Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

An Experimental Study of Three-Phase Trapping in Sand Packs

  • Published:
Transport in Porous Media Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The trapped saturations of oil and gas are measured as functions of initial oil and gas saturation in water-wet sand packs. Analogue fluids—water, octane and air—are used at ambient conditions. Starting with a sand-pack column which has been saturated with brine, oil (octane) is injected with the column horizontal until irreducible water saturation is reached. The column is then positioned vertically and air is allowed to enter from the top of the column, while oil is allowed to drain under gravity for varying lengths of time. At this point, the column may be sliced and the fluids analyzed by gas chromatography to obtain the initial saturations. Alternatively, brine is injected through the bottom of the vertical column to trap oil and gas, before slicing the columns and measuring the trapped or residual saturations by gas chromatography and mass balance. The experiments show that in three-phase flow, the total trapped saturations of oil and gas are considerably higher than the trapped saturations reported in the literature for two-phase systems. It is found that the residual saturation of oil and gas combined could be as high as 23 %, as opposed to a maximum two-phase residual of only 14 %. For very high initial gas saturations, the residual gas saturation, up to 17 %, was also higher than for two-phase displacement. These observations are explained in terms of the competition between piston-like displacement and snap-off. It is also observed that less oil is always trapped in three-phase flow than in two-phase displacement, and the difference depends on the amount of gas present. For low and intermediate initial gas saturations, the trapped gas saturation rises linearly with initial saturation, followed by a constant residual, as seen in two-phase displacements. However, at very high initial gas saturations, the residual saturation rises again.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

\(a\) :

Coefficient to relate the reduction in residual oil saturation to the trapped gas saturation

CCS:

Carbon Capture and Storage

\(\hbox {CO}_{2}\) :

Carbon dioxide

F :

Ratio of oil volume fraction to water volume fraction in GC sample

GC:

Gas chromatograph/chromatography

h :

Height of empty column section

\({M}_{\mathrm{ds}}\) :

Mass of dry sand

\({M}_{\mathrm{ec}}\) :

Mass of empty column section

\({M}_\mathrm{T}\) :

Mass of column section containing sand, oil, air and water

NAPL:

Non-aqueous-phase liquid

\({N}_{\mathrm{cap}}\) :

Capillary number

ppm:

Part per million

PV:

Pore volume

r :

Internal radius of column section

\(\phi \) :

Porosity

\({S}_\mathrm{i}\) :

Initial saturation

\({S}_\mathrm{r}\) :

Residual saturation

\({S}_\mathrm{g}\) :

Gas saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{gi}}\) :

Initial gas saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{gr}}\) :

Residual gas saturation

\({S}_\mathrm{o}\) :

Oil saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{oi}}\) :

Initial oil saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{or}}\) :

Residual oil saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{wi}}\) :

Initial water saturation

\({S}_\mathrm{w}\) :

Water saturation

\({S}_{\mathrm{ni}}\) :

Total initial saturation of oil and gas

\({S}_{\mathrm{nr}}\) :

Total residual saturation of oil and gas

\({S}_{\mathrm{(nw)r}}\) :

Residual saturation of non-wetting phase

\({S_{\mathrm{or}}^{3\mathrm{p}}}\) :

Residual oil saturation after waterflood in the presence of gas

\(S_{\mathrm{or}}^{2\mathrm{p}}\) :

Residual oil saturation after two-phase waterflood

\(S_{\mathrm{gr}}^{3\mathrm{p}}\) :

Residual gas saturation in the presence of oil and water

\(v\) :

Darcy velocity

\({V}_\mathrm{B}\) :

Bulk volume of empty column section

\({V}_\mathrm{o}\) :

Volume of oil in sliced column section

\({V}_\mathrm{w}\) :

Volume of water in sliced column section

\(\rho _\mathrm{g}\) :

Density of air

\(\rho _\mathrm{o}\) :

Density of oil

\(\rho _\mathrm{w}\) :

Density of water

\(\upmu \) :

Viscosity

\(\sigma \) :

Interfacial tension

References

  • Al-Mansoori, S.K., Iglauer, S., Pentland, C.H., Blunt, M.J.: Three-phase measurements of oil and gas trapping in sand packs. Adv. Water Resour. 32, 1535–1542 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blunt, M.J.: An empirical model for three-phase relative permeability. SPE 67950. SPE J. 5(4), 435–445 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caubit, C., Bertin, H., Hamon, G.: Three-phase flow in porous media: wettability effect on residual saturations during gravity drainage and tertiary waterflood. In: SPE 90099, Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX, USA, 26–29 September 2004

  • Dumore, J.M., Schols, R.S.: Drainage capillary pressure functions and the influence of connate water. SPE J. 14(5), 437–444 (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • Element, D.J., Jayasekera, A.J., Goodyear, S.G.: Assessment of three-phase relative permeability models using laboratory hysteresis data. In: SPE 84903, International Improved Oil Recovery Conference in Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20–21 October 2003

  • Fayers, F.J.: Extensions of Stone’s method 1 and conditions for real characteristics in three-phase flow. SPERE 4(4), 437–445 (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren, C.R., Morse, R.A.: Effect of free gas saturation on oil recovery by waterflooding. Trans. AIME 192, 135 (1951)

