The objective of this study was to investigate the modification of glass surfaces by the synergistic combination of cold plasma and chemical surface modification techniques. Glass surface hydrophobicity was obtained as a result of various plasma and deposition operational conditions. The mechanisms governing the hydrophobization process were also studied. Glass plates were activated with plasma using different gases (oxygen and argon) at different treatment times, ranging from 30 to 1800 s. Then, the plasma-treated surfaces were exposed to hexamethyldisilazane vapors at different temperatures, i.e., 25, 60, and 100 °C. Complete characterization, including contact angle measurements, surface free energy calculations, 3D profilometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, was accomplished. It was found that the extent of the hydrophobicity effect depends on both the plasma pre-treatment and the specific conditions of the hexamethyldisilazane deposition process. Plasma activation led to the formation of active sites on the glass surface, which promoted the adsorption and reaction of hexamethyldisilazane species, thereby inducing surface chemical modification. Longer plasma pre-treatment resulted in stronger modification on the glass surface, resulting in changes in the surface roughness. The largest water contact angle of ≈100° was obtained for the surface activated by argon plasma for 1800 s and exposed to hexamethyldisilazane vapors at 25 °C. The changes in the surface properties were caused by the introduction of the hydrophobic trimethylsilyl groups onto the glass surface as well as roughness development. Full article

Background: This article analyzes differences in microbiological parameters and periodontal health conditions among three patient groups: those undergoing conventional orthodontic treatment with fixed appliances, patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with clear aligners, and a control group receiving no treatment. Materials and Methods: In this study, 60 patients were enrolled. The microbiological analysis employed a qualitative and semi-quantitative methodology of bacterial morphotype analysis. Results: The analyses revealed a significant difference in favor of clear oral and periodontal health aligners. This could be attributed to better bacterial biofilm removal and reduced mechanical stress on the periodontal ligament, factors facilitated by the ease of clear aligner removal. Significant differences (p-value < 0.05) were observed for the Full-Mouth Plaque Score, Full-Mouth Bleeding Score, Plaque Index, and periodontal health assessment measurements. Conclusions: Although overall hygiene appears to be improved in patients in the aligners group compared to those treated with conventional orthodontic appliances, there are no statistically significant results regarding plaque composition. Microbiological aspects will be further addressed using more specific techniques in the follow-up of this research. Full article

With a growing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, innovative carbon dioxide sorbents are being sought. One of the sorbents being tested is nanoparticle ferric hydrosol (FFH). In parallel with sorbent testing, it is also necessary to test the used sorbent after carbon dioxide capture (FFHCO2) and to develop an optimal method for its processing and management. The research described in this article evaluated the potential use of FFHCO2 in dewatering, coagulation and bioleaching processes. The research results indicate that the basic strategy for dealing with waste FFHCO2 sorbent should be to minimize the amount of waste by volume reduction—dewatering. Recycling of FFHCO2 as an iron waste coagulant or its processing products by bioleaching had no technological justification. It is only proposed to recover the material—iron compounds—if it is environmentally and economically justified. Full article

A numerical method for generating dynamic stall using ANSYS Fluent and a user-defined function (UDF), with the complete script shared for reference, is introduced and tested. The study draws inspiration from bird flight, exploring dynamic stall as a method for achieving enhanced aerodynamic performance. The numerical method was tested on NACA 0012 airfoils with corresponding chord lengths of $c_1=40\mathrm{m}\mathrm{m}$, $c_2=150\mathrm{m}\mathrm{m}$, and $c_3=300\mathrm{m}\mathrm{m}$ at Reynolds numbers ranging from ${Re}_1=2.8\times {10}^4$ up to ${Re}_5=1.04\times {10}^6$. Airfoil oscillations were settled for all cases at $\omega =0.55\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}$. Detached eddy simulation (DES) is employed as the turbulence model for the simulations presented, ensuring the accurate representation of the flow characteristics and dynamic stall phenomena. The study provides a detailed methodology, encouraging further exploration by researchers, especially young academics and students. Full article

Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have suggested compensatory brain overactivation in cognitively healthy (CH) older adults with pathological beta-amyloid(Aβ₄₂)/tau ratios during working memory and interference processing. However, the association between glutamatergic metabolites and brain activation proxied by EEG signals has not been thoroughly investigated. We aim to determine the involvement of these metabolites in EEG signaling. We focused on CH older adults classified under (1) normal CSF Aβ₄₂/tau ratios (CH-NATs) and (2) pathological Aβ₄₂/tau ratios (CH-PATs). We measured plasma glutamine, glutamate, pyroglutamate, and γ-aminobutyric acid concentrations using tandem mass spectrometry and conducted a correlational analysis with alpha frequency event-related desynchronization (ERD). Under the N-back working memory paradigm, CH-NATs presented negative correlations (r = ~−0.74–−0.96, p = 0.0001–0.0414) between pyroglutamate and alpha ERD but positive correlations (r = ~0.82–0.95, p = 0.0003–0.0119) between glutamine and alpha ERD. Under Stroop interference testing, CH-NATs generated negative correlations between glutamine and left temporal alpha ERD (r = −0.96, p = 0.037 and r = −0.97, p = 0.027). Our study demonstrated that glutamine and pyroglutamate levels were associated with EEG activity only in CH-NATs. These results suggest cognitively healthy adults with amyloid/tau pathology experience subtle metabolic dysfunction that may influence EEG signaling during cognitive challenge. A longitudinal follow-up study with a larger sample size is needed to validate these pilot studies. Full article

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) have achieved significant success in both human and veterinary medicine. However, regulatory authorities have recommended limiting their use, firstly because they can have disabling side effects; secondly, because of the need to limit the spread of antibiotic resistance. This review addresses another concerning consequence of the excessive use of FQs: the freshwater environments contamination and the impact on non-target organisms. Here, an overview of the highest concentrations found in Europe, Asia, and the USA is provided, the sensitivity of various taxa is presented through a comparison of the lowest EC_50s from about a hundred acute toxicity tests, and primary mechanisms of FQ toxicity are described. A risk assessment is conducted based on the estimation of the Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC). This is calculated traditionally and, in a more contemporary manner, by constructing a normalized Species Sensitivity Distribution curve. The lowest individual HC5 (6.52 µg L⁻¹) was obtained for levofloxacin, followed by ciprofloxacin (7.51 µg L⁻¹), sarafloxacin and clinafloxacin (12.23 µg L⁻¹), and ofloxacin (17.12 µg L⁻¹). By comparing the calculated PNEC with detected concentrations, it is evident that the risk cannot be denied: the potential impact of FQs on freshwater ecosystems is a further reason to minimize their use. Full article

In the present study, a new geophysical model function (GMF) is developed for the X-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on board the Advanced Satellite with New System Architecture for Observation-2 (ASNARO-2) to retrieve accurate offshore wind speeds. Equivalent neutral wind speeds based on the local forecast model (LFM) are employed as reference wind vectors, and 12,259 matching points from 502 SAR images obtained with horizontal transmitting, horizontal receiving polarization around Japan are collected. To ensure convergence of the calculation, 8129 points are selected from the matching points to determine the basic formula for the GMF and 23 coefficients based on the relationships among the normalized radar cross section, wind speed, incidence angle, and relative wind direction. Compared with the reference wind speeds, the GMF wind speeds showed reproducibility with a bias of −0.10 m/s and an RMSD of 1.37 m/s. Additionally, it can be confirmed that the retrieved wind speed has the bias of 0.03 and the RMSD of 1.68 m/s when compared to the in situ wind speed from the Kuroshio Extension Observatory (KEO) buoy. The accuracy of these retrieved wind speeds is comparable to previous studies, and it is indicated that the developed GMF can be used to retrieve offshore winds from ASNARO-2 images. Full article

Traditional Malay houses are a significant part of Malay cultural heritage. They depict local culture, customs, and philosophy and symbolize national identity. As a tourism-based facility, traditional Malay houses contribute to the growth of the economic and tourism sectors in Malaysia. Over time, Malay houses have deteriorated owing to human and natural factors. Modernization and urbanization also threaten the existence of Malay houses. These factors, along with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, are the main drivers for Malay houses preservation. The aim of this study is to investigate the state of the art in the preservation of traditional Malay houses through a critical review of current practices and challenges. The results show that considerable efforts have been made by different parties to preserve Malay houses. However, the preservation of Malay houses has neither reached a comprehensive status nor achieved the desired goals. For holistic preservation of Malay houses, a multidimensional preservation approach is recommended, in which engineering and technology, socioeconomic, planning, and management dimensions are all addressed simultaneously, consistent with sustainability principles and local objectives. This study identifies key areas where strategic support and improvements are needed to meet the desired outcomes in traditional Malay houses preservation. These include challenges and aspects overlooked in current practices. Therefore, the study findings can be used by policy and decision makers to guide the planning and management of traditional Malay houses preservation. It also contributes to knowledge translation in practice by discussing current preservation practices and recommending a potential preservation approach. This study highlights future research directions. Full article

The Entscheidungsnavi is an open-source decision support system based on multi-attribute utility theory, that offers various methods for dealing with uncertainties. To model decisions with uncertainties, decision-makers can use two categories: Forecast and Parameter Uncertainties. Forecast Uncertainty is modeled with (combined) influence factors using discrete, user-defined probability distributions or predefined ‘worst-median-best’ distributions. Parameter Uncertainty allows imprecision for utilities, objective weights, and probability distributions. To analyze these uncertainties, the Entscheidungsnavi offers several methods and tools, like a robustness check, based on (Monte Carlo) simulations and a sensitivity analysis. The objective weight analysis provides insights into the effects of different objective weight combinations. Indicator impacts, tornado diagrams, and risk profiles visualize the impact of uncertainties in a decision under risk. Risk profiles also enable a check for stochastic and simulation dominance. This article presents the complete range of methods for dealing with uncertainties in the Entscheidungsnavi using a hypothetical case study. Full article

This paper presents the initial prototypes of solutions designed using plastic caps, seeking acoustic applications for both airborne sound insulation and the acoustic conditioning of rooms. Plastic caps are a waste product from the packaging sector and they constitute a major waste problem, given that, if they are not attached to the packaging, they get lost during the recycling cycle and end up in landfill. Finding an application for this waste that can provide acoustic improvements is a sustainable alternative. This paper shows the results of airborne sound insulation measurements obtained in a scaled transmission chamber and sound absorption measurements obtained in a scaled reverberation chamber for different combinations of single and double plastic caps and combinations with thin sheets of sustainable materials, such as jute weaving, textile waste, hemp felt and cork board. Tests have shown that obtaining sound reduction index values of up to 20 dB is possible with plastic cap configurations, or even up to 30 dB is possible at some frequencies with combinations of caps and certain eco-materials. With regard to the sound absorption coefficient tests, close to unity absorption values have been achieved with the appropriate configuration at frequencies that can also be selected. The results indicate that these panels can be eco-solutions for airborne sound insulation as lightweight elements, or they can be used for the conditioning of rooms, tailoring the sound absorption maximums to the desired frequencies. Full article

The Haiyuan fault system plays a crucial role in accommodating the eastward expansion of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and is currently slipping at a rate of several centimeters per year. However, limited seismic activities have been observed using geodetic techniques in this area, impeding the comprehensive investigation into regional tectonics. In this study, the geometric structure and source models of the 2022 Mw 6.7 and the 2016 Mw 5.9 Menyuan earthquakes were investigated using Sentinel-1A SAR images. By implementing an atmospheric error correction method, the signal-to-noise ratio of the 2016 interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) coseismic deformation field was significantly improved, enabling InSAR observations with higher accuracy. The results showed that the reliability of the source models for those events was improved following the reduction in observation errors. The Coulomb stress resulting from the 2016 event may have promoted the strike-slip movement of the western segment of the Lenglongling fault zone, potentially expediting the occurrence of the 2022 earthquake. The coseismic slip distribution and the spatial distribution of aftershocks of the 2022 event suggested that the seismogenic fault may connect the western segment of the Lenglongling fault (LLLF) and the eastern segment of the Tuolaishan fault (TLSF). Additionally, the western segment of the surface rupture zone of the northern branch may terminate in the secondary branch close to the Sunan-Qilian fault (SN-QL) strike direction, and the earthquake may have triggered deep aftershocks and accelerated stress release within the deep seismogenic fault. Full article

