Abstract
Atmospheric chemical models are used to estimate the deposition rate of various inorganic oxides of nitrogen (NOy), reduced nitrogen species (NHx) and mineral dust to the North Atlantic Ocean (NAO). The estimated deposition of NOy to the NAO (excluding the coastal ocean) and the Caribbean is 360 × 109 Moles-N m−2 yr−1 (5.0 Tg N); this is equivalent to about 13% of the estimated global emission rate (natural and anthropogenic) and a quarter of the emission rate from sources in North America and Europe. In the case of NHx, 258 Moles-N m−2 yr−1 (3.6 Tg N) are deposited to the NAO and the Caribbean; this is about 6% of the global continental emissions. There is relatively little data on the deposition rate of organic nitrogen species; nonetheless, this evidence suggests that concentrations and deposition rates are comparable to those for inorganic nitrogen.
Because of anthropogenic emissions, the present-day deposition rate of NOy to the NAO is about five times greater than pre-industrial times largely due to emissions from energy production and biomass burning. The present-day emissions of NHx from continental anthropogenic sources are about four-to-five times greater than natural sources, mostly due to the impact of emissions from animal wastes associated with food production. Indeed, present-day emissions of NHx from animal waste are estimated to be about 10 times greater than the pre-human era. The deposition rate of mineral dust to the NAO is about 170 Tg yr−1; deposited with the dust (assuming average crustal abundances) is about 6 Tg yr−1 of Fe and 0.2 Tg yr−1 of P. Dust deposition in the NAO is almost completely attributable to transport from North African sources; a substantial fraction of the dust over the NAO is probably mobilized as a consequence of land use practices in arid regions and, consequently, it should be regarded as a pollutant.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- AEROCE:
-
Atmosphere/Ocean Chemistry Experiment
- AOT:
-
aerosol optical thickness
- EMEP:
-
Cooperative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of Long Range; -Transmission of Air Pollution in Europe
- GESAMP:
-
A model used by the Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
- GCM:
-
General Circulation Model
- GCTM:
-
Global Chemical Transport Model
- GFDL:
-
Geophysical Fluid Dynamic Laboratory
- MOGUNTIA:
-
Model of the Global Universal Tracer Transport in the Atmosphere
- MSC:
-
Meteorological Synthesizing Centre
- NAB:
-
North Atlantic Basin
- NAO:
-
North Atlantic Ocean
- NAS:
-
National Academy of Sciences
References
Andreae MO (1995) Climatic effects of changing atmospheric aerosol levels. In: Henderson-Sellers A (Ed) World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 16, Future Climates of the World (pp 341–392). Elsevier, Amsterdam
Arimoto R, Duce RA & Ray BJ (1989) Concentrations, sources, and air/sea exchange of trace elements in the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean. In: Riley JP, Chester R & Duce RA (Eds) Chemical Oceanography, Vol. 10, SEAREX. (pp. 107–149). Academic Press, London
Arimoto R, Ray BJ, Duce RA, Hewitt AD, Boldi R & Hudson A (1990) Concentrations, sources, and fluxes of trace elements in the remote marine atmosphere of New Zealand. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 22,389–22,405
Arimoto R, Duce RA, Savoie DL & Prospero JM (1992) Trace elements in aerosol particles from Bermuda and Barbados: Concentrations, sources, and relationships to aerosol sulfate. J. Atmos. Chem. 14: 439–457
Barrie LA & Bottenheim JW (1991) Sulphur and nitrogen pollution in the Arctic atmosphere. In: WT Sturges (Eds) Pollution of the Arctic Atmosphere (pp 2505–2512). Elsevier, London and New York
Benkovitz CM, Dignon J, Scholtz T, Pacyna J, Tarrason L, Dignon J, Voldner EC, Spiro PA, Logan JA & Graedel TE (1995) Global gridded inventories of anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen. J. Geophys. Res. (submitted)