    Google Scholar 

  • Iglauer, S., Wülling, W., Pentland, C.H., Al-Mansoori, S., Blunt, M.J.: Capillary-trapping capacity of sandstones and sand packs. SPE J. 16, 778–783 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC.: Carbon Capture and Storage. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report, Cambridge University Press, UK (2005)

  • Jerauld, G.R.: General three-phase relative permeability model for Prudhoe Bay. SPE Reservoir Eng. 12(1), 66–73 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • Juanes, R., Spiteri, E.J., Orr, F.M., Blunt, M.J.: Impact of relative permeability hysteresis on geological \(\text{ CO }_{2}\) storage. Water Resour. Res. 42(W12418), 1–13 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kralik, J.G., Manak, L.J., Jerauld, G.R., Spence, A.P: Effect of trapped gas on relative permeability and residual oil saturation in an oil wet sandstone. In: SPE 62997. Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, TX, USA, 1–4 October 2000

  • Kyte, J.R., Stanflift, R.J.J., Stephan, S.C.J., Rapoport, L.A.: Mechanism of waterflooding in the presence of free gas. Pet. Trans. AIME 207, 215–221 (1956)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lake, L.W.: Enhanced Oil Recovery. Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • Land, C.S.: Calculation of imbibition relative permeability for two- and three-phase flow from rock properties. In: SPE 1942, SPE 42nd Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, TX, USA, October 1–4 1967

  • Lenhard, R.J., Johnson, T.G., Parker, J.C.: Experimental observation of non-aqueous phase liquid subsurface movement. J. Contam Hydrol. 12, 79–101 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lower, S.K.: Carbonate Equilibria in Natural Waters. Chem 1, Simon Fraser University (1996)

  • Maloney, D., Zornes, D.: Trapped versus initial gas saturation trends from a single core test. In: SCA 2003-22. Proceedings of the International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, Pau, France, 21–24 September 2003

  • Oak, M.J., Baker, L.E., Thomas, D.C.: Three-phase relative permeability of Berea Sandstone. SPE 17370. J. Petrol. Technol. 42, 1054–1064 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oostrom, M., Lenhard, R.J.: Comparison of relative permeability–saturation–pressure parametric models for infiltration and redistribution of a light non-aqueous phase liquid in a sandy porous media. Adv. Water Resour. 21, 145–157 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oostrom, M., White, M.D., Lenhard, R.J., Van Geel, P.J., Wietsma, T.W.: A comparison of models describing residual NAPL formation in the Vadose Zone. Vadose Zone J. 4, 163–174 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Øren, P.E., Pinczewski, V.W.: Fluid distribution and pore-scale displacement mechanisms in drainage dominated three-phase flow. Transp. Porous Med. 20, 105–133 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pentland, C.H., Itsekiri, E., Al-Mansoori, S., Iglauer, S., Bijeljic, B., Blunt, M.J.: Measurement of non-wetting phase trapping in sand packs. SPE J. 15, 274–281 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qi, R., Laforce, T., Blunt, M.J.: Design of carbon dioxide storage oil fields. In: SPE 115663, SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO, USA, 21–24 September 2008

  • Qi, R., Laforce, T.C., Blunt, M.J.: Design of carbon dioxide storage in aquifers. Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control 3, 195–205 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahni, A., Burger, J., Blunt, M.: Measurement of three-phase relative permeability during gravity drainage using CT scanning. In: SPE 39655. SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK, USA April 19–22 1998

  • Skauge, A., Ottesen, B.: A summary of experimentally derived relative permeability and residual saturation on North Sea Reservoir Cores. In: SCA 2002-12, International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, Monterey, CA, USA, 22–25 September 2002

  • Skurdal, H., Hustad, O. St., Holt, T.: Oil recovery by gravity drainage during gas injection. In: Proceedings of the 8th European IOR Symposium, Vienna, Austria, May 15–17 1995

  • Suicmez, V.S., Piri, M., Blunt, M.J.: Pore-scale modeling of three-phase WAG injection: prediction of relative permeabilities and trapping for different displacement cycles. In: SPE 95594, SPE/DOE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, OK, USA, 22–26 April 2006

  • Suicmez, V.S., Piri, M., Blunt, M.J.: Effects of wettability and pore-level displacement on hydrocarbon trapping. Adv. Water Resour. 31, 503–512 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, D., Blunt, M.: Effect of spreading coefficient on the distribution of light non-aqueous phase liquid in the subsurface. J. Contam. Hydrol. 25, 1–19 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge support from Shell under the Shell-Imperial Grand Challenge on Clean Fossil Fuels.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Imperial College London, London, UK

    Benny Amaechi, Branko Bijeljic & Martin J. Blunt

  2. Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia

    Stefan Iglauer

  3. Shell Global Solutions International, Rijswijk, The Netherlands

    Christopher H. Pentland

Authors
  1. Benny Amaechi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stefan Iglauer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christopher H. Pentland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Branko Bijeljic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Martin J. Blunt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benny Amaechi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Amaechi, B., Iglauer, S., Pentland, C.H. et al. An Experimental Study of Three-Phase Trapping in Sand Packs. Transp Porous Med 103, 421–436 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-014-0309-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-014-0309-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation