sediments. - 7.4 Cryostratigraphy and Cryolithology. - 7.4.1 Cryostructures, Cryotextures, and Cryofacies. - 7.4.2 Epigenetic and Syngenetic Cryostructures. - 7.4.3 Thaw Unconformities. - 7.4.4 Ice Crystallography. - 7.4.5 Ice Geochemistry. - 7.4.6 Cryostratigraphy and Past Environments. - 7.5 Ice Wedges. - 7.5.1 Epigenetic Wedges. - 7.5.2 Syngenetic Wedges. - 7.5.3 Anti-Syngenetic Wedges. - 7.6 Massive Ice and Massive-Icy Bodies. - 7.6.1 Nature and Extent. - 7.6.2 Intra-Sedimental Ice. - 7.6.3 Buried Glacier Ice. - 7.6.4 Other Mechanisms. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 8 Thermokarst. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Causes of Thermokarst. - 8.2.1 General. - 8.2.2 Specific. - 8.3 Thaw-Related Processes. - 8.3.1 Thermokarst Subsidence. - 8.3.2 Thermal Erosion. - 8.3.3 Other Processes. - 8.4 Thermokarst Sediments and Structures. - 8.4.1 Involuted Sediments. - 8.4.2 Retrogressive-Thaw-Slumps and Debris-Flow Deposits. - 8.4.3 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs and Composite-Wedge Casts. - 8.4.4 Ice, Silt, Sand, and Gravel Pseudomorphs. - 8.5 Ice-Wedge Thermokarst Relief. - 8.5.1 Low-Centered Polygons. - 8.5.2 High-Centered Polygons. - 8.5.3 Badland Thermokarst Relief. - 8.6 Thaw Lakes and Depressions. - 8.6.1 Morphology. - 8.6.2 Growth and Drainage. - 8.6.3 Oriented Thaw Lakes. - 8.7 Thermokarst-Affected Terrain. - 8.7.1 The Lowlands of Central and Northern Siberia. - 8.7.2 The Western North American Arctic. - 8.8 Human-Induced Thermokarst. - 8.8.1 Causes. - 8.8.2 Case Studies. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 9 Hillslope Processes and Slope Evolution. - 9.1 Introduction. - 9.2 Slope Morphology. - 9.2.1 The Free-Face Model. - 9.2.2 Rectilinear Debris-Mantled Slopes. - 9.2.3 Convexo-Concavo Debris-Mantled Slopes. - 9.2.4 Pediment-Like Slopes. - 9.2.5 Stepped Profiles. - 9.3 Mass Wasting. - 9.4 Slow Mass-Wasting Processes. - 9.4.1 Solifluction. - 9.4.2 Frost Creep. - 9.4.3 Gelifluction. - 9.4.4 Solifluction Deposits and Phenomena. - 9.5 Rapid Mass Wasting. - 9.5.1 Active-Layer-Detachment Slides. - 9.5.2 Debris Flows, Slushflows, and Avalanches. - 9.5.3 Rockfall. - 9.6 Slopewash. - 9.6.1 Snow-Bank Hydrology. - 9.6.2 Surface and Subsurface Wash. - 9.7 Frozen and Thawing Slopes. - 9.7.1 Permafrost Creep. - 9.7.2 Thermokarst and Thaw Consolidation. - 9.7.3 Stability of Thawing Slopes. - 9.8 Cold-Climate Slope Evolution. - 9.8.1 Cryoplanation. - 9.8.2 Slope Replacement and Richter Denudation Slopes. - 9.8.3 Rapidity of Profile Change. - 9.8.4 Summary. - Advanced Reading. - Discussion Topics. - 10 Azonal Processes and Landforms. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Fluvial Processes and Landforms. - 10.2.1 Major Rivers. - 10.2.2 Freeze-Up and Break-Up. - 10.2.3 Basin Hydrology. - 10.2.4 Sediment Flow, Surface Transport, and Denudation. - 10.2.5 Fluvio-Thermal Erosion. - 10.2.6 Channel Morphology. - 10.2.7 Valley Asymmetry. - 10.3 Eolian Processes and Sediments. - 10.3.1 Wind Abrasion. - 10.3.2 Wind Deflation. - 10.3.3 Niveo-Eolian Sediments. - 10.3.4 Loess-Like Silt. - 10.3.5 Sand Dunes and San