Bergametti G, Dutot A-L, Buat-Menard P, Losno R & Remoudaki E (1989a) Seasonal variability of the elemental composition of atmospheric aerosol particles over the northwestern Mediterranean. Tellus 41 (B): 353–361
Bergametti G, Gomes L, Coude-Gaussen G, Rognon P & Le Coustumer M (1989b) African dust observed over Canary Islands: Source-regions identification and transport pattern for some summer situations. J. Geophys. Res. 94: 14,855–14,864
Bergametti G, Remoudaki E, Losno R, Steiner E & Chatenet B (1992) Source, transport and deposition of atmospheric phosphorus over the northwestern Mediterranean. J. Atmos. Chem. 14: 501–513
Betzer PR, Carder KL, Duce RA, Merrill JT, Tindale NW, Uematsu M, Castello DK, Young RW, Feeley RA, Breland JA, Bernstein RE & Greco AM (1988) A pulse of Asian dust to the central North Pacific: Long range transport of giant mineral aerosol particles. Nature 336: 568–570
Buijsman E, Jonker PJ, Asman WAH & Ridder TB (1991) Chemical composition of precipitation collected on a weathership in the North Atlantic. Atmos. Environ. 25A (5/6): 873–883
Cornell S, Rendell A & Jickells T (1995) Atmospheric inputs of organic nitrogen to the oceans. Nature 376: 243–246
d'Almeida GA (1986) A model for Saharan dust transport. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol. 25: 903–916
d'Almeida GA & Schütz L (1983) Number, mass and volume distributions of mineral aerosols and soils of the Sahara. J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol. 22: 233–243
Delaney AC & Zenchelsky ST (1976) The organic component of wind-erosion-generated soil-derived aerosol. Soil Sci. 121: 146–155
DeMore WB, Sander SP, Golden DM, Hampson RF, Kurylo MJ, Howard CJ, Ravishankara AR, Kolb CE & Molina MJ (1994) Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in stratospheric modeling, JPL/NASA: Evaluation number 11
Dentener FJ & Crutzen PJ (1994) A three dimensional model of the global ammonia cycle. J. Atmos. Chem. 19: 331–369
DiTullio GR, Hutchins DA & Bruland KW (1993) Interaction of iron and major nutrients controls phytoplankton growth and species composition in the tropical North Pacific Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 38: 495–508
Donaghay PL, Liss PS, Duce RA, Kester DR, Hanson AK, Villareal T, Tindale NW & Gifford DJ (1991) The role of episodic atmospheric nutrient inputs in the chemical and biological dynamics of oceanic ecosystems. Oceanography 4: 62–70
Duce RA, Mohnen VA, Zimmerman PR, Grosjean D, Cautreels W, Chatfield R, Jaenicke R, Ogren JA, Pellizzari ED & Wallace GT (1983) Organic material in the global troposphere. Rev. Geophys. & Space Phys. 21: 921–952
Duce RA (1986) The impact of atmospheric nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron species on marine biological productivity. In: Buat-Menard P (Ed) The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling (pp 497–528). Reidel, Dordrecht
Duce RA & Tindale NW (1991) Atmospheric transport of iron and its deposition in the ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: 1715–1726
Duce RA Liss PS Merrill JT Atlas EL Buat-Menard P Hicks BB Miller JM Prospero, JM Arimoto R, Church T, Ellis M, Galloway JN, Hanson L, Jickells TD, Knap AH, Reinhardt KH, Schneider B, Soudine A, Tokos JJ, Tsunogai S, Wollast R & Zhou M (1991) The atmospheric input of trace species to the world ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 5: 193–259
Duce RA (1995) Sources, distributions, and fluxes of mineral aerosols and their relationship to climate. In: Charlson RJ & Heintzenberg J (Eds) Dahlem Workshop on Aerosol Forcing of Climate (pp 43–72). Berlin
Eppley RW (1980) Estimating phytoplankton growth rates in the central oligotrophic oceans. In: Falkowski PG (Ed) Primary Productivity in the Sea (pp 231–242). Plenum, New York
Fanning KA (1989) Influence of atmospheric pollution on nutrient limitation in the ocean. Nature 339: 460–463
Galloway JN, Knap AH & Church TM (1983) The composition of western Atlantic precipitation using shipboard collectors. J. Geophys. Res. 88: 10,589–10,865
Galloway JN (1985) The deposition of sulfur and nitrogen from the remote atmosphere, background paper. In: Reidel D (Ed) The Biogeochemical Cycling of Sulfur and Nitrogen in the Remote Atmosphere (pp 141–175). Norwell, Mass
Galloway JN & Whelpdale DM (1987) WATOX-86 overview and western North Atlantic Ocean S and N atmospheric budgets. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 1: 261–281
Galloway JN, Keene WC, Artz RS, Miller JM, Church TM & Knap AH (1989) Processes controlling the concentrations of SO4=, NO −4 , NH +4 , H+, HCOOT, and CH3COOT in precipitation on Bermuda. Tellus 41B: 427–433
Galloway JN, Savoie DL, Keene WC & Prospero JM (1993) The temporal and spatial variability of scavenging ratios for nss sulfate, nitrate, methanesulfonate and sodium in the atmosphere over the North Atlantic Ocean. Atmos. Environ. 27A: 235–250
Galloway JN, Levy H & Kasibhatia PS (1994) Year 2020: Consequences of population growth and development on deposition of oxidized nitrogen. Ambio 23: 120–123
Galloway JN, Schlesinger WH, Levy II H, Michaels A & Schnoor JL (1995) Nitrogen fixation: Anthropogenic enhancement-environmental response. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 9 (2): 235–252
Galloway JN (1996). Acid deposition in marine regions. In: DM Whelpdale & Kaiser MS (Eds) Acid Deposition Assessment Report, WMO/UNEP, Geneva (in press)
Galloway JN, Zhao D, Thomson VE & Chang LH (1996) Nitrogen mobilization in the United States of America and the Peoples Republic of China. Atmos. Environ. (in press)
Glantz MH (1994) The West African Sahel. In: Glantz MH (Ed) Drought Follows the Plow (pp 33–43) Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge
Golitsyn G & Gillette DA (1993) Introduction: a joint Soviet-American experiment for the study of Asian desert dust and its impact on local meteorological conditions and climate. Atmos. Environ. 27A: 2467–2470
Gorzelska K & Galloway JN (1990) Amine nitrogen in the atmospheric environment over the North Atlantic Ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 4: 309–333
Gorzelska K, Scudlark J & Keene W (1996) Dissolved organic nitrogen in the atmospheric environment. In: Ecological Risk: Science, Policy, Law, and Perception, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Denver (in press)
Goudie AS & Middleton NJ (1992) The changing frequency of dust storms through time. Climatic Change 20: 197–225
Graham WF & Duce RA (1979) Atmospheric pathways of the phosphorus cycle. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta 43: 1195–1208
Graham WF & Duce RA (1982) The atmospheric transport of phosphorus to the western North Atlantic. Atmos. Environ. 16: 1089–1097
Hameed S & Dignon J (1988) Changes in the geographical distributions of global emissions of NOx and SOx from fossil fuel combustion between 1966 and 1980. Atmos. Environ. 22: 441–449
Hameed S & Dignon J (1992) Global emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in fossil fuel combustion 1970–1986. J. Air Waste Management Assoc. 42: 159–163
Hanseen JE, Pederson U, Schaug J, Dovland H, Pacnya JM, Semb A & Skjalmsen JE (1990) Summary report Chemical Coordinating Centre for the Fourth Phase of European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP), EMEP Cooperative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the long range transmission of air pollutants in Europe. Meteorol. Syn. Cent.-West. Norw. Meteorol. Inst., Oslo
Hansson ME (1994) The Renland ice core. A northern hemisphere record of aerosol composition over 120,000 years. Tellus 46B: 390–418
Hardy JT & Crecilius EA (1981) Is atmospheric particulate matter inhibiting marine primary productivity? Environ. Sci. Technol. 15: 1103–1105
Hasse L (1983) Introductory meteorology and fluid dynamics. In: Liss PS & Slinn WGN (Eds) Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles (pp 1–52). Reidel, Dordrecht
Howarth RW, Billen G, Swaney D, Townsend A, Jaworski N, Lajtha K, Downing JA, Elmgren R, Caraco N, Jordan T, Berendse F, Freney J, Kudeyarov V, Murdoch P & Zhu Z-L (1996) Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N & P fluxes for the drainages to the North Altantic Ocean: natural and human influences (this volume)
Ignatov AM, Stowe LL, Sakerin SM & Korotaev GK (1995) Validation of the NOAA/NESDIS satellite aerosol product over the North Atlantic in 1989. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 5123–5132
Jahnke RA (1992) The Phosphorous Cycle. In: Global Biogeochemical Cycles (pp 301–315). Academic Press
Jickells TD, Knap AH, Sheriff-Dow R & Galloway J (1990) No ecosystem shift. Nature 347: 25–26
Jickells T (1995) Atmospheric inputs of metals and nutrients to the oceans: their magnitude and effects. Mar. Chem. 48: 199–214
Jordan TE, Correll DL, Weller DE & Goff NM (1995) Temporal variation in precipitation chemistry on the shore of Chesapeake Bay. Water, Air, Soil Poll. 83: 263–284
Joussaume S (1990) Three-dimensional simulations of the atmospheric cycle of desert dust particles using a general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 1909–1941
Knap A, Jickells T Pszenny A & Galloway J (1986) Significance of atmospheric-derived fixed nitrogen on productivity of the Sargasso Sea. Nature 320: 158–159
Knap AH (1990) The Long-Range Atmospheric Transport of Natural and Contaminant Substances, Kluwer, Dordrecht
Kasibhatla PS, Levy II H & Moxim WJ (1993) Global NOx, HNO3, PAN, and NOy distributions from fossil fuel combustion emissions: A model study. J. Geophys. Res. 98: 7165–7180
Lacaux JP, Delmas R, Kouadio G, Cros B & Andreae MO (1992) Precipitation chemistry in the Mayombe Forest of Equatorial Africa. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 6195–6206
Laj P, Palais J & Sigurdsson H (1992) Changing sources of impurities to the Greenland ice sheet over the last 250 years. Atmos. Environ. 26A: 2627–2640
Lawrence MG, Chameides WL, Kasibhatla PS, Levy II H & Moxim WJ (1995) Lightning and atmospheric chemistry: The rate of atmospheric NO production In: Volland H (Ed) Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, Vol 1 (pp 189–202). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl
Legrand M, De Angelis M, Staffelback T Neftel A & Stauffer B (1992) Large perturbations of ammonium and organic acids content in the Summit-Greenland ice core: Fingerprint form forest fires?. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19: 473–475
Legrand M (1995) Atmospheric chemistry changes versus past climate inferred from polar ice cores. In: Charlson RJ & Heintzenberg J (Eds) Dahlem Workshop on Aerosol Forcing of Climate (pp 123–152). Berlin
Lepple FK (1975) Eolian dust over the North Atlantic Ocean. Ph.D. thesis, University of Delaware
Lepple FK & Brine CJ (1976) Organic constitutents in eolian dust and surface sediments from Northwest Africa. J. Geophys. Res. 81: 1141–1147
Levitus S, Conkright ME, Reid JL, Najjar RG & Mantyla A (1993) Distribution of nitrate, phosphate and silicate in the world oceans. Prog. Oceanogr. 31: 245–273
Levy II H, Mahlman JD & Moxim WJ (1982) Tropospheric N2O variability. J. Geophys. Res. 87: 3061–3080
Levy II H (1989) Simulated Global Deposition of Reactive Nitrogen Emitted by Fossil Fuel Combustion, In: Proceedings of IAHS Third Scientific Assembly, Symposium I, Atmospheric Deposition (pp 3–9). Baltimore, MD
Levy H & Moxim WJ (1989) Simulated global distribution and deposition of reactive nitrogen emitted by fossil fuel consumption. Tellus 41B: 256–271
Levy II H, Moxim WJ, Kasibhatla PS & Logan JA (1991) The global impact of biomass burning on tropospheric reactive nitrogen. In: Levine JS (Ed) Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications (pp 363–359). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
Levy II H, Moxim WJ & Kasibhatla PS (1995) A global 3-dimensional time-dependent lightning source of tropospheric NOx. J. Geophys. Res. (submitted)
Littmann T (1991) Dust storm frequency in Asia: climatic control and variability. Int. J. of Climatology 11: 393–412
Logan JA (1983) Nitrogen oxides in the troposphere: global and regional budgets. J. Geophys. Res. 88: 10,785–10,807
Mahlman JD & Moxim WJ (1978) Tracer simulation using a global general circulation model: Results from a midlatitude instantaneous source experiment. J. Atmos. Sci. 35: 1340–1374
Martin JH & Fitzwater SE (1988) Iron deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic. Nature 331: 341–343
Mayewski PA, Lyons WB, Spencer MJ, Twickler MS, Buck CF & Whitlow S (1990) An ice-core record of atmospheric response to anthropogenic sulphate and nitrate. Nature 346: 554–556
McCarthy JJ & Carpenter EJ (1983) Nitrogen cycling in near-surface waters of the open ocean. In: Carpenter EJ & Capone DG (Eds) Nitrogen in the Marine Environment (pp 487–512). Academic Press, New York
Merrill JT (1986) Atmospheric pathways to the oceans. In: Buat-Menard P (Ed) The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling (pp 35–63). Reidel D, Norwood, MA
Merrill JT (1989) Atmospheric long-range transport to the Pacific Ocean. In: Riley JP Chester R & Duce RA (Eds) Chemical Oceanography, Vol. 10, SEAREX (pp 15–50). Academic Press, London
Michaels AF Siegel DA, Johnson RJ, Knap AH & Galloway JN (1993) Episodic inputs of atmospheric nitrogen to the Sargasso Sea: Contributions to new production and phytoplankton blooms. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 7: 339–351
Middleton NJ (1990) Wind erosion and dust-storm contro. In: Goudie AS (Ed) Techniques for Desert Reclamation (pp 87–108). John Wiley & Sons, New York
Miller CB, Frost BW, Booth B, Wheeler PA, Landry MR & Welschmeyer N (1991) Ecological processes in the subarctic Pacific: Iron limitation cannot be the whole story. Oceanography 4: 71–78
Moody JL & Galloway IN (1988) Quantifying the influence of atmospheric transport on the composition of precipitation on Bermuda. Tellus 40: 463–479
Moore RM, Milley JE & Chatt A (1984) The potential for biological mobilization of trace elements from aeolian dust in the ocean and its importance in the case of iron. Oceanol. Acta. 7: 221–228
Mopper K & Zika RG (1987) Free amino acids in marine rain: Evidence for oxidation and potential role in nitrogen cycling. Nature 325: 246–249
Morel FMM, Reuter JG & Price NM (1991) Iron nutrition of phytoplankton and its possible importance in the ecology of ocean regions with high nutrient and low biomass. Oceanography 4: 56–61
Mosher BW Winkler P & Jaffrezo J-L (1993) Seadonal aerosol chemistry at Dye 3, Greenland. Atmos. Environ. 27A: 2761–2772
NAS (1978) The Tropospheric Transport of Pollutants and Other Substances to the Oceans (p 243). National Academy of Sciences Press, Washington, DC
Nixon SW, Ammerman J, Atkinson L, Berounsky V, Billen G, Boicourt W Boynton W, Church T, DiToro D, Elmgren R, Garber J, Giblin A, Jahnke R, Owens N, Pilson MEQ & Seitzinger S (1996) The fate of nitrogen and phosphorus at the land-sea margin of the North Atlantic Ocean. (this volume)
OECD (1977) The OECD Programme on Long Range Transport of Air Pollutants: Measurements and Findings, Paris
Oort AH (1983) Global atmospheric circulation statistics, 1958–1973, NOAA professional paper, 14, US Government printing office, Washington DC
Owens NJP, Galloway JN & Duce RA (1992) Episodic atmospheric nitrogen deposition to the oligotrophic oceans. Nature 357: 397–399
Pacyna JM, Larssen S & Semb A (1989) European Survey for NOx Emissions, 1985. Norsk Institutt for Luftforskning NILU OR 26/89 0-8668. Lillestrom, Norway.
Paerl HW (1985) Enhancement of marine primary productivity by nitrogen enriched acid rain. Nature 315: 747–749
Pfirman S, Wollenburg, I Theide J & Lange MA (1989) Lithogenic sediment on Arctic pack ice: potential aeolian flux and contribution to deep sea sediment. In: Leinen M & Sarnthein M (Eds) Paleoclimatology and Paleometeorology: Modern and Past Patterns of Global Atmospheric Transport (pp 463–493). Kluwer Academic Publ., Boston
Prospero JM (1981) Aeolian transport to the world ocean. In: Emiliani C (Ed) The Sea, Vol. 7 The Oceanic Lithosphere (pp 801–874). Wiley Interscience, New York
Prospero JM & Nees RT (1986) Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade wind. Nature 320: 735–738
Prospero JM, Glaccum RA & Nees RT (1986) Atmospheric transport of soil dust from Africa to South America. Nature 289: 570–572
Prospero JM, Nees RT & Uematsu M (1987) Deposition rate of particulate and dissolved aluminum derived from Saharan dust in precipitation at Miami, Florida. J. Geophys. Res. 92: 14,723–14,731
Prospero JM, Uematsu M & Savoie DL (1989) Mineral aerosol transport to the Pacific Ocean. In: Riley JP, Chester R & Duce RA (Eds) Chemical Oceanography, 10 (pp 187–218). Academic Press, London
Prospero JM (1990) Mineral aerosol transport to the North Atlantic and North Pacific: the impact of African and Asian sources. In: Knap AH (Ed) The Long-Range Atmospheric Transport of Natural and Contaminant Substances (pp 59–86). Kluwer, Dordrecht
Prospero JM (1996) The atmospheric transport of particles to the Ocean. In: Ittekkott V, Honjo S, Schäfer P & Depetris PJ (Eds) Particle Flux in the Ocean (pp 19–52). 1996 SCOPE Report 57. John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Prospero JM, Barrett K, Dentener F, Galloway JN, Levy II H & Moody J (1995) Models Used to Estimate Atmospheric Transport and Deposition to the North Atlantic Basin. Unpublished workshop manuscript
Pye K (1987) Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits (p 334). Academic Press, London
Quinn PK, Charlson RJ & Bates TS (1988) Simultaneous observations of ammonia in the atmosphere and ocean. Nature 335: 336–338
Quinn PK, Bates TS, Johnson JE, Covert DS & Charlson RJ (1990) Interactions between the sulfur and reduced nitrogen cycles over the central Pacific Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 16,405–16,416
Quinn PK, Asher WE & Charlson RJ (1992) Equilibria of the marine multiphase ammonia system. J. Atm. Chem. 14: 11–30
Quinn PK, Barrett KJ, Dentener FJ, Lipschultz F & Kurtz KD (1996) Estimation of the air/sea exchange of ammonia for the North Atlantic Basin. (this volume)
Rao CRN, Stowe LL & McClain EP (1989) Remote-Sensing of Aerosols over the Oceans Using AVHRR Data: Theory, Practice, and Applications. Int. J. Remote Sens. 10: 743–749
Rendell AR, Ottley CJ, Jickells TD & Harrison RM (1993) The atmospheric input of nitrogen species to the North Sea. Tellus 45B: 53–63
Riley JP, Chester R & Duce RA (1989) Chemical Oceanography, SEAREX, 10: 404. Academic Press, London
Risbo T, Claussen HB & Rasmussen KL (1981) Supernovae and nitrate in the Greenland ice sheet. Nature 294: 637–639
Rodhe H (1985) The transport of sulfur and nitrogen through the remote atmosphere. In: Galloway JN, Charlson RJ, Andreae MO & Rodhe H (Eds) The Biogeochemical Cycling of Sulfur and Nitrogen in the Remote Atmosphere (pp 105–124). Reidel, Dordrecht
Sandnes H (1993) Calculated budgets for airborne acidifying components in Europe, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992. EMEP/MSC-W Report 1/93. Det Norske Meteorologiske Institutt Technical Report 109
Savoie DL, Prospero JM, Oltmans SJ, Graustein WC, Turekian KK Merrill JT & Levy II H. (1992) Sources of nitrate and ozone in the marine boundary layer of the tropical North Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 11,575–11,589
Schlesinger WH & Hartley AE (1992) A global budget for atmospheric NH3. Biogeochem. 15: 191–211
Schütz L, Jaenicke R & Pietrek H (1981) Saharan dust transport over the North Atlantic Ocean. Geol. Soc. Am. Special Paper 186: 87–100
Schütz LW, Prospero JM, Buat-Menard P, Carvalho RAC, Cruzado A, Harass R, Heidam NZ & Jaenicke R (1990) The long-range transport of mineral aerosols: Group report In: Knap AH (Ed) The Large-Scale Atmospheric Transport of Natural and Contaminant Substances, Chapter 10 (pp 197–229). Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Holland
