Abstract
We employ large mineralogical data resources to investigate the diversity and spatial distribution of vanadium minerals. Data for 219 approved species (http://http://rruff.info/ima, as of April 15, 2016), representing 5437 mineral species-locality pairs (http://http://mindat.org and other sources, as of April 15, 2016), facilitate statistical evaluation and network analysis of these vanadium minerals. V minerals form a sparse, moderately centralized and transitive network, and they cluster into at least seven groups, each of which indicates distinct paragenetic process. In addition, we construct the V mineral-locality bipartite network to reveal mineral diversity at each locality. It shows that only a few V minerals occur at more than three localities, while most minerals occur at one or two localities, conforming to a Large Number of Rare Events (LNRE) distribution. We apply the LNRE model to predict that at least 307 ± 30 (1σ) vanadium minerals exist in Earth’s crust today, indicating that at least 88 species have yet to be discovered—a minimum estimate because it assumes that new minerals will be found only using the same methods as in the past. Numerous additional vanadium minerals likely await discovery using micro-analytical methods. By applying LNRE models to subsets of V minerals, we speculate that most new vanadium minerals are to be discovered in sedimentary or hydrothermal non-U-V ore deposits other than igneous or metamorphic rocks/ore deposits.
Acknowledgments
This manuscript is greatly benefited from thorough reviews from Michael Schindler and Sergey Krivovichev. We are also grateful for Fernando Colombo’s reviewing and handling the manuscript. This work was supported in part by the Deep Carbon Observatory, the Alfred P Sloan Foundation, the W.M. Keck Foundation, a private foundation, NASA, and the Carnegie Institution for Science for support of mineral evolution and ecology research.
References cited
Anthony, J.W., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W., and Nichols, M.C. (2003) Handbook of Mineralogy, volume V. Borates, Carbonates, Sulfates. Mineralogical Society of America, Chantilly, Virginia.Search in Google Scholar
Baayen, R.H. (2001) Word Frequency Distributions. Kluwer.10.1007/978-94-010-0844-0Search in Google Scholar
Barnes, J., and Hut, P. (1986) A hierarchical O(N log N) force-calculation algorithm. Nature, 324, 446–449.10.1038/324446a0Search in Google Scholar
Brugger, J., Berlepsch, P., Meisser, N., and Armbruster, T. (2003) Ansermetite, MnV2O6·4H2O, a new mineral species with V5+ in fivefold coordination from Val Ferrera, Eastern Swiss Alps. Canadian Mineralogist, 41, 1423–1431.10.2113/gscanmin.41.6.1423Search in Google Scholar
Collier, J.B., and Plimer, I.R. (2002) Supergene clinobisvanite pseudomorphs after supergene dreyerite from Lively’s Mine, Arkaroola, South Australia. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Monatshefte, 401–410.10.1127/0028-3649/2002/2002-0401Search in Google Scholar
Csardi, G., and Nepusz, T. (2006) The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal, Complex Systems, 1695, 1–9.Search in Google Scholar
Curtis, C.D. (1964) Applications of the crystal-field theory to the inclusion of trace transition elements in minerals during magmatic differentiation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 28, 389–403.10.1016/0016-7037(64)90112-7Search in Google Scholar
Downs, R.T. (2006) The RRUFF Project: an integrated study of the chemistry, crystallography, Raman and infrared spectroscopy of minerals. Program and Abstracts of the 19th General Meeting of the International Mineralogical Association in Kobe, Japan, Abstract O03-13.Search in Google Scholar
