Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Modeling basin-scale hydrology in support of physical climate and global biogeochemical studies: An example using the Zambezi River

  • Part II: Modeling and Analysis
  • Published:
Surveys in Geophysics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Human activity is an important agent defining the contemporary hydrologic cycle. We have documented the potential impacts of impoundment, land use change and climate change on the Zambezi River system in southern Africa and found that they can be substantial. A full analysis requires construction and parameterization of a simulation for the entire catchment. This paper develops a strategy for implementing catchment-scale models of the major hydrologic processes operating within the basin. A coherent data set for calibrating the models has also been assembled. The algorithms consist of a Water Balance (WBM) and a Water Transport (WTM) operating at 1/2o spatial scale and at monthly timesteps. These models transform complex patterns of regional climatology into estimates of soil water, evapotranspiration, runoff, and discharge through rivers of various size. The models are dependent on the characteristics of the terrestrial surface, principally soil texture and land cover. A simulated river network is also required. Additional tabular data sets are essential for model testing and calibration. These include subcatchment areas; observed river discharge at selected points; flooding, storage and loss characteristics of major wetlands; floodwave translation; and, volume, surface area, withdrawal and evaporative losses from impoundments. An important design consideration for the numerous impoundments in the Zambezi requires an understanding of the seasonal variation in discharge, in particular how it might respond to climate and land use change. The research strategy offered here lays a framework for addressing such issues. Although the primary focus of this work is hydrologic, we discuss how the model can be extended to consider constituent transport and biogeochemical cycling issues at the continental scale.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, R. G.: 1990, ‘Evaluation of Estimating Methods’, in Jensen, M. E., Burman, R. D. and Allen, R. G. (eds.),Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water Requirements, ASCE manuscript.

  • Ambroggi, R. P.: 1980, ‘Water’,Sci. Amer. 91–101.

  • Atwell, R. I. G.: 1970, ‘Some Effects of Lake Kariba on the Ecology of the Mid-Zambezi Valley of Rhodesia’,Biol. Conserv 2, 189–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balasubrahmanyam, S. and Abou-Zeid, S. M.: 1982, ‘Post-Itezhitezhi Flow Pattern of the Kafue in the Kafue Flats Region’, inProc. Nat. Sem. on Environment and Change: the Consequences of Hydroelectric Power Development on the Utilization of the Kafue Flats, University of Zambia, Lusaka, 1978, pp. 63–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balek, J.: 1977,Hydrology and Water Resources in Tropical Africa, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balon, E. K. and Coche, A. G.: 1974,Lake Kariba: A Man-Made Tropical Ecosystem in Central Africa, Monographiae Biologicae 24, W. Junk, The Hague, 767 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, D. L. and Franklin, M. J.: 1970, ‘Runoff and Soil Loss on a Sandveld in Rhodesia’,Proc. Grassld. Soc. Afr. 5, 140–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. and Nemec, J.: 1987, ‘Macroscale Hydrological Models in Support to Climate Research’, inThe Influence of Climate Change and Climate Variability on the Hydrologic Regime and Water Resources, IAHS Publication No. 168, Vancouver, pp 431–441.

  • Begg, G. W.: 1973, ‘The Biological Consequences of Discharge Above and Below Kariba Dam’,Proc. 11th Congr. Int'l Comm. for Large Dams, Madrid, pp. 421–430.

  • Bernacsek, G. M. and Lopes, S.: 1984,Investigations into the Fisheries and Limnology of Cahora Bassa Reservoir Seven Years after Dam Closure, (FAO/GCP/MOZ006/SWE FIELD doc.), 149 pp.

  • Bhagavan, M. R.: 1985, ‘The Energy Sector in SADCC Countries’,Ambio.14, 214–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, J.: 1956, ‘The Distribution of Solar Radiation over the Earth's Surface’, inWind and Solar Energy, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 138–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackie, J. R.: 1972, Hydrological Effects of Change in Land Use from Rainforests to Tea Plantation in Kenya’, inSymposium on the Results of Research on Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/UNESCO Publication No. 97, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 312–329.

  • Blaney, H. and Criddle, W.: 1962, ‘Determining Consumptive Use and Irrigation Requirements’,USDA Tech. Bul. 1275, 59 pp.

  • Bolton, P.: 1983, ‘The Regulation of the Zambezi in Mozambique: A Study of the Origins and Impact of the Cabora Bassa Project’ PhD, University of Edinburgh.

  • Bolton, P.: 1984, ‘Sediment Deposition in Major Reservoirs in the Zambezi Basin’, inChallenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources, IAHS Publication No. 144, Harare, Zimbabwe, pp. 559–567.

  • Borchert, G. and Kempe, S.: 1985, ‘A Zambezi Aqueduct’,Mitt. Geol.-Palaont. Inst., Univ. Hamburg, SCOPE/UNEP Sonderband, Heft 58, pp. 443–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. and Child, G.: 1971, ‘The Impact of Man on the Environment of Botswana’Botswana Notes and Records 3, 91–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Central African Power Corporation (CAPCO): 1985,Annual Report and Accounts.,

  • Chahine, M. T.: 1989,GEWEX Continental-Scale Hydrological Field Experiment, Concept Paper, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Committee on Global Change: 1988,Toward an Understanding of Global Change, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 213 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Correll, D.: 1986,Watershed Research Perspectives, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, B. R.: 1979, Stream Regulation in Africa’, in Stanford, J. A. and Ward, J. V. (eds.),The Ecology of Regulated Streams, Plenum, N. Y., pp. 113–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, B. R., Hall, A. and Jackson, P. B. N.: 1975, ‘Some Ecological Aspects of the Cabora Bassa Dam’,Biol. Conserv. 8, 189–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, R. E. and Henderson-Sellers, A.: 1988, ‘Modeling Tropical Deforestation: A Study of GCM Land-Surface Parameterization’,Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc 114, 439–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • DMAAC:Various Years. Operational Navigation Charts. Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center, St. Louis, MO.

  • Dooge, J. C. I.: 1986, ‘Looking for Hydrologic Laws’,Wat. Res. Res. 22, 46S-58S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dos Santos, J. F.: 1968, ‘Aproveitamento hidroelectrico de Cabora Bassa’,Electricitade (Lisbon)54, 236–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, T. and Leopold, L. B.: 1978,Water in Environmental Planning, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • du Toit, R. F.: 1983, ‘Hydrological Changes in the Middle-Zambezi System’,Zimb. Sci. News 17, 121–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • du Toit, R. F.: 1985, ‘Soil Loss, Hydrological Changes, and Conservation Attitude in the Sabi Catchment of Zimbabe’,Environ. Conserv. 12, 157–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagleson, P. S.: 1986, ‘The Emergence of Global-Scale Hydrology’,Wat. Res. Res. 22, 6S-14S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elwell, H. A.: 1983, ‘The Degrading Soil and Water Resources of the Communal Areas’,Zimb. Sci. News 17, 145–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elwell, H. A.: 1985, ‘An Assessment of Soil Erosion in Zimbabwe’,Zimb. Sci. News.19, 27–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elwell, H. A. and Stocking, M. A.: 1973, ‘Rainfall Parameters to Predict Surface Runoff Yields and Soil Losses from Selected Field-Plot Studies’,Rhod. J. Agric. Res. 11, 123–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO/CSRC: 1974,Soil Map of the World, 1∶5M UNESCO, Paris. 1/2 Degree Digitization. Complex Systems Research Center, U.N.H. Durham, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO/UNDP: 1968,Multipurpose Surveys of the Kafue River Basin, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations—United Nations Development Program, Rome. 45 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO/UNESCO: 1977, Soil Map of the World. 1∶5 000 000, Vol. I (Legend), Vol. VI (Africa), UNESCO, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gandolfi, C. and Salewicz, K. A.: 1990,Multiobjective Operation of Reservoir Systems: The Zambezi Case Study, Working Paper, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert Commonwealth International: 1987,Report on System Development Plan for Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority, Reading, UK.

  • Gildea, M. P., Moore, B., Vörösmarty, C. J., Bergquist, B., Melillo, J. M., Nadelhoffer, K. and Peterson, B. J.: 1986, ‘A Global Model of Nutrient Cycling: I. Introduction, Model Structure, and Terrestrial Mobilization of Nutrients’, in D. Correll (ed.)Watershed Research Perspectives, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C., pp. 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giorgi, F.: 1989, ‘Simulation of Regional Climate Using a Limited-Area Model Nested in a General Circulation Model’, Abstract No. A11F-14.EOS, Trans. American Geophysical Union 70, 1011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotch, S. L. 1988.Regional Intercomparisons of General Circulation Model Predictions and Historical Climate Data, (DOE/NBB-0084). U.S. Department of Energy, 291 pp.

  • Gutowski, W. J., Gutzler, D. S. and Wang, W.-C.: 1989, ‘Surface Energy Balances of Three General Circulation Models: Implications for Simulating Regional Climate Change’,Journal of Climate (submitted).

  • Guy, P. R.: 1981, ‘River Bank Erosion in the Mid-Zambezi Valley, Downstream of Lake Kariba’,Biol. Conser.,19, 119–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, J., Warren, S. G., London, J. and Roy, J. L.: 1988,Climatological Data for Clouds Over the Globe from Surface Observations, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, A., Davies, B. R. and Valente, I.: 1976, ‘Cabora Bassa: Some Preliminary Physico-Chemical and Zooplankton Pre-Impoundment Survey Results’,Hydrobiologia 50, 17–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J., Rind, D., DelGenio, A., Lacis, A., Lebedeff, S., Prather, M., Ruedy, R. and Karl, T.: 1988a, Regional Greenhouse Climate Effects, inCoping with Climate Change, Proc. 2nd North American Conference on Preparing for Climate Change, Climate Institute, Wahsington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J., Fung, I., Lacia, A., Rind, D., Lebedeff, S., Ruedy, R., Russell, G. and Stone, P.: 1988b. Climate Changes as Forecast by Goddard Institute for Space Studies Three-Dimensional Model’,J. Geophys. Res. 93, 9341–9364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J. and Lebedeff, S.: 1987, ‘Global Trends of Measured Surface Air Temperature’,J. Geophys. Res. 92, 13345–13372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havel, J. J. and Bligh, K. J.: 1982, ‘Estimation of Water Yield Coefficients’, in Bennett, D. and Thomas, J. F. (eds.),On Rational Grounds: Systems Analysis in Catchment Land Use Planning, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 208–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hosier, R. H.: 1986, ‘Energy Planning in Zimbabwe’,Ambio 15, 90–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, I. P. and Midgley, D. C.: 1973, ‘A Mathematical Model to Aid Management of Outflow from the Okavanga Swamp’,J. of Hydrol. 19, 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, M. and Haise, H.: 1963, ‘Estimating Evapotranspiration from Solar Radiation’,Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., Jour, Irrig. and Drain 89 (IR-4), 15–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellogg, W. W. and Zhao, Z.: 1988, ‘Sensitivity of Soil Moisture Doubling of Carbon Dioxide in Climate Model Experiments. Part I: North America’,J. of. Clim. 1, 348–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenmuir, D. H. S.: 1982, ‘Fish Production Prospects in Zimbabwe’,Zimbabwe Agric. J. 79, 11–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiele, R. H.: 1982, ‘Irrigation Development and the Kafue Flats’, inProc. Nat. Sem. on Environment and Change of the Consequences of Hydroelectric Power Development on the Utilization of the Kafue Flats, University of Zambia, Lusaka, pp. 69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klemes, V.: 1985,Sensitivity of Water Resource Systems to Climate Variations, World Meteorological Organization, WCP-98, pp. 1–17.

  • Korzoun, V. I., Sokolov, A. A., Budyko, M. I., Voskresensky, K. P., Kalinin, G. P., Konoplyantsev, A. A., Korotkevich, E. S. and Lvovich, M. I.: 1977,Atlas of World Water Balance, UNESCO, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krecek, J, and Zeleny, V.: 1980, ‘Effects of Commercial Forest Logging upon Streamflow Processes in a Small Basin in the Moravian-Silesian Beskydy Mountains’, inThe Influence of Man in the Hydrological Regime with Special Reference to Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/IASH Publication No. 130, Helsinki, pp. 105–113.

  • Leenaers, H.: 1989,Estimating the Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Erosion Hazard in the Zambezi River Basin, IIASA Working Paper, Laxenburg, Austria. 26 pp.

  • Legates, D. R. and Willmott, C. J.: 1989,Terrestrial Water Budget Data Archive, U. of Delaware, Dept. of Geography.

  • Lewis, L. A., and Berry, L.: 1988,African Environments and Resources, Unwin Hyman Ltd., London. 404 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Likens, G. E., Bormann, F. H., Pierce, R. S., Eaton, J. S. and Johnson, N. M.: 1977:Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem, Springer-Verlag, New York, 146 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Machena, C. and Fair, P.: 1986, ‘Comparison of Fish Yields from Prediction Models Between Lakes Tanganyika and Kariba’,Hydrobiologia 137, 29–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makkink, G. F.: 1957, ‘Testing the Penman Formula by Means of Lysimeters’,Jour. Inst. Water Engin. 11, 277–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manabe, S and Wetherald, R. T.: 1986, ‘Reduction in Summer Soil Wetness Induced by an Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide’,Science 232, 626–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mather, J. R. and Ambroziak, R. A.: 1986, ‘A Search for Understanding Potential Evapotranspiration’,Geogr. Review 76, 355–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, E.: 1983, ‘Global Vegetation and Land Use’,J. Clim. Appl. Meteor 22, 474–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuinness, J. L. and Bordne, E. F.: 1972,A Comparison of Lysimeter-Derived Potential Evapotranspiration with Computed Values, United States Department of Agriculture, ARS, Tech. Bull. No. 1452, 71 pp.

  • Melack, J. M. and Lesack, L. F. W.: 1988,Export of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from the Central Amazon Floodplain to the River. Presented at the Chapman Conference of the Fate of Particulate and Dissolved Components within theAmazon Dispersal System: River and Ocean, Charleston, SC.

  • Mepham, J. S. and Mepham, R. H.: 1987, ‘Wetlands of the Zambezi Basin and the Lowlands of Mozambique’, in Symoens, J. J. and Burgis, M. J. (eds.),African Wetlands and Shallow Water Bodies: Directory, Institute de Recherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en Cooperation, Paris, France, pp. 503–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M.: 1976, ‘Total Mineral Dissolved Transport by World Major Rivers’,Hydrological Sci. Bull. 21, 265–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M.: 1982, ‘Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Transport by World Rivers’,Amer. Jour. of Science 282, 401–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milliman, J. D. and Meade, R. H.: 1983, ‘World-Wide Delivery of River Sediment to the Oceans’,J. Geol. 91, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minderhoud, P.: 1978, ‘Kafue Flats Hydrological Studies’, inProc. National Sem. on Environ. and Change: The Conseq. of Hydroelectric Power Development on the Utilization of the Kafue Flats, Lusaka, pp. 59–62.

  • Mitchell, J. F. B.: 1983, ‘The Seasonal Response of a General Circulation Model to Changes in CO2 and Sea Temperatures’,Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 109, 113–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J. F. B., Wilson, C. A., and Cunnington, W. M.: 1987, ‘On CO2 Climate Sensitivity and Model Dependence of Results’,Q.J.R.Meteorol. Soc. 113, 293–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, B., Gildea, M. P., Vörösmarty, C. J., Skole, D. L., Melillo, J. M., Peterson, B. J., Rastetter, E. B. and Steudler, P. A.: 1989, ‘Biogeochemical Cycles’, in Rambler, M., Margulis, L. and Fester, R. (eds.),Global Ecology: Towards a Science of the Biosphere., Academic Press Inc., San Diego, CA, pp. 113–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwenya, A. N. and Kaweche, G. B.: 1982, ‘Wildlife Conservation in the Kafue Flats in Light of Hydroelectric Development’, inProc. Nat. Sem. on Environment and Change of the Consequences of Hydroelectric Power Development on the Utilization of the Kafue Flats, University of Zambia, Lusaka, pp. 129–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • NASA/EOS and Supplements: 1984.Earth Observing System, Science and Mission Requirements Working Group Report, Vol. 1, NASA, 51 pp.

  • Nemec, J. and Schaake, J.: 1982, ‘Sensitivity of Water Resource Systems to Climate Variation’,Hydrol. Sci. 27, 327–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, C.: 1988, ‘The Zambezi River at Mana’,Zimb. Sci. News 22, 14–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obrdlik, P., Mumeka, A. and Kasonde, J. M.: 1989, ‘Regulated Rivers in Zambia—The Case Study of the Kafue River’,Reg. Rivers: Res. and Management 3, 371–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J. S., Watts, J. A. and Allison, L. J.: 1983,Carbon in Live Vegetation of Major World Ecosystems, (Publication No. 1997), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyebande, L.: 1988, ‘Effects of Tropical Forest on Water Yield’, in Reynolds, E. R. C. and Thompson, F. B. (eds.),Forests, Climate, and Hydrology, United Nations University, Tokyo, pp. 16–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearce, A. J., Rowe, L. K. and O'Loughlin, C. L.: 1980, ‘Effects of Clearing and Slash-burning on Water Yield and Storm Hydrographs in Evergreen Mixed Forests, Western New Zealand’, inThe Influence of Man on the Hydrological Regime with Special Reference to Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/IASH Publication No. 130, Helsinki, pp. 119–127.

  • Pinay, G.: 1988,Hydrobiological Assessment of the Zambezi River System: A Review, WP-88-089, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. 116 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plamondon, A. P. and Ouellet D. C.: 1980, ‘Partial Clearcutting and Streamflow Regime of Ruisseau des Eaux-Volees Experimental Basin’, inThe Influence of Man on the Hydrological Regime with Special Reference to Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/IASH Publication No. 130, Helsinki, pp. 129–136.

  • Plinston, D.: 1981,A Review of the Hydrology of the Upper Zambezi. Inst. of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rastetter, E. B., Ryan, M. G., Russell, A. E., Raich, J. W., and Vörösmarty, C. J.: 1990, ‘Temporal Aggregation of Soil Moisture Models to Improve Consistency between Daily and Monthly Estimates of Moisture in Drier Soils’, (in preparation).

  • Reeve, W. T. N. and Edmonds, D. T.: 1966, ‘Zambezi River Flood Hydrology and its Effect on Design and Operation of Kariba Dam’,Proc. Symp. on River Flood Hydrol., Instn. Civ. Eng., London, pp. 169–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richey, J. E., Mertes, L. A. K., Dunne, T., Victoria, R. L., Forsberg, B. R., Tancredi, A. C. N. S. and Oliveira, E.: 1989, ‘Sources and Routing of the Amazon River Flood Wave’,Global Biogeochem. Cycles 3, 191–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salati, E.: 1985, ‘The Climatology and Hydrology of Amazonia’, in Prance, G. and Lovejoy, T. (eds.),Key Environments: Amazonia, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 18–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santa Clara, J. M. A.: 1988, ‘The Hydrological Operation of the Kariba Hydroelectric Scheme: Past, Present, and Future’,Proc. Seizieme Congres des Grands Barrages, Q. 63, R. 29, Commission Internationale Des Grands Barrages, San Francisco, pp. 449–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger, W. H., Reynolds, J. F., Cunningham, G. L., Huenneke, L. F., Jarrell, W. M. Virginia R. A. and Whitford, W. G.: 1990, New Concepts in Global Desertification’, Manuscript, 31 pp.