Spokes LJ, Jickells TD & Lim B (1994) Solubilisation of aerosol metals by cloud processing: A laboratory study. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta 58 (15): 3281–3287
Stedman DH & Shetter R (1983) The global budget of atmopsheric nitrogen species. In: Schwartz SS ew York
Swap R, Garstang M, Graco S, Talbot R & Kallberg P (1992) Sahara dust in the Amazon basin. Tellus 44B: 133–149
Talbot RW, Harriss RC, Browell V, Gregory GL, Sebacher DI & Beck SM (1986) Distribution and geochemistry of aerosols in the tropical North Atlantic troposphere: Relationship to Saharan dust. J. Geophys. Res. 91: 5173–5182
Taylor SR & McLennan SM (1985) The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution (pp 312). Blackwells, Oxford, England
Tegen I & Fung I (1994) Modeling of mineral dust in the atmosphere: Sources, transport, and optical thickness. J. Geophys. Res. 99: 22,897–22,914
Tegen I & Fung I (1995) Contribution to the atmospheric mineral aerosol load from land surface modification. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 18,707–18,726
Tuovinen J-P, Barrett K & Styve H (1994) Transboundary Acid Pollution in Europe: calculated fields and budgets 1985–1993. EMEP/MSC-W Report 1/94. Det Norske Meteorologiske Institutt Technical Report. Oslo
Uematsu M, Duce RA & Prospero JM (1985) Deposition of atmospheric mineral particles to the North Pacific. J. Atmos. Chem. 3: 123–138
Wagenbach D, Munnich KO, Schotterer U & Oeschger H (1988) The anthropogenic impact on snow chemistry at Colle Gnifetti, Swiss Alps. Annal. Glaciol. 10: 183–187
Warneck P (1988) Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere (pp 757). Academic Press, San Diego
Whelpdale DM & Moody JL (1990) Large-scale meteorological regimes and transport process In: Knap AH & Marston MS (Eds) The Large-Scale Atmospheric Transport of Natural and Contaminant Substances (pp 3–36). D. Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland
Whelpdale DM & Galloway JN (1994) Sulfur and reactive nitrogen oxide fluxes in the North Atlantic atmosphere. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 8: 481–493
Whelpdale DM & Kaiser MS (1996) Acid Deposition Assessment Report. WMO/UNEP, Geneva
Whitlow S, Mayewski PA & Dibb JE (1992) A comparison of major chemical species input timing and accumulation at South Pole and Summit, Greenland. Atmos. Environ. 26: 2045–2054
Willey JD & Paerl HW (1993) Enhancement of chlorophyll a production in Gulf Stream surface seawater by synthetic versus natural rain. Marine Biology 116: 329–334
Williams PM (1967) Sea surface chemistry: Organic carbon and organic and inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus in surface films and subsurface waters. Deep Sea Res. 14: 791–800
Yienger JJ & Levy II H (1995) Global inventory of soil-biogenic NOx emissions, J. Geophys. Res. 100: 11,447–11,464
Young RW, Carder KL, Betzer PR, Costello DK, Duce RA, DiTullio GR, Tindale NW, Laws EA, Uematsu M, Merrill JT & Feely RA (1991) Atmospheric iron inputs and primary productivity: Phytoplankton responses in the North Pacific. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 5: 119–134
Zhu XR, Prospero JM, Millero FJ, Savoie DL & Brass GW (1992) The solubility of ferric ion in marine mineral aerosol solutions at ambient relative humidities. Mar. Chem., 38: 91–107
Zhu X, Prospero JM, Savoie DL, Millero FJ, Zika RG & Saltzman ES (1993) Photoreduction of Fe(III) in marine mineral aerosol solutions. J. Geophys. Res. 98: 9039–9046
Zhuang GS, Duce RA & Kester DR (1990) The solubility of atmospheric iron in surface seawater of the open ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 16,207–16,216
Zhuang G, Yi Z, Duce RA & Brown PR (1992) Chemistry of iron in marine aerosols. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 6: 161–173
Zimmermann PH (1988) Moguntia: A handy global tracer model. In: van Dop H (Ed) Air Pollution Modeling and its Applications VI. Plenum, New York
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Prospero, J.M., Barrett, K., Church, T. et al. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients to the North Atlantic Basin. Biogeochemistry 35, 27–73 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02179824
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02179824