Abstract
Electrical resistivity imaging has been used in coastal settings to characterize fresh submarine groundwater discharge and the position of the freshwater/salt-water interface because of the relation of bulk electrical conductivity to pore-fluid conductivity, which in turn is a function of salinity. Interpretation of tomograms for hydrologic processes is complicated by inversion artifacts, uncertainty associated with survey geometry limitations, measurement errors, and choice of regularization method. Variation of seawater over tidal cycles poses unique challenges for inversion. The capabilities and limitations of resistivity imaging are presented for characterizing the distribution of freshwater and saltwater beneath a beach. The experimental results provide new insight into fresh submarine groundwater discharge at Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, East Falmouth, Massachusetts (USA). Tomograms from the experimental data indicate that fresh submarine groundwater discharge may shut down at high tide, whereas temperature data indicate that the discharge continues throughout the tidal cycle. Sensitivity analysis and synthetic modeling provide insight into resolving power in the presence of a time-varying saline water layer. In general, vertical electrodes and cross-hole measurements improve the inversion results regardless of the tidal level, whereas the resolution of surface arrays is more sensitive to time-varying saline water layer.
Résumé
L’imagerie de la résistivité électrique a été utilisée en environnement côtier pour caractériser les arrivées d’eau douce souterraine ainsi que la position de l’interface eau salée/eau douce, du fait que la relation entre la conductivité électrique des blocs et la conductivité du fluide de la porosité est fonction de la salinité. L’interprétation de tomographes à des fins hydrologiques est complexe à cause des artefacts d’inversion, de l’incertitude associée aux limites géométriques du domaine investiguée, des erreurs de mesures et du choix de la méthode de régularisation. La variabilité de l’eau de mer en fonction des cycles de marée constitue un réel défi pour les techniques d’inversion. Les capacités et les limites de l’imagerie de la résistivité sont présentées, afin de caractériser la distribution de l’eau douce et de l’eau salée sous une plage. Les résultats expérimentaux fournissent de nouvelles informations concernant les sorties d’eau souterraine dans la baie de Waquoit, dans la Réserve Nationale de Recherche sur les Estuaires, à l’Est de Falmouth, dans le Massachusetts (Etats-Unis d’Amérique). Les tomographes des données expérimentales indiquent que la décharge des eaux souterraines peut être interrompue lors de marées de forte intensité, alors que les données de température montrent que la décharge se poursuit tout au long du cycle de la marée. Les analyses de sensibilité ainsi qu’une modélisation synthétique fournissent de nouvelles informations concernant la résolution d’un niveau d’eau ayant une salinité qui varie dans le temps. De manière générale, les électrodes verticales et les mesures croisées améliorent les résultats d’inversion indépendamment des niveaux de marée, alors que la résolution des signaux de surface est plus sensible pour le niveau d’eau salée variant dans le temps.
Resumen
Se usó el diagnóstico de imágenes de resistividad eléctrica en escenarios costeros para caracterizar la descarga submarina de agua subterránea dulce y la posición de la interfase agua dulce / agua salada debido a la relación entre conductividad eléctrica global y la conductividad del fluido de los pozos, que a su vez es una función de la salinidad. La interpretación de los tomogramas para los procesos hidrológicos es complicada por el mecanismo de inversión, las incertidumbres asociadas con las limitaciones de la geometría de los relevamientos, los errores de mediciones, y la elección del método de regularización. La variación del agua salada sobre los ciclos de marea plantea desafíos particulares para la inversión. Las capacidades y limitaciones de los diagnósticos de imágenes de resistividad son presentadas para caracterizar la distribución del agua dulce y agua salada debajo de una playa. Los resultados experimentales proveen una nueva visión de la descarga submarina de agua subterránea dulce en la Reserva de investigación nacional estuárica de la Waquoit Bay, Este de Falmouth, Massachusetts (EEUU). Los tomogramas a partir de datos experimentales indican que la descarga submarina de agua subterránea dulce puede cesar en la pleamar, mientras que los datos de temperatura indican que la descarga continua a través del ciclo de mareas. El análisis de sensibilidad y modelado sintético provee una mejor visión en el poder de resolución en presencia de una capa de agua salina variable en el tiempo. En general, los electrodos verticales y mediciones transversales mejoran los resultados de la inversión independientemente de los niveles de mareas, mientras que la resolución de la distribución superficial es más sensible a la variación temporal de la capa de agua salina.
摘要
高密度电阻率成像已广泛应用于滨海地区, 以刻画海底地下淡水的排泄和确定咸水/淡水的界面位置。该的物理方法依据是地层电导率对孔隙流体电导率之间的依赖关系; 而孔隙流体电导率又是盐度的函数。水文过程层析成像的解释因反演伪像、由测线布设局限性带来的不确定度、测量误差,以及反演正则化方法的选择而变得非常复杂。海水随潮汐周期的变化对于反演是一种独特的挑战。本文论述了电阻率成像在刻画海滩下淡水/咸水分布时的功能和局限性。实验结果为美国马萨诸赛州东法尔茅斯Waquoit海湾国家海湾研究区的地下水排泄提供了新的认识。电阻率层析成像表明海底地下淡水的排泄可能在高潮时停止, 而温度数据表明在整个潮汐周期过程中地下淡水排泄是持续的。灵敏度分析与合成模拟有助于理解存在时变咸水层时的成像分辨率。总之, 无论在任何潮高条件下,采用垂向的电极阵和井间测量都会改善反演结果, 而地表电极阵列的分辨率则对时变咸水层更为敏感。
Resumo
Foi utilizada imagiologia de resistividade eléctrica em locais costeiros para caracterizar a descarga submarina de água subterrânea doce e a posição da interface água doce/água salgada, dada a relação da condutividade eléctrica com a condutividade do fluido nos poros, que por sua vez é uma função da salinidade. A interpretação de tomografias em processos hidrológicos é complicada, devido a processos de inversão, incerteza associada a limitações da geometria da pesquisa, erros de medição e escolha do método de regularização. A variação da água do mar durante os ciclos das marés coloca um desafio particular para a inversão. As capacidades e limitações da imagiologia de resistividade são apresentadas, para caracterizar a distribuição de água doce e água salgada sob uma praia. Os resultados experimentais providenciam novas pistas sobre a descarga submarina de água subterrânea doce na Reserva de Pesquisa Estuarina Nacional da Baía de Waquoit, Este de Falmouth, Massachusetts (EUA). Tomogramas com dados experimentais indicam que a descarga submarina de água subterrânea doce pode parar durante uma maré alta, enquanto dados de temperatura indicam que a descarga continua através de todo o ciclo de maré. Análises de sensibilidade e modelos sintéticos providenciam pistas sobre o poder de resolução na presença de uma camada de água com conteúdos salinos variáveis no tempo. Em geral, eléctrodos verticais e medições cruzadas em furos melhoram os resultados da inversão, apesar dos níveis de maré, enquanto a resolução dos perfis de superfície é mais sensível à camada de água com conteúdos salinos variáveis no tempo.
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Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the US Geological Survey Groundwater Resources and Toxic Substances Hydrology Programs, and by NSF grant EAR 0548706, the Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, and the Kuwait-MIT Alliance (to CFH). The authors are grateful to M. Charette and A. Mulligan (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution) for transducer data; A. Binley (Lancaster University) for access to the R2 inversion code executable; C. Weidman and the WBNERR staff for field support and site access; and Hydrogeology Journal’s Associate Editor V. Post and reviewers S. Kruse and E. Gasperikova for useful comments on the draft manuscript. The first author is also grateful to the University of Connecticut Civil and Environmental Engineering Department for a graduate fellowship to support his MSci research.
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Henderson, R.D., Day-Lewis, F.D., Abarca, E. et al. Marine electrical resistivity imaging of submarine groundwater discharge: sensitivity analysis and application in Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts, USA. Hydrogeol J 18, 173–185 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0498-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0498-z