Knowledge of the liquid–gas flow regime is important for the proper control of many industrial processes (e.g., in the mining, nuclear, petrochemical, and environmental industries). The latest publications in this field concern the use of computational intelligence methods for flow structure recognition, which include, for example, expert systems and artificial neural networks. Generally, machine learning methods exploit various characteristics of sensors signals in the value, time, frequency, and time–frequency domain. In this work, the convolutional neural network (CNN) VGG-16 is applied for analysis of histogram images of signals obtained for water–air flow by using gamma-ray absorption. The experiments were carried out on the laboratory hydraulic installation fitted with a radiometric measurement system. The essential part of the hydraulic installation is a horizontal pipeline made of metalplex, 4.5 m long, with an internal diameter of 30 mm. The radiometric measurement set used in the investigation consists of a linear Am-241 radiation source with an energy of 59.5 keV and a scintillation detector with a NaI(Tl) crystal. In this work, four types of water–air flow regimes (plug, slug, bubble, and transitional plug–bubble) were studied. MATLAB 2022a software was used to analyze the measurement signal obtained from the detector. It was found that the CNN network correctly recognizes the flow regime in more than 90% of the cases. Full article

Background and Objectives: Although statins are recommended for secondary prevention of acute ischemic stroke, some population-based studies and clinical evidence suggest that they might be used with an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage. In this nested case–control study, we used Taiwan’s nationwide universal health insurance database to investigate the possible association between statin therapy prescribed to acute ischemic stroke patients and their risk of subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage and all-cause mortality in Taiwan. Materials and Methods: All data were retrospectively obtained from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database. Acute ischemic stroke patients were divided into a cohort receiving statin pharmacotherapy and a control cohort not receiving statin pharmacotherapy. A 1:1 matching for age, gender, and index day, and propensity score matching was conducted, producing 39,366 cases and 39,366 controls. The primary outcomes were long-term subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage and all-cause mortality. The competing risk between subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage and all-cause mortality was estimated using the Fine and Gray regression hazards model. Results: Patients receiving statin pharmacotherapy after an acute ischemic stroke had a significantly lower risk of subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage (p < 0.0001) and lower all-cause mortality rates (p < 0.0001). Low, moderate, and high dosages of statin were associated with significantly decreased risks for subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage (adjusted sHRs 0.82, 0.74, 0.53) and all-cause mortality (adjusted sHRs 0.75, 0.74, 0.74), respectively. Conclusions: Statin pharmacotherapy was found to safely and effectively reduce the risk of subsequent intracerebral hemorrhage and all-cause mortality in acute ischemic stroke patients in Taiwan. Full article

Surface roughness is one of the main bases for measuring the surface quality of machined parts. A large amount of training data can effectively improve model prediction accuracy. However, obtaining a large and complete surface roughness sample dataset during the ultra-precision machining process is a challenging task. In this article, a novel virtual sample generation scheme (PSOVSGBLS) for surface roughness is designed to address the small sample problem in ultra-precision machining, which utilizes a particle swarm optimization algorithm combined with a broad learning system to generate virtual samples, enriching the diversity of samples by filling the information gaps between the original small samples. Finally, a set of ultra-precision micro-groove cutting experiments was carried out to verify the feasibility of the proposed virtual sample generation scheme, and the results show that the prediction error of the surface roughness prediction model was significantly reduced after adding virtual samples. Full article

In this paper, we study the nonlinear optical bistability (OB) in a symmetrical multilayer structure. This multilayer structure is constructed by embedding a nonlinear three-dimensional Dirac semimetal (3D DSM) into a Fabry–Perot cavity composed of one-dimensional photonic crystals. The OB phenomenon stems from the third order nonlinear conductivity of 3D DSM. The local field of resonance mode could enhance the nonlinearity and reduce the thresholds of OB. This structure achieves the tunability of OB due to the fact that the transmittance could be modulated by the Fermi energy. It is found that the OB threshold and threshold width could be remarkably reduced by increasing the Fermi energy of the 3D DSM. Besides, we also found that the OB curve depends heavily on the angle of incidence of the incident light, the structural parameters of the Fabry–Perot cavity, and the position of the 3D DSM inside the cavity. After parameter optimization, we obtained OB with a threshold of ${10}^6 \mathrm{V}/\mathrm{m}$. We believe this simple multilayer structure could provide a reference idea for realizing low-threshold and tunable all-optical switching devices. Full article