Evert, S., and Baroni, M. (2008) Statistical Models for Word Frequency Distributions, Package zipfR; version 0.6-9 (August 2017). http://zipfr.r-forge.r-project.org.Search in Google Scholar
Foord, E.E. (1996) Clinobisvanite, eulytite, and namibite from the Pala pegmatite district, San Diego Co., California, USA. Mineralogical Magazine, 60, 387–388.10.1180/minmag.1996.060.399.14Search in Google Scholar
Grew, E.S., Krivovichev, S.V., Hazen, R.M., and Hystad, G. (2016) Evolution of structural complexity in boron minerals. Canadian Mineralogist, 54, 125–143.10.3749/canmin.1500072Search in Google Scholar
Gummow, B. (2011) Vanadium: environmental pollution and health effects.Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, p. 628–636.10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00661-9Search in Google Scholar
Hawthorne, F.C., Schindler, M., Grice, J.D., and Haynes, P. (2001) Orthominasragrite, V4+O(SO4)(H2O)5, a new mineral species from Temple Mountain, Emery County, Utah, USA. Canadian Mineralogist, 39, 1325–1331.10.2113/gscanmin.39.5.1325Search in Google Scholar
Hazen, R.M., Grew, E.S., Downs, R.T., Golden, J., and Hystad, G. (2015a) Mineral ecology: Chance and necessity in the mineral diversity of planets. Canadian Mineralogist, 53, 295–324.10.3749/canmin.1400086Search in Google Scholar
Hazen, R.M., Hystad, G., Downs, R.T., Golden, J., Pires, A., and Grew, E.S. (2015b) Earth’s “missing” minerals. American Mineralogist, 100, 2344–2347.10.2138/am-2015-5417Search in Google Scholar
Hazen, R.M., Hummer, D.R., Hystad, G., Downs, R.T., and Golden, J.J. (2016a) Carbon mineral ecology: Predicting the undiscovered minerals of carbon. American Mineralogist, 101, 889–906.10.2138/am-2016-5546Search in Google Scholar
Hazen, R.M., Hystad, G., Golden, J.J., Hummer, D.R., Liu C., Downs, R.T., Morrison S.M., and Grew, E.S. (2016b) Cobalt mineral ecology. American Mineralogist, 102, 102–108.10.2138/am-2017-5798Search in Google Scholar
Huang, J.-H., Huang, F., Evans, L., and Glasauer, S. (2015) Vanadium: Global (bio)geochemistry. Chemical Geology, 417, 68–89.10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.09.019Search in Google Scholar
Hystad, G., Downs, R.T., and Hazen, R.M. (2015a) Mineral frequency distribution data conform to a LNRE model: Prediction of Earth’s “missing” minerals. Mathematical Geosciences, 47, 647–661.10.1007/s11004-015-9600-3Search in Google Scholar
Hystad, G., Downs, R.T., Grew, E.S., and Hazen, R.M. (2015b) Statistical analysis of mineral diversity and distribution: Earth’s mineralogy is unique. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 426, 154–157.10.1016/j.epsl.2015.06.028Search in Google Scholar
Hystad, G., Downs, R.T., Hazen, R.M., and Golden, J.J. (2016) Relative abundances of mineral species: A statistical measure to characterize Earth-like planets based on Earth’s mineralogy. Mathematical Geosciences, 10.1007/s11004–016-9661-y.Search in Google Scholar
Ito, J. (1965) Synthesis of vanadium silicates: Haradaite, goldmanite and roscoelite. Mineralogical Journal, 4, 299–316.10.2465/minerj1953.4.299Search in Google Scholar
Lee, C.T.A., Brandon, A.D., and Norman, M. (2003) Vanadium in peridotites as a proxy for paleo-fo2 during partial melting: prospects, limitations, and implications. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67, 3045–3064.10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00268-0Search in Google Scholar
Liu, C., Hystad, G., Golden, J.J., Hummer, D.R., Downs, R.T., Morrison, S.M., Ralph, J., and Hazen, R.M. (2017) Chromium mineral ecology. American Mineralogist, 102, 612–619.10.2138/am-2017-5900Search in Google Scholar
Kampunzu, A.B., Cailteux, J.L.H., Kamona, A.F., Intiomale, M.M., and Melcher, F. (2009) Sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Cu deposits in the Central African Copperbelt. Ore Geology Reviews, 35, 263–297.10.1016/j.oregeorev.2009.02.003Search in Google Scholar
