Exploration and discovery in Yellowstone Lake: results from high-resolution sonar imaging, seismic reflection profiling, and submersible studies

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Abstract

‘No portion of the American continent is perhaps so rich in wonders as the Yellow Stone’ (F.V. Hayden, September 2, 1874)

Discoveries from multi-beam sonar mapping and seismic reflection surveys of the northern, central, and West Thumb basins of Yellowstone Lake provide new insight into the extent of post-collapse volcanism and active hydrothermal processes occurring in a large lake environment above a large magma chamber. Yellowstone Lake has an irregular bottom covered with dozens of features directly related to hydrothermal, tectonic, volcanic, and sedimentary processes. Detailed bathymetric, seismic reflection, and magnetic evidence reveals that rhyolitic lava flows underlie much of Yellowstone Lake and exert fundamental control on lake bathymetry and localization of hydrothermal activity. Many previously unknown features have been identified and include over 250 hydrothermal vents, several very large (>500 m diameter) hydrothermal explosion craters, many small hydrothermal vent craters (∼1–200 m diameter), domed lacustrine sediments related to hydrothermal activity, elongate fissures cutting post-glacial sediments, siliceous hydrothermal spire structures, sublacustrine landslide deposits, submerged former shorelines, and a recently active graben. Sampling and observations with a submersible remotely operated vehicle confirm and extend our understanding of the identified features. Faults, fissures, hydrothermally inflated domal structures, hydrothermal explosion craters, and sublacustrine landslides constitute potentially significant geologic hazards. Toxic elements derived from hydrothermal processes also may significantly affect the Yellowstone ecosystem.

Introduction

Powerful geologic processes in Yellowstone National Park have contributed to the unusual shape of Yellowstone Lake, which straddles the southeast margin of the Yellowstone caldera (Fig. 1), one of the world’s largest active silicic volcanoes. Volcanic forces contributing to the lake’s form include the explosive caldera-forming 2.05-Ma eruption of the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff followed by eruption of the 0.64-Ma Lava Creek Tuff to form the Yellowstone caldera (Christiansen, 1984, Christiansen, 2001, Hildreth et al., 1984, U.S.G.S., 1972). Following explosive, pyroclastic-dominated activity, large-volume rhyolitic lava flows were emplaced along the caldera margin, infilling much of the caldera (Fig. 1A,B). A smaller caldera-forming event about 140 ka, comparable in size to Crater Lake, OR, USA, created the West Thumb basin (Christiansen, 1984, U.S.G.S., 1972). Several significant glacial advances and recessions continued to shape the lake and overlapped the volcanic events (Pierce, 1974, Pierce, 1979, Richmond, 1976, Richmond, 1977). Glacial scour deepened the central basin of the lake and the faulted South and Southeast Arms (Fig. 1B). More recent dynamic processes shaping Yellowstone Lake include currently active fault systems, development of a series of post-glacial shoreline terraces, and post-glacial (∼12–15 ka) hydrothermal explosion events, which created the Mary Bay crater complex and other craters.

Formation of hydrothermal features in Yellowstone Lake is related to convective meteoric hydrothermal fluid circulation, steam separation during fluid ascent, and possible CO2 accumulation and release above an actively degassing magma chamber. Hydrothermal explosions result from accumulation and release of steam and/or CO2, possibly reflecting changes in confining pressure that accompany and may accelerate failure and fragmentation of overlying lithologies. Sealing of surficial discharge conduits due to hydrothermal mineral precipitation contributes to over-pressuring and catastrophic failure. Heat flow maps show that both the northern and West Thumb basins of Yellowstone Lake have an extremely high heat flux (1650–15 600 mW/m3) compared to other areas in the lake (Morgan et al., 1977). Earthquake epicenter locations indicate that the area north of the lake is seismically active (Smith, 1991), and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) studies identify hydrothermally active areas within the lake (Balistrieri et al., 2003, Klump et al., 1988, Remsen, 1990, Shanks et al., 2003).

The objective of the present work is to understand the geologic processes that shape the lake floor. Our three-pronged approach to mapping the floor of Yellowstone Lake located, imaged, and sampled bottom features such as sublacustrine hot-spring vents and fluids, hydrothermal deposits, hydrothermal explosion craters, rock outcrops, slump blocks, faults, fissures, and submerged shorelines. Chemical studies of the vents indicate that ∼10% of the total deep thermal water flux in Yellowstone National Park occurs on the lake bottom. Hydrothermal fluids containing potentially toxic elements (As, Sb, Hg, Mo, W, and Tl) significantly influence lake chemistry and possibly the lake ecosystem (Balistrieri et al., 2003). ROV observations indicate that shallow hydrothermal vents are home to abundant bacteria and amphipods that form the base of the food chain. This food chain includes indigenous cutthroat trout and piscivorous exotic lake trout, as well as grizzly bears, bald eagles, and otters that feed on the potamodromous cutthroat trout during spawning in streams around the lake (Chaffee et al., 2003). Finally, our results document and identify potential geologic hazards associated with sublacustrine hydrothermal explosions, landslides, faults, and fissures in Yellowstone National Park.

Section snippets

Methods

Surveys of Yellowstone Lake between 1999 and 2001 utilized state-of-the-art bathymetric, seismic, and submersible ROV equipment. The multi-beam swath-bathymetric surveys employed a SeaBeam 1180 (180 kHz) instrument with a depth resolution of ≤1% water depth. Water depth varied from ∼4 to 133 m in the survey areas. The multi-beam instrument uses 126 beams arrayed over a 150° ensonification angle to map a swath width of 7.4 times water depth. Sub-bottom seismic reflection profiling utilized an

Topographic margin of the caldera

Geologic maps (U.S.G.S., 1972, Christiansen, 2001, Richmond, 1974) show the topographic margin of the Yellowstone caldera is below lake level in Yellowstone Lake between the western entrance to Flat Mountain Arm and north of Lake Butte (Fig. 1B). Our mapping of the central basin of Yellowstone Lake in 2001 identified the topographic margin of the 0.64-Ma Yellowstone caldera as a series of elongated troughs northeast from Frank Island across the deep basin of the lake. Based on our new data and

Do the newly discovered features in Yellowstone Lake pose potential geologic hazards?

The bathymetric, seismic, and submersible surveys of Yellowstone Lake reveal significant potential hazards exist on the lake floor. Hazards range from potential seismic activity along the western edge of the lake to hydrothermal explosions to landsliding associated with explosion and seismic events to sudden collapse of the lake floor through fragmentation of hydrothermally altered cap rocks. Any of these events could result in a sudden shift in lake level, generating large waves that could

Summary and conclusions

Mapping in Yellowstone Lake extends subaerial geologic mapping, allowing the lake basin to be understood in the geologic context of the rest of the Yellowstone region (Blank, 1974, Christiansen, 1974, Christiansen, 2001, Richmond, 1973, U.S.G.S., 1972). Rhyolitic lava flows contribute greatly to the geology and morphology of Yellowstone Lake, as they do to the subaerial morphology of the Yellowstone Plateau. We infer from our high-resolution bathymetry and aeromagnetic data that Stevenson, Dot,

Acknowledgements

We thank Kate Johnson, Ed duBray, Geoff Plumlee, Pat Leahy, Steve Bohlen, Tom Casadevall, Linda Gundersen, Denny Fenn, Elliott Spiker, Dick Jachowski, Mike Finley, John Varley, Tom Olliff, and Paul Doss for supporting this work. We thank Dan Reinhart, Lloyd Kortge, Paul Doss, Rick Fey, John Lounsbury, Ann Deutch, Jeff Alt, Julie Friedman, Brenda Beitler, Charles Ginsburg, Pam Gemery, Rick Sanzolone, Dave Hill, Bree Burdick, Eric White, Jim Bruckner, Jim Waples, Bob Evanoff, Wes Miles, Rick

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