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI), cholesterol, and cancer in United States (US) adults. Data were collected from the 2020 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). Eligible participants were US adults (≥18 years) with data on BMI, cholesterol, and cancer status, who were alive at the end of the data collection period. An adjusted logistic regression model assessed associations between eight possible combinations of BMI and cholesterol status (independent variable) with cancer diagnosis (dependent variable). Among 27,805 individuals in the 2020 MEPS data, 20,818 met the eligibility criteria (weighted N = 252,340,615). Of these 2668 (weighted N = 29,770,359) had cancer and 18,150 (weighted N = 222,570,256) did not have cancer. In the adjusted logistic regression model, underweight and normal weight individuals with high cholesterol were associated with higher odds of cancer (odds ratio, OR = 2.002, and 95% confidence interval, CI = 1.032–3.885, and OR = 1.326 and 95% CI = 1.047–1.681, respectively), while obese individuals with normal cholesterol were associated with lower odds of cancer (OR = 0.681; 95% CI = 0.543–0.853) compared to normal weight individuals with normal cholesterol. This study offers insights into specific groups of individuals who may be prioritized for cancer prevention. Further research is required to investigate these findings in additional subpopulations. Full article

While insertion of a central venous catheter (CVC) for intravascular access, diagnosis, and intensive care medical treatment is frequently needed in critically ill patients, retention of the guidewire used for CVC placement with Seldinger’s technique is a very rare complication. In patients treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), significant negative pressures in the thoracal and abdominal venous system are generated by the venous ECMO drainage cannula. Therefore, during CVC placement in patients treated with ECMO, special vigilance is required because the significant negative pressures generated by the venous ECMO drainage cannula facilitate venous suction of an unsecured guidewire. Full article

Hybrid rice results from crossing a male-sterile line (the A line) with a pollen doner (the restorer or R line). In 3-line hybrid breeding systems, a fertile B line is also required to maintain A line populations. Heterosis is defined as a condition of traits whereby the hybrid exceeds the average of the parental lines. Heterobeltiosis is where the hybrid exceeds both parents. Hybrid rice may display heterosis/heterobeltiosis for growth, yield and resistance to herbivores, among other traits. In a greenhouse experiment, we assessed the frequency of heterosis for resistance to the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugans (BPH)), whitebacked planthopper (Sogatella furcifera (WBPH)) and yellow stemborer (Scirpophaga incertulas (YSB)) in eight hybrids under varying soil nitrogen conditions. We also assessed plant biomass losses due to herbivore feeding as an approximation of tolerance (the plant’s capacity to compensate for damage). Nitrogen reduced resistance to all three herbivores but was also associated with tolerance to WBPH and YSB based on improved plant survival, growth and/or yields. Plant biomass losses per unit weight of WBPH also declined under high nitrogen conditions for a number of hybrids, and there were several cases of overcompensation in rice for attacks by this herbivore. There was one case of nitrogen-related tolerance to BPH (increased grain yield) for a hybrid line with relatively high resistance, likely due to quantitative traits. Heterosis and heterobeltiosis were not essential to produce relatively high herbivore resistance or tolerance across hybrids. Full article

The light-weighting of a robotic arm is an important aspect of robot research. In the operation of existing welding robots, excessive vibrations in the welding actuators have been observed, which lead to reduced welding precision and work efficiency. The direct connection between the forearm and the welding actuator is a key component that affects vibrations. Based on this, a study on light-weighting the forearm is proposed. Using the theory of topology optimization with variable density structure, the structural dimensions, shapes, and geometric parameters of the forearm are optimized. The material removal methods of “hole cutting” and “local hollowing” are employed to reconstruct the forearm structure model. Static, modal, and transient simulations were performed on the forearm model pre-optimization and post-optimization. The optimization results show that the mass of the forearm is reduced by 19.8%. The static simulation comparative analysis shows that, under the same constraints and load conditions, the maximum total deformation of the optimized forearm is reduced by 3.6%, the maximum stress is reduced by 3.2%, and the maximum equivalent elastic strain is reduced by 5.7%. The optimized forearm structure is more reasonable and exhibits better mechanical performance. Modal simulation comparative analysis shows that the first and second natural frequencies of the optimized forearm are increased by 9.8% and 7.0%, respectively. Transient simulation comparative analysis demonstrates that, under the maximum operating condition, the vibration frequency and amplitude of the optimized welding robot forearm are reduced by 19.4% and 26.9%, respectively. The maximum amplitudes of the maximum equivalent stress curve and maximum equivalent elastic strain curve are reduced by 51.0% and 46.0%, respectively. This study provides a guarantee for reducing vibrations in welding actuators, improving welding precision, and enhancing the work efficiency of the welding robot. Full article

Alder yellows (ALY) phytoplasma (16SrV-C) is associated with ALY, a disease of several Alnus (alder) species in Europe and A. rubra in North America. In all affected species, the symptoms are similar. However, latent infections are common. ALY phytoplasma includes different strains which may be occasionally transmitted to grapevines leading to some grapevine yellows diseases. In the current study, visual symptom assessment and PCR-based methods using universal and group-specific phytoplasma primers were used to update and extend knowledge on the occurrence, impact, and genetic diversity of ALY phytoplasma in declining and non-symptomatic A. glutinosa and A. cordata trees in the Basilicata and Campania regions of southern Italy. ALY phytoplasma was detected in 80% of alder trees examined. In symptomatic trees, no other cause of disease was observed. More than half of alder trees that tested phytoplasma-positive proved to be latently infected. A considerable genetic variability was observed among the newly recorded ALY phytoplasma strains in southern Italy in almost of the genes examined. These included 16S rRNA, 16S/23S rDNA spacer region, ribosomal protein rpsV (rpl22) and rpsC (rps3), map, imp, and groEL genes. Eleven new genotypes were identified at map gene sequence level. However, the genetic differences observed were not related to plant host species, geographical origin, and symptoms shown by infected alder trees. Also, this study indicates that ALY phytoplasma is more widespread than previously thought. Full article

The occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk assessment of 36 antibiotics from five groups, including macrolides (MLs), fluoroquinolones (FQs), tetracyclines (TCs), amphenicols (APs), and sulfonamides (SAs), were investigated for the first time in the Anning River, Sichuan Province, China. The results show that antibiotics were widely present in the sediments of the Anning River, with a total of 22 antibiotics detected. FQs were among the most abundant antibiotics, followed by TCs, MLs, APs, and SAs. The total concentrations of antibiotics in surface sediments varied from 0.05 to 53.35 ng/g, with an average of 8.09 ng/g. Among these groups, MLs, FQs, and TCs emerged as the predominant classes of antibiotics. The midstream sediments showed the highest residual levels of antibiotics, with lower levels observed in the downstream and upstream sediments. Anthropogenic activities, such as human clinical practices and animal breeding, might be sources of antibiotics released into the river. An ecological risk assessment revealed that trimethoprim from the SA group exhibited high risks, and MLs showed medium risks in the Anning River, whereas most antibiotics presented minimal to low risks. This study provides valuable information on antibiotic pollution in the upstream region of the Yangtze River, and future management measures are needed for the Anning River. Full article

Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to establish a histologic baseline for cryoanalgesia of 2 min duration and evaluate the effects of different freeze durations. Methods: A porcine model was used in which the application of bilateral cryoanalgesia from intercostal spaces T3–T7 was completed via partial median sternotomy. The animals were kept alive for 7 days and the ribcages were sent to a specialized center for histopathologic analysis of the freezing injury. Results: Forty freezing lesions were completed and analyzed histologically. Thirty-eight (95%) of the cryo-lesions presented 100% nerve fiber degeneration at or distal to the ablation site, with preservation of the perineural connective tissue, as intended. The two unaffected nerves were found to be physically located outside of the freezing area. Conclusions: The complete axonal degeneration with preservation of the perineural tissue opens the possibility to shorter freezing times than the recommended 2 min. Visualization of the nerve and positioning of the probe is important in ensuring the proper effect on the nerve. This histologic analysis confirms the process triggered by cryoanalgesia that, until now, had only been assumed. Full article