  • Seagrief, S. C.: 1960, ‘The Lukanga Swamps—Northern Rhodesia’,J. S. Afr. Bot. 28, 3–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, T. C. and Nyumbu, I. L.: 1985, ‘Some Hydrologic Characteristics of the Upper Zambezi Basin’, in Handlos, W. L. and Howard, G. W. (eds.),Development Prospects for the Zambezi Valley in Zambia, Kafue Basin Research Committee, University of Zambia, pp. 29-43.

  • Shiklomanov, I. A. and Kretovsky, O. I.: 1988, ‘The Influence of Forest and Forest Reclamation Practice on Streamflow and Water Balance’, in Reynolds, E. R. C. and Thompson, F. B. (eds.),Forest, Climate and Hydrology, United Nations University, Tokyo, pp. 78–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skole, D. L., Moore, B., and Chomentowski, W.: 1990, ‘The Use of Global Geographic Information Systems for Global Vegetation Change Studies’, in Soloman, A. (ed.),Global Vegetation Change, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sopper, N. E. and Lynch, J. A.: 1970, ‘Changes in Water Yield Following Partial Forest Cover Removal on an Experimental Watershed’, inSymposium on the Results of Research on Representative and Experimental Basins IAHS/UNESCO Publication No. 96, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 369–389.

  • Sutcliffe, J. V. and Parks, Y. P.: 1989, ‘Comparative Water Balances of Selected African Wetlands’,Hydrol. Sci. 34, 49–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swank, W. T. and Crossley, D. A.: 1988,Forest Hydrology and Ecology, Ecol. Studies #66, Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swank, W. T. and Helvey, J. D.: 1970, ‘Reduction of Streamflow Increases Following Regrowth of Clearcut Hardwood Forests’, inSymposium on the Results of Research on Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/UNESCO Publication #96, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 346–360.

  • Thornthwaite, C. W.: 1948, ‘An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate’,Geographical Review 38, 55–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornthwaite, C. W. and Mather, J. R.: 1957,Instructions and Tables for Computing Potential Evapotranspiration and the Water Balance, Drexel Institute of Technology, Publications in Climatology, X(3).

  • Turc, L.: 1961, ‘Evaluation des besoins en eau d'irrigation evapotranspiration potentielle’,Ann. Agron. 12, 13–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNEP: 1986,Assessment of the Present and Future Activities Related to the Zambezi Action Plan, United Nations Environment Program — Report by the UNEP Mission of Experts to the Zambezi Countries, pp. 115.

  • US National Academy of Sciences: 1977,Climate, Climatic Change and Water Supply: Overview and Recommendations, Washington, DC.

  • van der Lingen, M. I.: 1973, ‘Lake Kariba: Early History and South Shore’, in Ackermann, W. C., White, G. F. and Worthington, E. B. (eds.),Man Made Lakes: Their Problems and Environmental Effects, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 132–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Bennekom, A. J. and Salomons, W.: 1981, ‘Pathways of Nutrients and Organic Matter from Land to Oceans Through Rivers’ in United Nations,River Inputs to Ocean Systems, UNIPUB, New York, pp. 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vannote, R. L., Minshall, G. W., Cummins, K. W., Sedell, J. R. and Cushing, C. E.: 1980, ‘The River Continuum Concept’,Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37, 130–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty, C. J., Moore, B., Grace, A. L., Gildea, M. P., Melillo, J. M., Peterson, B. J., Rastetter, E. B., Steudler, P. A.: 1989, ‘Continental-Scale Models of Water Balance and Fluvial Transport: An Application to South America”,Global Biogeochem. Cycles 3, 241–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty, C. J., B. Moore, M. P. Gildea, B. Bergquist, J. M. Melillo, K. Nadelhoffer, and Peterson, B. J.: 1986, ‘A Global Model of Nutrient Cycling: II. Aquatic Processing, Retention and Distribution of Nutrients in Large Drainage Basins’, in D. Correll (ed.),Watershed Research Perspectives, Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 32–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walling, D. E.: 1984, ‘The Sediment Yields of African Rivers’, inChallenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources, IAHS Publication No. 144, Harare, Zimbabwe, pp. 265–283.