Koljonen, T., Ed. (1992) The Geochemical Atlas of Finland, part 2—Till. Geological Survey of Finland, 218 pp.Search in Google Scholar
Mielke, J.E. (1979) Composition of the Earth’s crust and distribution of the elements. Review of research on modern problems in Geochemistry. UNESCO Report, Paris, p. 13–37.Search in Google Scholar
Morrison, S.M., Liu, C., Eleish, A., Prabhu, A., Li, C., Ralph, J., Downs, R.T., Golden, J.J., Fox, P., and Hazen, R.M. (2017) Network analysis of mineralogical systems. American Mineralogist, 102, 1588–1596.10.2138/am-2017-6104CCBYNCNDSearch in Google Scholar
Mukherjee, B., Patra, B., Mahapatra, S., Banerjee, P., Tiwari, A., and Chatterjee, M. (2004) Vanadium—an element of atypical biological significance. Toxicology Letters, 150, 135–143.10.1016/j.toxlet.2004.01.009Search in Google Scholar PubMed
National Research Council (2008) Minerals, Vitical Minerals, and the U.S. Economy. Natrional Research Council of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.Search in Google Scholar
Nelson, R. (1939) Colusite-its occurrence, paragenesis and genetic significance. American Mineralogist, 24, 369–376.Search in Google Scholar
Newman, M.E.J. (2013) Networks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, New York.Search in Google Scholar
Orcutt, M. (2011) Material world. Technology Review, [July/August 2011], 24–25.Search in Google Scholar
Pons, P., and Latapy, M. (2005) Computing communities in large networks using random walks. In P. Yolum, T. Güngör, F. Gürgen, and C. Özturan, Eds., Computer and Information Sciences—ISCIS 2005. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 3733. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/11569596_3110.1007/11569596_31Search in Google Scholar
Rehder, D. (2008) Is vanadium a more versatile target in the activity of primordial life forms than hitherto anticipated? Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, 6, 957–964.10.1039/b717565pSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
Righter, K., Sutton, S.R., Danielson, L., Pando, K., and Newville, M. (2016) Redox variations in the inner solar system with new constraints from vanadium XANES in spinels. American Mineralogist, 101, 1928–1942.10.2138/am-2016-5638Search in Google Scholar
Rudnick, R.L., and Fountain, D.M. (1995) Nature and composition of the continental crust: a lower crustal perspective. Reviews of Geophysics, 33, 267–309.10.1029/95RG01302Search in Google Scholar
Rudnick, R.L., and Gao, S. (2005) Composition of the continental crust. In R.L. Rudnick, Ed., The Vust, 3, p. 1–64. Treatise on Geochemistry, Elsevier-Pergamon.10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4Search in Google Scholar
Schindler, M., and Hawthorne, F.C. (1999) Schubnelite, [Fe3+(V5+O4)(H2O)], a novel heteropolyhedral framework mineral. American Mineralogist, 84, 665–668.10.2138/am-1999-0419Search in Google Scholar
Schindler, M., Hawthorne, F.C., and Baur, W.H. (2000) Crystal chemical aspects of vanadium: Polyhedral geometries, characteristic bond valences, and polymerization of (VOn) polyhedra. Chemistry of Materials, 12, 1248–1259.10.1021/cm990490ySearch in Google Scholar
Schindler, M., Hawthorne, F.C., Huminicki, D.M., Haynes, P., Grice, J.D., and Evans, H.T. (2003) Bobjonesite, V4+O(SO4)(H2O)3, a new mineral species from Temple Mountain, Emery County, Utah, USA. Canadian Mineralogist, 41, 83–90.10.2113/gscanmin.41.1.83Search in Google Scholar
Verlet, L. (1967) Computer “experiments” on classical fluids. I. Thermodynamical properties of Lennard-Jones molecules. Physical Review, 159, 98–103.10.1103/PhysRev.159.98Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston