Abstract
Estimating the hazard or risk to both human health and the environment has been based almost exclusively on single species toxicity tests low in environmental realism and without validation of their accuracy in more complex systems. While this may be quite appropriate for humans in a large variety of circumstances, there is no substantive body of direct experimental evidence indicating that precise predictions of harm from hazardous materials can be extrapolated from single species laboratory tests (or even multispecies laboratory tests) to the more complex highly variable natural systems. Now added to the hazardous chemical assessment problem is the accidental or deliberate release of genetically engineered microorganisms into the environment that have the additional capability of multiplying and expanding their numbers and also transferring genetic information to other organisms. This paper focuses entirely on hazard evaluation for organisms other than humans, namely predicting the potential risk or probability of harm to natural systems based on laboratory toxicity testing using single species. Not only will the basic risk assessment strategy itself be examined but also the question of determining the statistical reliability of various extrapolations from one level of biological organization to another.
‘For every complex problem, there is a simple, direct solution ... and it is invariably wrong!’ H. L. Mencken
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Cairns, J., Jr., 1986. The myth of the most sensitive species. BioScience 36 (10): 670–672.
Cairns, J., Jr. & D. S. Cherry, 1983. A site-specific field and laboratory evaluation of fish and Asiatic clam population responses to coal fired plant discharges. Wat. Sci. Tech. 15: 31–58.
Cairns, J., Jr., K. M. Hart & M. S. Henebry, 1980. The effects of a sublethal dose of copper sulfate on the colonization rate of freshwater protozoan communities. Am. Midl. Nat. 104 (1): 93–101.
Dixon, R. L., 1976. Problems in extrapolating toxicity data for laboratory animals to man. Envir. Health Persp. 13: 43–50.
Doudoroff, P., 1977. Keynote address: Reflections on picklejar ecology. In J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson & G. F. Westlake (eds.), Biological Monitoring of Water and Effluent Quality. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 3–19.
Doudoroff, P., B. G. Anderson, G. E. Burdick, P. S. Galtsoff, W. B. Hart, R. Patrick, E. R. Strong, E. W. Surber & W. M. Van Horn, 1951. Bioassay for the evaluation of acute toxicity of industrial wastes to fish. Sewage Ind. Wastes 23: 1380–1397.
Grice, G. D. & M. R. Reeve (eds.), 1982. Marine Mesocosms: Biological and Chemical Research in Experimental Ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
Harper, J. L., 1982. Beyond description. In E. J. Newman (ed.), The Plant Community as a Working Mechanism. Blackwell Scientific Publishers, London: 11–25.
Hart, W. B., P. Doudoroff & J. Greenbank, 1945. The Evaluation of the Toxicity of Industrial Wastes, Chemicals and Other Substances to Freshwater Fishes. Atlantic Refining Company, Philadelphia, Pa.: 317 pp.
Hartwell, S. I., D. S. Cherry & J. Cairns, Jr., 1987. Field validation of avoidance of elevated metals by fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) following in situ acclimation. Envir. Toxicol. Chem. 6: 189–200.
Kenaga, E. E., 1987. Methods for assessing the effects on non-human biota of mixtures of chemicals as applied to specific taxonomic representatives of individual species or groups. In V. B. Vouk, C. G. Butler, A. C. Butler, D. V. Parke & S. C. Asher (eds.), Methods for Assessing the Effects of Mixtures of Chemicals. John Wiley & Sons, Sussex: 395–408.
Kimerle, R. A., W. E. Gledhill & G. J. Levinskas, 1978. Environmental safety assessment of new materials. In J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson & A. W. Maki (eds.), Estimating the Hazard of Chemical Substances to Aquatic Life. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 132–146.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, J. S. Eaton & N. M. Johnson, 1977. Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
Linder, E., G. P. Patil, G. W. Suter II & C. Taillie, 1986. Effects of toxic pollutants on aquatic resources using statistical models and techniques to extrapolate acute and chronic effects benchmarks. Technical Report # 86–1104, Center for Statistical Ecology and Environmental Statistics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa.
May, R. M., 1977. Thresholds and breakpoints in ecosystems with a multiplicity of stable states. Nature 269: 471–477.
Mayer, F. L., Jr. & M. R. Ellersieck, 1986. Manual of Acute Toxicity: Interpretation and Data Base for 410 Chemicals and 66 Species of Freshwater Animals. Resource Publication 160, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.: 506 pp.
Mount, D. I. & T. J. Norberg, 1984. A seven-day life-cycle cladocern toxicity test. Envir. Toxicol. Chem. 3: 425–434.
Mount, D. I., N. A. Thomas, T. J. Norberg, M. T. Barbour, T. H. Roush & W. F. Brandes, 1984. Effluent and ambient toxicity testing and instream community response on the Ottawa River, Lima, Ohio. EPA-600/3–84–080, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va.
National Research Council, 1981. Testing for Effects of Chemicals on Ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.: 103 pp.
National Research Council, 1986. Knowledge and Environmental Problem Solving. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.: 388 pp.
Neuhold, J. M., 1987. Therelationship of life history attributes to toxicant tolerances in fishes. Envir. Toxicol. Chem. 6: 709–716.
Odum, E. P., 1983. Basic Ecology. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.
Odum, E. P., 1984. The mesocosm. BioScience 34 (9): 558–562.
Oser, B. L., 1981. The rat as a model for human toxicological evaluation. J. Toxicol. Envir. Health 8: 521–542.
Park, C. N. & R. D. Snee, 1983. Quantitative risk assessment: State-of-the-art for carcinogenesis. Am. Stat. 37: 427–441.
Patrick, R., 1949. A proposed biological measure of stream conditions based on a survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 101: 277–341.
Ramale, F., 1987. Proposal of ecotoxicological criteria for the assessment of the impact of pollution on environmental quality. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 13: 189–203.
Sloof, W., 1983. Biological Effects of Chemical Pollutants in the Aquatic Environment and Their Indicative Value. University of Utrecht, The Netherlands: 191 pp.
Sloof, W., J. H. Canton & J. L. M. Hermens, 1983. Comparison of the susceptibility of 22 freshwater species to 15 chemical compounds. I. (Sub)acute toxicity tests. Aquat. Toxicol. 4: 113–128.
Suter, G. W., II, 1987. Species interactions. In V. B. Vouk, C. G. Butler, A. C. Butler, D. V. Parke & S. C. Asher (eds.), Methods for Assessing the Effects of Mixtures of Chemicals. John Wiley & Sons, Sussex: 745–758.
Suter, G. W., II, D. S. Vaughn & R. H. Gardner, 1983. Risk assessment by analysis of extrapolation error: a demonstration for effects of pollutants on fish. Envir. Toxicol. Chem. 2: 369–378.
Wall, T. M. & R. W. Hammer, 1987. Feature article: Biological testing to control toxic water pollutants. J. Wat. Pollut. Cont. Fed. 59 (1): 7–12.
Westman, W. E., 1984. Ecology, Impact Assessment, and Environmental Planning. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y.: 532 pp.
Zapp, J. A., Jr., 1980. Historical consideration of interspecies relationships in toxicity assessment. In J. G. Eaton, P. R. Parrish & A. C. Hendricks (eds.), Aquatic Toxicology. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 2–10.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cairns, J., Smith, E.P. Developing a statistical support system for environmental hazard evaluation. Hydrobiologia 184, 143–151 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02392950
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02392950