  • Walling, D. E.: 1987, ‘Hydrological Processes’ in Gregory, K. J. and Walling, D. E. (eds.),Human Activity and Environmental Processes, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, pp. 53–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, R. B.: 1980, ‘Sediment Transport and a Reservoir Siltation Formula for Zimbabwe-Rhodesia’,Die Siviele Ingenieur in Suid Afrika 9-13.

  • Ward, J. V. and Stanford, J. A.: 1983, ‘The Serial Discontinuity Concept of Lotic Ecosystems’, in Fontaine III, T. D. and Bartell, S. M. (eds.),The Dynamics of Lotic Ecosystems, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 29–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington, W. M. and Meehl, G. A.: 1984, ‘Seasonal Cycle Experiment on the Climate Sensitivity Due to a Doubling of CO2 with an Atmospheric General Circulation Model Coupled to a Simple Mixed-Layer Ocean Model’,J. Geophys. Res. 89, 9475–9503.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, E.: 1973, ‘Zambia's Kafue Hydroelectric Scheme and its Biological Problems’, in Ackermann, W. C., White, G. F. and Worthington, E. B. (eds.),Man Made Lakes: Their Problems and Environmental Effects, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 620–629.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, F.: 1983,The Vegetation of Africa, UNESCO 356 pp.

  • Whitlow, R.: 1987, ‘Man's Impact on Vegetation: The African Experience’, in Gregory, K. J. and Walling, D. E. (eds.),Human Activity and Environmental Processes, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, pp. 353–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmott, C. J.: 1982, ‘Some Comments in the Evaluation of Model Performance’,Bull. Amer. Meteor Soc. 63, 1309–1313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmott, C. J., Ackleson, S. G., Davis, R. E., Feddema, J. J., Klink, K. M., Legates, D. R., O'Donnell, J. and Rowe, C. M.: 1985, ‘Statistics for the Evaluation and Comparison of Models’,J. Geophys. Res. 90, 8995–9005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmott, C. J. and Rowe, C. M.: 1986,Terrestrial Water Budget Data Archive: Version 1.01, University of Delaware, Dept. of Geography.

  • Yair, A. and Lavee, H.: 1985, ‘Runoff Generation in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones’, in Anderson, M. G. and Burt, T. P. (eds.),Hydrological Forecasting, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., pp. 183–220.

  • Yates, M. E.: 1972, ‘Effects of Cultural Changes in Makara Experimental Basin: Hydrological and Agricultural Production Effects of Two Levels of Grazing on Unimproved and Improved Small Catchments’, inSymposium on the Results of Research on Representative and Experimental Basins, IAHS/UNESCO Publication No. 97, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 270–291.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, Science and Engineering Research Building, University of New Hampshire, 03824, Durham, NH, U.S.A.

    Charles J. Vörösmarty & Berrien Moore III

Authors
  1. Charles J. Vörösmarty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Berrien Moore III
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Vörösmarty, C.J., Moore, B. Modeling basin-scale hydrology in support of physical climate and global biogeochemical studies: An example using the Zambezi River. Surv Geophys 12, 271–311 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01903422

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01903422

Keywords

Search

Navigation