Abstract
A survey was conducted to determine the distribution and determinants of environmental and blood lead levels near a conventional and several cottage lead smelters and to assess the relationship between environmental and blood lead levels in a tropical, developing-country setting. Fifty-eight households were studied in the Red Pond community, the site of the established smelter and several backyard smelters, and 21 households were studied in the adjacent, upwind Ebony Vale community in Saint Catherine Parish, Jamaica. Households were investigated, using questionnaires, soil and housedust lead measurements, and blood lead (PbB) measurements from 372 residents. Soil lead levels in Red Pond exceeded 500 parts per million (ppm) at 24% of households (maximum-18,600 ppm), compared to 0% in Ebony Vale (maximum 150 ppm). Geometric mean PbB in Red Pond, where 44% of children <6 years of age had PbB levels ≥ 25 micrograms per deciliter (μg/dL), was more than twice that Ebony Vale in all age groups (p < 0.0005). Within Red Pond, proximity to backyard smelters and to the conventional smelter were independent predictors of soil lead (p < 0.05). Soil lead was the strongest predictor of PbB among Red Pond subjects under 12 years of age. The blood lead-soil lead relationship in children differed from that reported in developed countries; blood lead levels were higher than expected for the household-specific soil lead levels that were observed. These data indicate that cottage lead smelters, like conventional ones, are a hazard for nearby residents and that children exposed to lead contamination in tropical, developing countries may be at higher risk for developing elevated blood lead levels than similarly-exposed children in developed countries.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker El, Folland DS, Taylor TA, Frank M, Peterson W, Lovejoy G, Cox D, Housworth J, Landrigan PJ (1977) Lead poisoning in children of lead workers. N Engl J Med 296:260–261
Bellinger D, Leviton A, Waternaux C, Needleman H, Rabinowitz M (1987) Longitudinal analyses of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development. N Engl J Med 316:1037–1043
Bornschein RL, Succop P, Dietrich KN, Clark CS, Que Hee S, Hammond PB (1985) The influence of social and environmental factors on dust lead, hand lead, and blood lead levels in young children. Environ Res 38:108–118
Brunekreef B, Veenstra SJ, Biersteker K, Boleij JS (1981) The Arnhem lead study: I. Lead uptake by 1- to 3-year old children living in the vicinity of a secondary lead smelter in Arnhem, The Netherlands. Environ Res 25:441–448
Centers for Disease Control (1985) Preventing lead poisoning in young children. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA
Dolcourt JL, Finch C, Coleman GD, Kilmas AJ, Milar CR (1981) Hazard of lead exposure in the home from recycled automobile storage batteries. Pediatrics 68:225–230
Duggan MJ, Inskip MJ (1985) Childhood exposure to lead in surface dust and soil: A community health problem. Public Health Rev 13:1–54
Falk H, Ing RT (1988) The Centers for Disease Control perspective on lead in soil. In: Davies BE, Wixson BG (eds) Lead in soil: Issues and guidelines. Science Reviews Limited, Northwood, Great Britain, pp 55–64
Holt MM (1982) The SURREGR procedure. Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC
Kawai M, Toriumi H, Katagiri Y, Maruyama Y (1983) Home iead-work as a potential source of lead exposure for children. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 53:37–46
Kleinbaum DG, Kupper LL (1978) Applied regression analysis and other multivariable methods. Duxbury Press, Boston, MA, pp 229–230
Koplan JP, Wells AV, Diggory HJ, Baker EL, Liddle J (1977) Lead absorption in a community of potters in Barbados. Int J Epidemiol 6:225–229
Landrigan PJ, Gehlback SH, Rosenblum BF, Shoults JM, Candelaria RM, Barthel WF, Liddle JA, Smrek AL, Staehling NW, Sanders JF (1975) Epidemic lead absorption near an ore smelter. N Engl J Med 292:123–129
Landrigan PJ, Baker EL (1981) Exposure of children to heavy metals from smelters: Epidemiology and toxic consequences. Environ Res 25:204–224
Lilis R, Fischbein A, Eisinger J, Blumberg WE, Diamond S, Anderson HA, Rom W, Rice C, Sarkozi L, Kon S, Selikoff IJ (1977) Prevalence of lead disease among secondary lead smelter workers and biologic indicators of lead exposure. Environ Res 14:255–285
Madhavan S, Rosenman KD, Shehata T (1989) Lead in soil: Recommended maximum permissible levels. Environ Res 49:136–142
Mahaffey KR (1982) Role of nutrition in prevention of pediatric lead toxicity. In: Chishoim JJ and Ohara DM (eds.). Lead absorption in children. Urban & Schwarzenberg, Baltimore, MD, pp 63–78
McMichael AJ, Baghurst PA, Wigg NR, Vimpani GV, Robertson EF, Roberts RJ (1988) Port Pirie cohort study: Environmental exposure to lead and children's abilities at the age of four years. N Engl J Med 319:468–475
Morton DE, Saah AJ, Silberg SL, Owens WL, Roberts MA, Saah MD (1982) Lead absorption in children of employees in a lead-related industry. Am J Epidemiol 115:549–555
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1984) NIOSH manual of analytical methods, 3rd edition. DHHS (NIOSH) publication no. 84-100, Cincinnati, OH
Phoon WO (1982) Recent developments in occupational health in tropical countries. Trop Dis Bull 79:653–666
Popovac D, Graziano J, Seaman C, Kaul B, Colakovic B, Popovac R, Osmani I, Haxhiu M, Begraca M, Bozovic Z, Mikic M (1982) Elevated blood lead in a population near a lead smelter in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. Arch Environ Health 37:19–23
Roels HA, Buchet JP, Lauwerys RR, Bruaux P, Claeys-Thoreau F, Lafontaine A, Verduyn G (1980) Exposure to lead by the oral and the pulmonary routes of children living in the vicinity of a primary lead smelter. Environ Res 22:81–94
Schilling RJ and Bain RP (1988) Prediction of children's blood lead levels on the basis of household specific soil lead levels. Am J Epidemiol 128:197–205
Searle B, Chan W, Davidow B (1973) Determination of lead in blood and urine by anodic stripping voltammetry. Clin Chem 19:76–81
Shah BV (1981) SESUDAAN: standard errors program for computing standardized rates from sample survey data. Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC
Vostal JJ, Taves E, Sayre JW, Charney E (1974) Lead analysis of house dust: A method for the detection of another source of lead exposure in inner city children. Environ Health Perspect 7:91–97
Walter SD, Yankel AJ, von Lindern IH (1980) Age-specific risk factors for lead absorption in children. Arch Environ Health 17:965–978
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Matte, T.D., Figueroa, J.P., Ostrowski, S. et al. Lead exposure from conventional and cottage lead smelting in Jamaica. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 21, 65–71 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01055558
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01055558